Anti-Romanian sentiment: Difference between revisions

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			Allegedly, '''anti-Romanian discrimination''' has been present in the policies of countries bordering ] towards the ] population or minorities residing in these countries, as commonly happened between any countries whose political borders did not coincide with the patterns of ethnic population <!---a more general statement is in order. Discrimination of minorities was and is rather commnon all over the world--->. The term is also known as "'''Românofobia'''" ('''Romanophobia''') in the ].
	'''Anti-Romanian''' (alternatively spelled '''antiromanism''') is hostility towards, or prejudice against ] as a linguistic, religious, ethnic, or racial group, which can range from individual discrimination or hatred to institutionalized or violent persecution.
	In ] the term is also known as "'''Românofobia'''" ('''Romanophobia''').

			'''Anti-Romanian''' (alternatively spelled '''antiromanism''') is hostility toward or prejudice against Romanians as a religious, ethnic, or racial group, which can range from individual hatred to institutionalized, violent persecution.
	==History==
	{{Expandsection}}

			==] and ]==
	As national and ethnic identity was not as important in ] and ] as it is in modern times, the discrimination that took place before 17th-18th century was based on religious, social, politic and geographic basis, rarely on ethnicity. It is often, however, that historic events with little to no ethnical underpin became in retrospect issues of ethnical dispute.

	===Middle Ages===
	{{Sectstub}}
	{{list to prose (section)}}

	===Pan-Slav aspects===
	{{Sectstub}}

	'']''

	] became a part of the ] according to the 1812 ]. <!---DO NOT USE ANNEXATION HERE! One cannot "annex" through the treaty. Read ]---> A period of autonomy followed, after which all Romanian government institutions, schools and press were closed and replaced by a ]n style provincial administration in 1828. At the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, ] saw an intense process of ]. Military service also became a new instrument of Russification. The process of russification and colonization of this territory started to be carried out by representatives of other ethnic groups of the ].
	* Russian census 1817: 86% Romanians
	* Russian census 1856: 74% Romanians
	* Russian census 1897: 56% Romanians

	===Magyarization aspects===
	{{Sectstub}}

	''] and ]''

	The ] population of ] was never directly represented in the ] which consisted of ], ] and ] nobles (the ]), despite the fact that the three groups were minorities, while the Romanians comprised a majority of the Transylvanian population. Moreover, in ] times, the Romanians were not allowed to reside within the walls of some Transylvanian cities such as ] or ]. This led to extensive persecution against the under-represented Romanians. For example, in the 16th century Transylvanian laws of justice separated the rights of Hungarians and Saxons from the rights of the Romanians.		The ] population of ] was never directly represented in the ] which consisted of ], ] and ] nobles (the ]), despite the fact that the three groups were minorities, while the Romanians comprised a majority of the Transylvanian population. Moreover, in ] times, the Romanians were not allowed to reside within the walls of some Transylvanian cities such as ] or ]. This led to extensive persecution against the under-represented Romanians. For example, in the 16th century Transylvanian laws of justice separated the rights of Hungarians and Saxons from the rights of the Romanians.
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	The Romanian national movement led to the 1892 ], a document sent by the leaders of the Transylvanian Romanians to the Austrian Emperor which asked for Romanians equal national rights with the Hungarians and demanding the cease the persecutions and the attempts of denationalization of the Romanians. The memorandum was turned down and the leaders of the movement were sentenced to prison for "homeland betrayal".		The Romanian national movement led to the 1892 ], a document sent by the leaders of the Transylvanian Romanians to the Austrian Emperor which asked for Romanians equal national rights with the Hungarians and demanding the cease the persecutions and the attempts of denationalization of the Romanians. The memorandum was turned down and the leaders of the movement were sentenced to prison for "homeland betrayal".

	==~~=Religious~~ ~~aspects=~~==		==]==
	{{Sectstub}}

			] became a part of the ] according to the 1812 ]. <!---DO NOT USE ANNEXATION HERE! One cannot "annex" through the treaty. Read ]---> A period of autonomy followed, after which all Romanian government institutions, schools and press were closed and replaced by a ]n style provincial administration in 1828. At the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, ] saw an intense process of ]. Military service also became a new instrument of Russification. The process of russification and colonization of this territory started to be carried out by representatives of other ethnic groups of the ].
	===Soviet aspects===
			* Russian census 1817: 86% Romanians
	{{Sectstub}}
			* Russian census 1856: 74% Romanians
			* Russian census 1897: 56% Romanians

			== Soviet Union (including the 1917 Revolution) ==
	====1918-1940====
	{{Sectstub}}

