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| {{Campaignbox Early Israelite Campaigns}} | |||
| Biblical narratives of an ] have long been a subject of religious inquiry and, in the 20th century, a debate over the archaeological evidence and historicity of the putative conquest. According to the Bible, after the ], the ] moved into ], seeking a home that they could make their own. The ] relates how the Israelites gained control after two fierce battles (Jericho and Ai) and military campaigns against 5 southern kings and a coalition of northern kings. | |||
| == Biblical narrative == | |||
| According to the Biblical narrative, the Israelites successfully attack the ] at such locations as ] and ]. In the south, Joshua honors the treaty with ] and defeats the kings of five cities — Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon (ch.10). Soon, a coalition of Canaanites and other northern city-states of Canaan send a force to halt the Israelite invasions of their country. However, an Israelite counterattack ] and routs them (ch.11). In chapter 12, Joshua lists 32 cities reportedly conquered by the Israelite army. Afterwards, the Israelites become established in their "]". | |||
| However, scholars have also raised concerns about inconsistencies in the Biblical representation of how the Israelites emerged in Canaan, especially between the books of Joshua and ].<ref>See Kennedy's discussion and attempted resolution, p.3., and Japhet p.206ff.</ref> | |||
| == Scholarship == | |||
| In early 20th century academic scholarship, the historicity of the early Israelite campaigns was taken for granted (e.g., Paton). However, by the 1930s Martin Noth issued what Albricht termed "a sweeping criticism of the legitimacy of using biblical data in Joshua as material for history."<ref><span>Albricht, April 1939, p.12</span></ref> Noth was a student of Alt, who emphasized ] and the importance of ].<ref><span>Abricht, ibid. Kennedy (p.2) cites later scholarship behind this model, e.g., </span>Noort 1998: 127-28. </ref> Alt and Noth posited a peaceful movement of the Israelites into various areas of Canaan, ''contra'' the Biblical account.<ref>Rendburg, p.510</ref> | |||
| Albricht himself questioned the "tenacity" of etiologies, which were key to Noth's analysis of the campaigns in Joshua. Archaeological evidence in the 1930s showed that the city of Ai, an early battled in the putative Joshua account, had existed and been destroyed, but in 22nd century BCE.<ref>Albricht, p.16</ref> ] showed that Jericho was from the ] not the ]<ref>see Kennedy, p.11</ref> Hence, it was argued that the early Israelite campaign could not be historically corroborated, but rather explained as an etiology of the location and a representation of the Israelite settlement. | |||
| In 1955, Wright discusses the correlation of archaeological data to the early Israelite campaigns, which he divides into three phases per the Book of Joshua. He points to two sets of archaeological findings that "seem to suggest that the biblical account is in general correct regarding the nature of the late thirteenth and twelfth-eleventh centuries in the country" (i.e., "a period of tremendous violence").<ref>Wright, p.107</ref> He gives particular weight to what were recent digs at Hazor by ].<ref>Wright, p.107</ref> | |||
| As an alternative to both the military conquest and uncontested infiltration hypotheses, Mendenhall and Gottwald suggested that the Israelites emerged through a kind of peasant revolt against their Canaanite lords. However, as explained by Rendsburg (p.510f.), archaeological findings (presented by Israel Finkelstein in 1986) undermined this idea because the Israelites first settled areas not held by Canaanites, whose cities were sustained alongside Israelite areas. | |||
| In later years of the 20th century, academic analysis tended to be increasingly skeptical of the historicity of the early Israelite military campaigns as described in Joshua. To be sure, scholarship remained somewhat divided with some more deferential to the Biblical account. For example, Kennedy argues that "a vast amount of archaeological evidence indicates that the sites of Jericho, Hazor, Shechem, and Dan were occupied, destroyed, and resettled at the specific times and in the manner consistent with the records from the books of Joshua and Judges." | |||
| On the other hand, the work of Dever and Van Seters, among others, pulls back considerably from the presuppositions of early scholars. | |||
| Whether through pastoral migration or military conquest, the Israelite settlement cannot easily be pegged to a specific time period. Scholars have argued the 14th, 13th, and 12th centuries BCE.<ref>For a review, see Kennedy, among others.</ref> | |||
| == Moral and political interpretations == | |||
| With the Zionist struggle for a Jewish state, the early Israelite campaigns have undergone renewed attention and interpretation. The early Zionists, according to ], "read the book of Joshua as explaining their times and justifying their wars. From this perspective, God fought on behalf of manifest Israel.... Joshua’s vocabulary informed the lexicon of Jewish nationalism."<ref name=Havrelock>{{cite journal|last1=Havrelock|first1=Rachel|title=The Joshua Generation: Conquest and the Promised Land|journal=Critical research on religion|date=2013|volume=1|issue=3|page=309|pages=|doi= 10.1177/2050303213506473|accessdate=13 January 2015}}</ref> | |||
| Later, in 1958, ] "saw the biblical war narrative as constituting an ideal basis for a unifying myth of national identity." This was a unity that was framed against a common enemy, Arabs beyond Israel's borders.<ref>Havrelock, p.309</ref> Ben-Gurion met with politicians and scholars, such as Bible scholar ], to discuss the conquests in Joshua. He later published a book of the meeting transcripts. In a lecture at Ben-Gurion's home, archaeologist ] argued for the historicity of the Israelite military campaign and remarked on how much easier it was for military experts to appreciate the plausibility of the Joshua narrative. Yadin specifically pointed to the conquests of ], ], and ]. Conversely, archaeologist ] argued against the historicity of the early Israelite campaigns, instead favoring a migration model.<ref>Havrelock, p.310f.</ref> | |||