	When the Russian Empire collapsed after the ], in Basarabia the local body called “]” ("Council of the Country") was created. Moldova became an independent Republic on ] ]. Given that Soviet raids already menaced the newly-formed authority, the local body ("Sfatul tării") called in support troops from the ]. The troops entered ] on ]. On ] ], the local body ] voted for the unification with ]. Subsequently, the Soviet Union refused to recognize the union, and supported an intense propaganda stating that the ] was an imperialistic multi-ethnic state.		When the Russian Empire collapsed after the ], in Basarabia the local body called “]” ("Council of the Country") was created. Moldova became an independent Republic on ] ]. Given that Soviet raids already menaced the newly-formed authority, the local body ("Sfatul tării") called in support troops from the ]. The troops entered ] on ]. On ] ], the local body ] voted for the unification with ]. Subsequently, the Soviet Union refused to recognize the union, and supported an intense propaganda stating that the ] was an imperialistic multi-ethnic state.
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	The exact position of the ] on these issues is unknown except for Moscow's unwillingness to make any concessions to ] on Bessarabian issues. Recent tracts by Romanian historians have emphasized the support given by ]n Communists to the "democratic forces" opposed to alteration of the status quo in ] in 1938 and subsequent years. True as this may be, there has been no evidence presented in support of any fundamental change in Moscow's positions with respect to Bessarabia in 1938 and subsequent years.		The exact position of the ] on these issues is unknown except for Moscow's unwillingness to make any concessions to ] on Bessarabian issues. Recent tracts by Romanian historians have emphasized the support given by ]n Communists to the "democratic forces" opposed to alteration of the status quo in ] in 1938 and subsequent years. True as this may be, there has been no evidence presented in support of any fundamental change in Moscow's positions with respect to Bessarabia in 1938 and subsequent years.

	====Moldovan language and cyrilic alphabet====
	{{Sectstub}}

	====Occupation of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and Hertsa district in 1940====
	{{Sectstub}}

	According to official NKVD documents, over 15,000 Romanians from Bukovina were deported to ] in 1940 alone . The ] action culminated with the ] when 2,500 to 3,000 Romanian refugees who were attempting to leave Bukovina for Romania were blocked by the ] and about 200 of them were shot, at a place called "Fântâna Albă" (''White Fountain'' in Romanian). This policy resulted in a substantial shrinkage of the Romanian population in the province. By 1941, out of 250,000 Romanians in Bukovina, only 192,000 were left.		According to official NKVD documents, over 15,000 Romanians from Bukovina were deported to ] in 1940 alone . The ] action culminated with the ] when 2,500 to 3,000 Romanian refugees who were attempting to leave Bukovina for Romania were blocked by the ] and about 200 of them were shot, at a place called "Fântâna Albă" (''White Fountain'' in Romanian). This policy resulted in a substantial shrinkage of the Romanian population in the province. By 1941, out of 250,000 Romanians in Bukovina, only 192,000 were left.
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	In ], the ] government pursued a policy of ] of the native Romanian population. First, the province was divided into a "Moldovan" Socialist Republic and a southern region known as ] which was renamed ] and attached to the ]. Elite elements of the Romanian population were then deported to Siberia much like their Bukovinian counterparts. Russian and Ukrainian {{fact}} settlers were used to fill the vacant areas caused by the deportation of Romanians. Romanians who continued to identify themselves as Romanians and not Moldovans were severely punished by the ] regime.		In ], the ] government pursued a policy of ] of the native Romanian population. First, the province was divided into a "Moldovan" Socialist Republic and a southern region known as ] which was renamed ] and attached to the ]. Elite elements of the Romanian population were then deported to Siberia much like their Bukovinian counterparts. Russian and Ukrainian {{fact}} settlers were used to fill the vacant areas caused by the deportation of Romanians. Romanians who continued to identify themselves as Romanians and not Moldovans were severely punished by the ] regime.

	''Soviet ] and ]''

	Before and after ], ] transferred a significant population from Bessarabia and Bukovina to labour camps, where many died or executed. the categories of popultation deported were these declared ] by Stalinist policy. These included former police and military, religious workers, larger ]s (] and "]s" (richer peasants)), memebers of certain political parties, as well as those who expressed any kind of dissent, which altogether constituted a significant part of population and included the majority of educated population, the bearers of Romanian culture. In addition, ethnically Romanian population was resettled from the border regions. See ] and ] for similar processes all over the USSR.

	* Between , 300,000 Romanians were deported of whom 57,000 were killed (not counting the Gulag).
	* Between , 390,000 Romanians were deported of whom 51,000 were killed (not counting the Gulag).
	* Between , 1,654,000 Romanians were deported of whom 215,000 were killed (380,000 more counting Gulag and terror killings).

	In total, around 2,344,000 Romanians were deported, of whom 703,000 were killed.

	====Moldavian SSR ====
	{{Sectstub}}

	This subsection refers to events that took place in 1940-1941, 1944-1989

	In 1946-1947, as a result of the famine organised in the ] (according to some data of certain scientists; official data are not published until nowadays), died around 300 thousand people and many cases of cannibalism occurred. In addition, the population of the former ], as a part of the ], had to suffer also from the awful famine in the 30s when in Ukraine several millions of people died (see also ]).		In 1946-1947, as a result of the famine organised in the ] (according to some data of certain scientists; official data are not published until nowadays), died around 300 thousand people and many cases of cannibalism occurred. In addition, the population of the former ], as a part of the ], had to suffer also from the awful famine in the 30s when in Ukraine several millions of people died (see also ]).
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	Many officers of the ], serving in military units on the left bank of Dniester river, transferred to reserve, preferred to stay and live in Tiraspol and Bender. Therefore, if on the whole in the ] in 1989 the native population was about 65%, in Trans-Dniestria – only 40%. Moreover, the majority of native population on the left bank of Dniester was dispersed in rural localities and it was more difficult for them to consolidate and to express themselves politically.		Many officers of the ], serving in military units on the left bank of Dniester river, transferred to reserve, preferred to stay and live in Tiraspol and Bender. Therefore, if on the whole in the ] in 1989 the native population was about 65%, in Trans-Dniestria – only 40%. Moreover, the majority of native population on the left bank of Dniester was dispersed in rural localities and it was more difficult for them to consolidate and to express themselves politically.