| Havrelock herself argues that the myth of conquest, although shaped by ardent nationalists with a military agenda, could be re-interpreted for the purposes of a decentralized post-nationalism.<ref>Havrelock, p.310</ref> | |||
| By the same token, the Biblical narrative of conquest has been used as an apparatus of critique against Zionism. For example, Michael Prior criticizes the use of the campaign in Joshua to favor "colonial enterprises" (in general, not only Zionism) and have been interpreted as validating ]. He asserts that the Bible was used to make the treatment of Palestinians more palatable morally.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Prior|first1=Michael|title=Ethnic Cleansing and the Bible: A Moral Critique|journal=Journal of Holy Land and Palestine Studies|date=2002|volume=1|issue=1|pages=37-59|accessdate=13 January 2015}}</ref> A related moral condemnation can be seen in "The political sacralization of imperial genocide: contextualizing Timothy Dwight's ''The Conquest of Canaan''" by Bill Templer.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Templer|first1=Bill|title=The political sacralization of imperial genocide: contextualizing Timothy Dwight's The Conquest of Canaan|journal=358-391|date=2006|volume=9|issue=4|pages=358-391|doi=10.1080/13688790600993230|accessdate=13 January 2015}}</ref> This kind of critique is not new; ] notes how ] blamed Israel's monotheism for the very idea of genocide, which Boyarin found "simplistic" yet with precedents.<ref>Boyarin p.525</ref> | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| === Archaeological views === | |||
| * Albright, William F. "The Israelite conquest of Canaan in the light of archaeology." ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' (1939): 11-23. | |||
| * Briggs, Peter. "Testing the Factuality of the Conquest of Ai Narrative in the Book of Joshua." ''Beyond the Jordan: Studies in Honor of W. Harold Mare ''(2005): 157-96. | |||
| * Dever, William G. ''Who were the early Israelites, and where did they come from?''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003. | |||
| * Hess, Richard S. "The Jericho and Ai of the Book of Joshua." ''Critical Issues in Early Israelite History'' (2008): 29-30. | |||
| * Kennedy, Titus Michael. "The Israelite conquest: history or myth?: an achaeological evaluation of the Israelite conquest during the periods of Joshua and the Judges." (2011). http://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/5727 | |||
| * Kenyon, Kathleen. “Some Notes on the History of Jericho in the Second Millennium. B.C.,” ''Palestine Exploration Quarterly'' 83 (1951) | |||
| * Mendenhall, George E. 1962. “The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine,” ''The Biblical Archaeologist,'' 25:3 (1962): 66-87 | |||
| * Noort, Ed. 1998. "4QJOSH and the History of Tradition in the Book of Joshua," ''Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages'', 24:2 (1998): 127-44 | |||
| * Rendsburg, Gary A. "The Date of the Exodus and the Conquest/Settlement: The Case for the 1100s." ''Vetus Testamentum'' (1992): 510-527. | |||
| * Van Seters, John. "Joshua's campaign of Canaan and near eastern historiography." ''Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament'' 4.2 (1990): 1-12. | |||
| * Wenham, Gordon J. "The Deuteronomic Theology of the Book of Joshua." ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' (1971): 140-148. | |||
| * Wright, G. Ernest. "Archaeological News and Views: Hazor and the Conquest of Canaan." ''The Biblical Archaeologist'' 18.4 (1955): 106-108. | |||
| * Zevit, Ziony. "Archaeological and Literary Stratigraphy in Joshua 7-8." ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' (1983): 23-35. | |||
| === Other academic writings === | |||
| * Bayles Paton, Lewis. Israel's Conquest of Canaan: Presidential Address at the Annual Meeting, Dec. 27, 1912. ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', Vol. 32, No. 1 (Apr., 1913), pp. 1–53 | |||
| * Billauer, Barbara P. "Joshua's Battle of Jericho: Scientific Statecraft in Warfare-Lessons in Military Innovation and Scientific Tactical Initiative."''Available at SSRN 2219488'' (2013). | |||
| * Boyarin, Jonathan. "Reading exodus into history." New Literary History (1992): 523-554. | |||
| * den Braber, Marieke, and Jan-Wim Wesselius. "The Unity of Joshua 1-8, its Relation to the Story of King Keret, and the Literary Background to the Exodus and Conquest Stories." ''Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament'' 22.2 (2008): 253-274. | |||
| * Havrelock, Rachel. "The Joshua Generation: Conquest and the Promised Land." Critical Research on Religion 1, no. 3 (2013): 308-326. | |||
| * Hawk, L. Daniel. "The Truth about Conquest: Joshua as History, Narrative, and Scripture." ''Interpretation'' 66.2 (2012): 129-140. | |||
| * Gyémánt, Ladislau. "Historiographic Views on the Settlement of the Jewish Tribes in Canaan." ''Sacra Scripta'' 1 (2003): 26-30. | |||
| * Japhet, Sara. "Conquest and Settlement in Chronicles." ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' (1979): 205-218. | |||
| * Pienaar, Daan. "Some observations on conquest reports in the Book of Joshua." ''Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages'' 30.1 (2004): 151-164. | |||
| * Prior, Michael. "Ethnic Cleansing and the Bible: A Moral Critique." ''Holy Land Studies'' 1.1 (2002): 37-59. | |||
| * Thompson, Leonard L. "The Jordan Crossing: Ṣidqot Yahweh and World Building." ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' (1981): 343-358. | |||
| * Wazana, Nili. "Everything Was Fulfilled” versus “The Land That Yet Remains."''The Gift of the Land and the Fate of the Canaanites in Jewish Thought'' (2014): 13. | |||
| * Wood, W. Carleton. "The Religion of Canaan: From the Earliest Times to the Hebrew Conquest (Concluded)." ''Journal of Biblical literature'' (1916): 163-279. | |||
| ] | |||
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