	====Ukrainian SSR ====
	{{Sectstub}}

	This subsection refers to:
	*Northern Maramures
	*Southern Bessarabia
	*Northern Bukovina, Hertsa, and Hotin,
	and specifically to events that took place in 1940-1941, 1944-1991

	====Language issue 1989-1991====
	{{Sectstub}}

	The adoption in 1989 of the Law on state language (official language) and Law on functioning of languages on the territory of the ] generated an extremely negative reaction in the industrial centres of ],where the largely ]-speaking population was not being consulted, and felt threatened by the prospects of ]. These laws proclaimed the Moldovan (Romanian) language, written in the Latin alphabet, as the only state language. The identity of ] with ] has been recognised. Although the absolute majority of the ] population never read these laws which, in fact, served as a reason for the conflict outburst, they feared that by the application of the new linguistic legislation, ] speakers would become second class citizens. At the industrial enterprises, including those of the military-industrial complex of the ], strikes occurred protesting against granting official language status to Moldavian (Romanian) language.		The adoption in 1989 of the Law on state language (official language) and Law on functioning of languages on the territory of the ] generated an extremely negative reaction in the industrial centres of ],where the largely ]-speaking population was not being consulted, and felt threatened by the prospects of ]. These laws proclaimed the Moldovan (Romanian) language, written in the Latin alphabet, as the only state language. The identity of ] with ] has been recognised. Although the absolute majority of the ] population never read these laws which, in fact, served as a reason for the conflict outburst, they feared that by the application of the new linguistic legislation, ] speakers would become second class citizens. At the industrial enterprises, including those of the military-industrial complex of the ], strikes occurred protesting against granting official language status to Moldavian (Romanian) language.

			==Soviet ] and ]==
	====Support for Transnistrian regime====
	{{Sectstub}}

			Before and after ], ] transferred a significant population from Bessarabia and Bukovina to labour camps, where many died or executed. the categories of popultation deported were these declared ] by Stalinist policy. These included former police and military, religious workers, larger ]s (] and "]s" (richer peasants)), memebers of certain political parties, as well as those who expressed any kind of dissent, which altogether constituted a significant part of population and included the majority of educated population, the bearers of Romanian culture. In addition, ethnically Romanian population was resettled from the border regions. See ] and ] for similar processes all over the USSR.
	===Negative tendency in portraying Romanians===
	{{Sectstub}}
	] in his 1927 book ''Bessarabia, Russia and Roumania on the Black Sea''<ref name=Clark>], '''', New York, Dodd, Mead & Company, 1927, {{LCCN\|27\|\|009879}}</ref> wrote: "Today, one is dependent on statements, books and articles which are obviously biased, and it is almost impossible to steer a middle course. Both Russians and Roumanians have published much outright propaganda; this often contains genuine documents and truthful statements, together with much wild exaggeration."<ref name=Clark19>Clark, '']'', </ref> Further Clark gives an example referring to the collection of documents published by ].<ref name=Paris>Paris. Peace Conference, 1919. Bessarabia. ''The Roumanian occupation in Bessarabia. Documents.'', Paris, Imprimerie Lahure, 1920, {{LCCN\|31\|\|017224}}</ref> which he quotes saying: "The intellectual level of the Roumanians scarcely exceeds that of the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands . . . . Roumania is a country so backward, it has civilization so inferior and a mentality so primitive that it is astounding such a people could have reached the sill of the twentieth century and remain what it really is."<ref name=Clark19/>

			* Between , 300,000 Romanians were deported of whom 57,000 were killed (not counting the Gulag).
	==Modern Romanophobia (after 1991)==
			* Between , 390,000 Romanians were deported of whom 51,000 were killed (not counting the Gulag).
			* Between , 1,654,000 Romanians were deported of whom 215,000 were killed (380,000 more counting Gulag and terror killings).

			In total, around 2,344,000 Romanians were deported, of whom 703,000 were killed.
	{{Sectstub}}
	{{list to prose (section)}}

			==Post-USSR ] and ]==
	Allegedly, '''anti-Romanian discrimination''' has been present in the policies of countries bordering ] towards the ] population or minorities residing in these countries, as commonly happened between any countries whose political borders did not coincide with the patterns of ethnic population <!---a more general statement is in order. Discrimination of minorities was and is rather commnon all over the world--->.

	===Moldovenism===
	{{Sectstub}}

	After the break-up of the ], various legislative reforms consolidated the position of ethnic Romanians/Moldovans, especially by establishing the ] as the official language. The 2001 won by the ] initially brought a series of attempts to raise Russian to the status of a state language, however the project was dropped due to popular opposition.		After the break-up of the ], various legislative reforms consolidated the position of ethnic Romanians/Moldovans, especially by establishing the ] as the official language. The 2001 won by the ] initially brought a series of attempts to raise Russian to the status of a state language, however the project was dropped due to popular opposition.

	Relations between the Moldovan and Romanian governments have initially included some tension as the Moldovan government led by President ] accused Romania of '']''. Nevertheless, in the recent past relations have improved and President Voronin as well as Romanian President ] have called for cooperation between the two sovereign states.		Relations between the Moldovan and Romanian governments have initially included some tension as the Moldovan government led by President ] accused Romania of '']''. Nevertheless, in the recent past relations have improved and President Voronin as well as Romanian President ] have called for cooperation between the two sovereign states.

	====Language and history issues====
	{{Sectstub}}

	In 2006, "Gh. Asachi Romanian-French School" was forced by the government to change its name to "Gh. Asachi Moldovan-French School". Critics argued that the government acted unilaterally and discriminated against Romanians as other schools such as the „Necui-Leviţki” Russian-Ukrianian School were allowed to continue using that name. In protest, four high school students from Asachi replaced the new high school sign with another with the old name. They were indicted with "group-committed aggravated hooliganism". <ref> Jurnalul National, 2006 </ref>		In 2006, "Gh. Asachi Romanian-French School" was forced by the government to change its name to "Gh. Asachi Moldovan-French School". Critics argued that the government acted unilaterally and discriminated against Romanians as other schools such as the „Necui-Leviţki” Russian-Ukrianian School were allowed to continue using that name. In protest, four high school students from Asachi replaced the new high school sign with another with the old name. They were indicted with "group-committed aggravated hooliganism". <ref> Jurnalul National, 2006 </ref>

	====Political aspects of Moldovenism====
	{{Sectstub}}

	===Ex-Soviet Union===
	{{Sectstub}}

	====Transnistria====
	{{Sectstub}}

	In ], the situation is far worse. After the 1992 war between the breakaway republic and Moldova, the Romanian population was substantially persecuted, causing at least 5,000-10,000 Romanians to flee the region. Although the Romanians of Transnistria of the area is significant, the Romanian language is almost never used in public. Cases were reported of Russian soldiers even beating Transnistrians who spoke in "]"/] in their presence {{fact}}.		In ], the situation is far worse. After the 1992 war between the breakaway republic and Moldova, the Romanian population was substantially persecuted, causing at least 5,000-10,000 Romanians to flee the region. Although the Romanians of Transnistria of the area is significant, the Romanian language is almost never used in public. Cases were reported of Russian soldiers even beating Transnistrians who spoke in "]"/] in their presence {{fact}}.

	Romanian schools comprise about 11% of the total schools in Transnistria, despite the fact that according to the latest Transnistrian census of 2004, Romanians make up about 32% of the population. Most of these schools are forced to teach in the ] script and use outdated, 40-year-old, communist-era books. 6 schools are permitted to teach in Romanian using the ], however pressure is often put on these institutions to close. The 2004 school scandal is a prime example of this, when the pro-Russian government in ] forcefully attempted to close down 2 of these schools. In the orphanage of ], Romanian children returning from vacations found the orphanage locked by police. After spending a night outdoors, they forced their way into the building and had to stay there without water and electricity for a few months, until, due to the pressure of the Moldovan and Romanian governments as well as the ], the conflict was resolved <ref></ref>. Numerous Romanian parents were arrested or fired from their jobs due to their political views and their determination to keep their children in Romanian-language schools.		Romanian schools comprise about 11% of the total schools in Transnistria, despite the fact that according to the latest Transnistrian census of 2004, Romanians make up about 32% of the population. Most of these schools are forced to teach in the ] script and use outdated, 40-year-old, communist-era books. 6 schools are permitted to teach in Romanian using the ], however pressure is often put on these institutions to close. The 2004 school scandal is a prime example of this, when the pro-Russian government in ] forcefully attempted to close down 2 of these schools. In the orphanage of ], Romanian children returning from vacations found the orphanage locked by police. After spending a night outdoors, they forced their way into the building and had to stay there without water and electricity for a few months, until, due to the pressure of the Moldovan and Romanian governments as well as the ], the conflict was resolved <ref></ref>. Numerous Romanian parents were arrested or fired from their jobs due to their political views and their determination to keep their children in Romanian-language schools.

	Citizens who express pro-Romanian or pro-Moldovan attitudes are likewise persecuted in Transnistria. The ] group is the most commonly known and well-documented of these organisations.		Citizens who express pro-Romanian or pro-Moldovan attitudes are likewise persecuted in Transnistria. The ] group is the most commonly known and well-documented of these organisations.

	====Ukraine====		==]==
	{{Sectstub}}

	There are several regions with considerable Romanian minorities in the Ukraine: ] or ], ] as well as ] district of ]. In 2001 the ] from Ukraine had reported that Romanians in ] lack an opportunity to study at University level in their native language . The organization collected more than 100,000 signatures to support their cause, but their appeal to the Ukrainian Government had no effect.{{fact}}		There are several regions with considerable Romanian minorities in the Ukraine: ] or ], ] as well as ] district of ]. In 2001 the ] from Ukraine had reported that Romanians in ] lack an opportunity to study at University level in their native language . The organization collected more than 100,000 signatures to support their cause, but their appeal to the Ukrainian Government had no effect.{{fact}}

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	Even after Ukrainian independence, the number of Romanian students at the University continued to decline, to only 3.9% in 1992-93 , which is much less than the overall percentage of Romanians in the general population. After 1997, arrangements have been made for some students to study at universities in Romania<!---Please let us know what the ref is about and show that it's not about an isolated incident but an overall trend in UA to make such statement---, but upon return to Northern Bukovina, they frequently encounter difficulties and discrimination ]--->.		Even after Ukrainian independence, the number of Romanian students at the University continued to decline, to only 3.9% in 1992-93 , which is much less than the overall percentage of Romanians in the general population. After 1997, arrangements have been made for some students to study at universities in Romania<!---Please let us know what the ref is about and show that it's not about an isolated incident but an overall trend in UA to make such statement---, but upon return to Northern Bukovina, they frequently encounter difficulties and discrimination ]--->.

	==~~==Russia~~ and ~~post-Soviet~~ ~~countries==~~==		==] and modern ]==
	{{Sectstub}}

	===Other countries===
	{{Sectstub}}

	====Serbia====
	{{Sectstub}}

	The ] living in the Autonomous Province of ] are very well represented at the provincial level despite their small presence (about 30,000 people), and Romanian is one of the six official languages of the province. Their counterparts in the ], however, who number around 50,000, have been persecuted for years.{{fact}}		The ] living in the Autonomous Province of ] are very well represented at the provincial level despite their small presence (about 30,000 people), and Romanian is one of the six official languages of the province. Their counterparts in the ], however, who number around 50,000, have been persecuted for years.{{fact}}
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	In the town of Negotin, the Romanian Cultural Association has been vandalized in the year 2004 when Serbian ultra-nationalists wrote "Romanians go home" on the windows of the main doors {{fact}}.		In the town of Negotin, the Romanian Cultural Association has been vandalized in the year 2004 when Serbian ultra-nationalists wrote "Romanians go home" on the windows of the main doors {{fact}}.

	====Hungary====
	{{Sectstub}}

	====United Kingdom and other cuntries of Western Europe====
	{{Sectstub}}

	==Notes==		==Notes==
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	==References==		==References==
			===Transnistria===
	===MIddle Ages, Pan-Slavism, Pan-Orthodoxy, and Russian Empire===
			# {{cite news
	#
			\| publisher = BBC
	===Transylvania, Austro-Hungary, and Hungary===
			\| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/romanian/news/story/2004/07/040716_osce_scoli.shtml
	# {{cite book
			\| title = Lichidarea şcolilor româneşti din Transnistria
	\| last = Pop \| first = Ioan-Aurel
	\| year = ~~1997~~		\| year = 2004
	\| title = Istoria Transilvaniei Medievale
	\| id = ISBN 973-9261-24-8
	}}		}}
	# Romsics, Ignác. Magyarország története a huszadik században ("A History of Hungary in the 20th Century"), p. 85-86.
	===USSR===		===USSR===
	# {{cite book		# {{cite book
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	\| id = ISBN 1-4020-1298-5		\| id = ISBN 1-4020-1298-5
	}}		}}
	===~~Transnistria~~===		===Transylvania===
	# {{cite ~~news~~		# {{cite book
			\| last = Pop \| first = Ioan-Aurel
	\| publisher = BBC
			\| year = 1997
	\| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/romanian/news/story/2004/07/040716_osce_scoli.shtml
	\| title = ~~Lichidarea~~ ~~şcolilor~~ ~~româneşti din Transnistria~~		\| title = Istoria Transilvaniei Medievale
	\| ~~year~~ = ~~2004~~		\| id = ISBN 973-9261-24-8
	}}		}}
			# Romsics, Ignác. Magyarország története a huszadik században ("A History of Hungary in the 20th Century"), p. 85-86.
	===Moldovenism===

	#
	===Ukraine and modern Russia===
	#
	===Serbia===		===Serbia===
	# {{cite news		# {{cite news
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	\| title = Românii din Timoc		\| title = Românii din Timoc
	}} (in Romanian)		}} (in Romanian)
	===Western Europe===
	#

	]		]
	]
	]		]
	]		]
	]
	]

Revision as of 02:32, 26 October 2006

Template:Noncompliant

Allegedly, anti-Romanian discrimination has been present in the policies of countries bordering Romania towards the Romanian-speaking population or minorities residing in these countries, as commonly happened between any countries whose political borders did not coincide with the patterns of ethnic population . The term is also known as "Românofobia" (Romanophobia) in the Romanian language.

Anti-Romanian (alternatively spelled antiromanism) is hostility toward or prejudice against Romanians as a religious, ethnic, or racial group, which can range from individual hatred to institutionalized, violent persecution.

Kingdom of Hungary and Austria-Hungary

The Romanian population of Transylvania was never directly represented in the Transylvanian Diet which consisted of German, Hungarian and Szekler nobles (the Unio Trium Nationum), despite the fact that the three groups were minorities, while the Romanians comprised a majority of the Transylvanian population. Moreover, in Medieval times, the Romanians were not allowed to reside within the walls of some Transylvanian cities such as Sibiu or Braşov. This led to extensive persecution against the under-represented Romanians. For example, in the 16th century Transylvanian laws of justice separated the rights of Hungarians and Saxons from the rights of the Romanians.

As a consequence, Romanian peasants would sometimes revolt and demand better treatment. These revolts, such as the 1784 Romanian peasant-uprising, would be ruthlessly suppressed and would be met by horrible cruelty on the part of the Hungarian nobles who would execute peasant leaders and their followers by breaking on the wheel. This method of execution consisted of the victim being laid on the ground whilst the executioner would break the prisoner’s bones with a spiked wheel. Other peasants would be forced to watch the executions in order to frighten them from attempting future uprisings.

After Transylvania became part of Hungary in 1867, a policy of assimilation (see Magyarisation) of the minorities was employed by the Hungarian authorities and one of its major targets was the Romanian population of Transylvania. The policies of Magyarization aimed to make the fluency in Hungarian language a requirement for access to basic government services such as local administration, education, and justice. the number of minority-language schools was steadily decreasing: in the period between 1880 and 1913, when the number of Hungarian-only schools almost doubled, the number of minority language-schools almost halved. Countless personal names were Magyarized in a short period of time, often forcibly or unwittingly.

The Romanian national movement led to the 1892 Transylvanian Memorandum, a document sent by the leaders of the Transylvanian Romanians to the Austrian Emperor which asked for Romanians equal national rights with the Hungarians and demanding the cease the persecutions and the attempts of denationalization of the Romanians. The memorandum was turned down and the leaders of the movement were sentenced to prison for "homeland betrayal".

Russian Empire

Bessarabia became a part of the Russian Empire according to the 1812 Treaty of Bucharest. A period of autonomy followed, after which all Romanian government institutions, schools and press were closed and replaced by a Russian style provincial administration in 1828. At the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, Bessarabia saw an intense process of Russification. Military service also became a new instrument of Russification. The process of russification and colonization of this territory started to be carried out by representatives of other ethnic groups of the Russian Empire.

Russian census 1817: 86% Romanians
Russian census 1856: 74% Romanians
Russian census 1897: 56% Romanians

Soviet Union (including the 1917 Revolution)

When the Russian Empire collapsed after the Russian Revolution of 1917, in Basarabia the local body called “Sfatul Tarii” ("Council of the Country") was created. Moldova became an independent Republic on December 2 1917. Given that Soviet raids already menaced the newly-formed authority, the local body ("Sfatul tării") called in support troops from the Kingdom of Romania. The troops entered Bessarabia on December 13. On March 27 1918, the local body Sfatul Tarii voted for the unification with Romania. Subsequently, the Soviet Union refused to recognize the union, and supported an intense propaganda stating that the Kingdom of Romania was an imperialistic multi-ethnic state.

Bessarabia was a part of Romania until 1940 when the USSR re-annexed the territory as well as Northern Bukovina.

The convention of October 28, 1920, whereby the British Empire, France, Italy, and Japan recognized Romanian sovereignty in Bessarabia, was rejected as invalid by the USSR. Moscow even denied the validity of that part of the convention that stipulated that, upon Russian request, the Council of the League of Nations could be empowered to arbitrate the Russo-Romanian dispute over Bessarabia. In short, the Kremlin insisted that Romania was illegally occupying Bessarabia. Moscow also encouraged revolutionary activities by Bolshevik elements in Bessarabia.

The exact position of the USSR on these issues is unknown except for Moscow's unwillingness to make any concessions to Bucharest on Bessarabian issues. Recent tracts by Romanian historians have emphasized the support given by Romanian Communists to the "democratic forces" opposed to alteration of the status quo in Transylvania in 1938 and subsequent years. True as this may be, there has been no evidence presented in support of any fundamental change in Moscow's positions with respect to Bessarabia in 1938 and subsequent years.

According to official NKVD documents, over 15,000 Romanians from Bukovina were deported to Siberia in 1940 alone . The Soviet action culminated with the Fântâna Albă massacre when 2,500 to 3,000 Romanian refugees who were attempting to leave Bukovina for Romania were blocked by the USSR Border Troops and about 200 of them were shot, at a place called "Fântâna Albă" (White Fountain in Romanian). This policy resulted in a substantial shrinkage of the Romanian population in the province. By 1941, out of 250,000 Romanians in Bukovina, only 192,000 were left.

The territory of the Moldavian SSR was composed of Basarabia (except for Southern Basarabia, assigned to Ukraine) and a part of the territory of the former Autonomous Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic (Trans-Dniestria), founded in 1924 within the territory of Ukraine. In the document confirming the establishment of the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Moldovan Republic (ASSMR) of 12 October 1924 the West frontier of the republic was traced out not along the Dniester River but the Prut River. In the ASSMR the ideology of a separate Moldovan identity was pursued, including the introduction of Moldovan language, distinct from Romanian. The Cyrillic alphabet and abundant Russisms were introduced.

Another historical event which contributed to the future implementation of the anti-Romanian feelings constituted Romania’s behaviour in the World War II when the Romanian regime allied itself with Nazi Germany.

In Bessarabia, the Soviet government pursued a policy of assimilation of the native Romanian population. First, the province was divided into a "Moldovan" Socialist Republic and a southern region known as Budjak which was renamed Ismail Oblast and attached to the Ukrainian SSR. Elite elements of the Romanian population were then deported to Siberia much like their Bukovinian counterparts. Russian and Ukrainian settlers were used to fill the vacant areas caused by the deportation of Romanians. Romanians who continued to identify themselves as Romanians and not Moldovans were severely punished by the Communist regime.

In 1946-1947, as a result of the famine organised in the MSSR (according to some data of certain scientists; official data are not published until nowadays), died around 300 thousand people and many cases of cannibalism occurred. In addition, the population of the former ASSMR, as a part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, had to suffer also from the awful famine in the 30s when in Ukraine several millions of people died (see also Holodomor).

In Trans-Dniestria (on the left bank of Dniester), according to some statistical data , in 1988 alone, around 34.5 thousand persons left the MSSR for Russia and 33.9 thousand persons arrived in Moldova from Russia, 20.9 thousand left Moldova for Ukraine and 20.8 thousand arrived in Moldova from Ukraine. The territory of Trans-Dniestria was more industrialised in comparison with the other part of Moldova and the industrialisation process of Trans-Dniestria was accompanied by a population flow from other areas of the USSR, especially from the Russian Federation. Although in the Republic of Moldova the level of population density was the highest one in the USSR, Moscow continued to stimulate the arrival of labour force from outside, including that with a poor qualification. Even Igor Smirnov himself, current leader of the separatist regime of Trans-Dniestria, was sent in 1987 from Russia to Bender to be the director of an enterprise. This process was also amplified by the excessive militarization of the area.

Many officers of the Soviet Army, serving in military units on the left bank of Dniester river, transferred to reserve, preferred to stay and live in Tiraspol and Bender. Therefore, if on the whole in the MSSR in 1989 the native population was about 65%, in Trans-Dniestria – only 40%. Moreover, the majority of native population on the left bank of Dniester was dispersed in rural localities and it was more difficult for them to consolidate and to express themselves politically.

The adoption in 1989 of the Law on state language (official language) and Law on functioning of languages on the territory of the MSSR generated an extremely negative reaction in the industrial centres of Trans-Dniestria,where the largely Russian-speaking population was not being consulted, and felt threatened by the prospects of Rumanization. These laws proclaimed the Moldovan (Romanian) language, written in the Latin alphabet, as the only state language. The identity of Moldovan with Romanian language has been recognised. Although the absolute majority of the Trans-Dniestrian population never read these laws which, in fact, served as a reason for the conflict outburst, they feared that by the application of the new linguistic legislation, Russian language speakers would become second class citizens. At the industrial enterprises, including those of the military-industrial complex of the USSR, strikes occurred protesting against granting official language status to Moldavian (Romanian) language.

Soviet politicide and ethnic cleansing

Before and after World War 2, Soviet transferred a significant population from Bessarabia and Bukovina to labour camps, where many died or executed. the categories of popultation deported were these declared enemies of the working class by Stalinist policy. These included former police and military, religious workers, larger landowners (nobility and "kulaks" (richer peasants)), memebers of certain political parties, as well as those who expressed any kind of dissent, which altogether constituted a significant part of population and included the majority of educated population, the bearers of Romanian culture. In addition, ethnically Romanian population was resettled from the border regions. See Population transfer in the Soviet Union and Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union for similar processes all over the USSR.

Between 1939-1941, 300,000 Romanians were deported of whom 57,000 were killed (not counting the Gulag).
Between 1941-1945, 390,000 Romanians were deported of whom 51,000 were killed (not counting the Gulag).
Between 1945-1953, 1,654,000 Romanians were deported of whom 215,000 were killed (380,000 more counting Gulag and terror killings).

In total, around 2,344,000 Romanians were deported, of whom 703,000 were killed.

Post-USSR Moldova and Transnistria

After the break-up of the USSR, various legislative reforms consolidated the position of ethnic Romanians/Moldovans, especially by establishing the Moldovan language as the official language. The 2001 won by the Communist party of Moldova initially brought a series of attempts to raise Russian to the status of a state language, however the project was dropped due to popular opposition.

Relations between the Moldovan and Romanian governments have initially included some tension as the Moldovan government led by President Vladimir Voronin accused Romania of imperialism. Nevertheless, in the recent past relations have improved and President Voronin as well as Romanian President Traian Băsescu have called for cooperation between the two sovereign states.

In 2006, "Gh. Asachi Romanian-French School" was forced by the government to change its name to "Gh. Asachi Moldovan-French School". Critics argued that the government acted unilaterally and discriminated against Romanians as other schools such as the „Necui-Leviţki” Russian-Ukrianian School were allowed to continue using that name. In protest, four high school students from Asachi replaced the new high school sign with another with the old name. They were indicted with "group-committed aggravated hooliganism".

In Transnistria, the situation is far worse. After the 1992 war between the breakaway republic and Moldova, the Romanian population was substantially persecuted, causing at least 5,000-10,000 Romanians to flee the region. Although the Romanians of Transnistria of the area is significant, the Romanian language is almost never used in public. Cases were reported of Russian soldiers even beating Transnistrians who spoke in "Moldovan"/Romanian in their presence .

Romanian schools comprise about 11% of the total schools in Transnistria, despite the fact that according to the latest Transnistrian census of 2004, Romanians make up about 32% of the population. Most of these schools are forced to teach in the Cyrillic script and use outdated, 40-year-old, communist-era books. 6 schools are permitted to teach in Romanian using the Latin script, however pressure is often put on these institutions to close. The 2004 school scandal is a prime example of this, when the pro-Russian government in Tiraspol forcefully attempted to close down 2 of these schools. In the orphanage of Tighina, Romanian children returning from vacations found the orphanage locked by police. After spending a night outdoors, they forced their way into the building and had to stay there without water and electricity for a few months, until, due to the pressure of the Moldovan and Romanian governments as well as the OSCE, the conflict was resolved . Numerous Romanian parents were arrested or fired from their jobs due to their political views and their determination to keep their children in Romanian-language schools.

Citizens who express pro-Romanian or pro-Moldovan attitudes are likewise persecuted in Transnistria. The Ilie Ilaşcu group is the most commonly known and well-documented of these organisations.

Ukraine

There are several regions with considerable Romanian minorities in the Ukraine: Southern Bessarabia or Bugeac, Northern Bukovina as well as Rakhiv district of Zakarpattia Oblast. In 2001 the Christian-Democratic Alliance of the Romanians from Ukraine had reported that Romanians in Chernivtsy lack an opportunity to study at University level in their native language . The organization collected more than 100,000 signatures to support their cause, but their appeal to the Ukrainian Government had no effect.

Due to the politics of anti-Romanian discrimination during the Soviet era, the number of Romanian students at the University of Chernivtsi has declined sharply. In 1991-92, the last year of Soviet rule, the number of Romanian students was only 4.44% (434 out of 9,769). Among teaching faculty, under-representation of Romanians is also evident. The breakdown by nationalities (in the same year)reveals: Ukrainian teachers 465 (77,1%), Russians 102 (16.9%), Moldovans 9 (1.4%), Romanians 7 (1.1%), Belorussians 6 (0.9%) etc. (see also Chernivtsi university).

However, it should be noted that according to the Ukrainian constitution adopted after the 1991 independence, the Ukrainian is the only state language in the country, and the state higher education system was switched to Ukrainian, according to the common practice in many countries worldwide. At the same time, there are schools teaching Romanian as primary language, newspapers, TV, and radio broadcasting in Romanian , ,. Future teachers for Romanian schools are trained in University of Chernivtsi in the fields of Romanian philology, mathematics and physics. The fact that University of Chernivtsi does not provide education in Romanian in all fields is unlikely to have anything to do with anti-Romanian discrimination. For instance, universities in Romania do not provide education in the native language for the Ukrainian minority in that country. This might simply reflect the relatively small size of the Ukrainian minority in Romania, since there are abundant opportunities for higher education for the Hungarian minority in Romania (see Babes-Bolyai University, which also offers courses in German and English; also the Polytechnic Institute in Bucharest offers courses in German and English).

Even after Ukrainian independence, the number of Romanian students at the University continued to decline, to only 3.9% in 1992-93 , which is much less than the overall percentage of Romanians in the general population. After 1997, arrangements have been made for some students to study at universities in Romania.

Yugoslavia and modern Serbia

The Romanians living in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina are very well represented at the provincial level despite their small presence (about 30,000 people), and Romanian is one of the six official languages of the province. Their counterparts in the Timok Valley, however, who number around 50,000, have been persecuted for years.

The Timok Romanians speak the same Daco-Romanian or Romanian-standard dialect as their kinsmen to the north, in Romania proper. The Serbian authorities however have pursued a policy of denationalization .

In eastern Serbia (mainly in Timok Valley region) live people who speak basically same language as Romanian. These people declare themselves in census as ethnic Vlachs and their number is about 40,000. These Vlachs (Romanians) are bilingual, they are fluent in two languages, Serbian and Vlach/Romanian. In everyday communication Vlachs (Romanians) mainly use Serbian language, while their native language is used mainly at home. Since many Vlachs declare themselves in census as Serbs, the real number of the people of Vlach origin is unknown (This number could be as high as 135,000, since that is a number of people whom declared Vlach language as their mother tongue in 1981 census) .

The year 2004 as well as 2005 saw a clash between the Serbian authorities and the Romanian community in Timoc when a Romanian priest decided to build a small church where he would hold services in Romanian. The priest has been subjected to threats while children attending the mass with their parents have been humiliated in the village school by their Serbian teacher.

In the town of Negotin, the Romanian Cultural Association has been vandalized in the year 2004 when Serbian ultra-nationalists wrote "Romanians go home" on the windows of the main doors .

Notes

4 elevi moldoveni riscă închisoarea, pentru că susţin că sunt români Jurnalul National, 2006
OSCE report about Romanian language in Transnistria
Article by Drasko Djenovic on Forum18

References

Transnistria

"Lichidarea şcolilor româneşti din Transnistria". BBC. 2004.

USSR

Grenoble, Lenore A (2003). Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-1298-5.

Transylvania

Pop, Ioan-Aurel (1997). Istoria Transilvaniei Medievale. ISBN 973-9261-24-8.
Romsics, Ignác. Magyarország története a huszadik században ("A History of Hungary in the 20th Century"), p. 85-86.

Serbia

Crăciun, Gilia. "Minoritatea românilor din Serbia este nemulţumită". BBC. (in Romanian)
Djenovic, Drasko. "SERBIA: Police ban Romanian Orthodox commemoration". Forum18.
Mihalcea, Florian. "Biserica românească din Malainiţa ameninţată din nou". BBC. (in Romanian)
Petrovici, Georgeta. "Românii nimănui". Evenimentul Zilei. (in Romanian)
Ursuleţu, Lucian. "Slujbă clandestină pentru românii de pe Valea Timocului". Evenimentul Zilei. (in Romanian)
Dolha, Viorel. "Românii din Timoc". ROST. (in Romanian)

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