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] found in nature reserves in Germany – about 75% loss in 26 years.<ref name=PLoS/>]]
As of 2017, at least 66 insect species extinctions had been recorded in the previous 500 years, which generally occurred on oceanic islands.<ref name="Briggs2017">{{cite journal |last1=Briggs |first1=John C |title=Emergence of a sixth mass extinction? |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |date=October 2017 |volume=122 |issue=2 |pages=243–248 |doi=10.1093/biolinnean/blx063}}</ref> Declines in insect abundance have been attributed to artificial lighting,<ref name="Owens2018">{{cite journal |last1=Owens |first1=Avalon C. S. |last2=Lewis |first2=Sara M. |title=The impact of artificial light at night on nocturnal insects: A review and synthesis |journal=Ecology and Evolution |date=November 2018 |volume=8 |issue=22 |pages=11337–11358 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4557|pmid=30519447 |pmc=6262936 }}</ref> land use changes such as urbanization or agricultural use,<ref name="Tscharntke2005">{{cite journal |last1=Tscharntke |first1=Teja |last2=Klein |first2=Alexandra M. |last3=Kruess |first3=Andreas |last4=Steffan-Dewenter |first4=Ingolf |last5=Thies |first5=Carsten |title=Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity and ecosystem service management |journal=Ecology Letters |date=August 2005 |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=857–874 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00782.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Insect-plant interactions in a crop protection perspective |isbn=978-0-12-803324-1 |page=313–320|date=2017-01-19 }}</ref> pesticide use,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Braak |first1=Nora |last2=Neve |first2=Rebecca |last3=Jones |first3=Andrew K. |last4=Gibbs |first4=Melanie |last5=Breuker |first5=Casper J. |title=The effects of insecticides on butterflies – A review |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=November 2018 |volume=242 |issue=Pt A |pages=507–518 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2018.06.100|pmid=30005263 }}</ref> and invasive species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=David L. |last2=Van Driesche |first2=Roy G. |title=Threats Posed to Rare or Endangered Insects by Invasions of Nonnative Species |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 2010 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=547–568 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-112408-085516|pmid=19743915 }}</ref> Some studies have suggested a large proportion of insect species are threatened with extinction in the 21st century,<ref name="Wyckhuys2019">{{cite journal |last1=Sánchez-Bayo |first1=Francisco |last2=Wyckhuys |first2=Kris A.G. |title=Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers |journal=Biological Conservation |date=April 2019 |volume=232 |pages=8–27 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020}}</ref> though ecologist Manu Sanders notes that many of these findings are often hyperbolized in the media, biased by excluding data the shows increases in diversity, and often limited to specific geographic areas and specific groups of species.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Saunders |first1=Manu |title=Insectageddon is a great story. But what are the facts? |url=https://ecologyisnotadirtyword.com/2019/02/16/insectageddon-is-a-great-story-but-what-are-the-facts/ |website=Ecology is not a dirty word |accessdate=24 February 2019 |language=en |date=16 February 2019}}</ref>

In the 21st century, there appears to be a widespread '''decline in the number of insects'''. About 40% of species are threatened by extinction and the types most affected include ]s, ]s, ], ]s and ]s. While some species such as ] and ]es might increase as a result, the total ] of insects is decreasing by about 2.5% per year. The phenomenon is due to multiple factors including ], ]s, ] and ].<ref name=BBC/><ref name=BC/><ref name=G/><ref name=S17/>

==Reviews and studies==
In 2012, the ] produced a survey of the prospects of the world's ]s: ''Spineless''. It estimated that about 20% of all species were threatened with extinction and that species with the least mobility and smallest ranges were the most at risk.<ref name=ZSL/><ref name=SA/>

A comparison of the amount of ]s in the ] showed a large decline from 1976 to 2012. Depending on the method of collection, the declines ranged from a factor of 4 to 60. A corresponding decline in the number of ] species such as birds, frogs and lizards was also observed. The decline was attributed to a rise in the average temperature as tropical insect species cannot tolerate a wide range of temperatures.<ref name=PNAS/><ref name=WP/>

A 2014 review in '']'' – ''Defaunation in the Anthropocene'' – found that "Of all insects with IUCN-documented population trends, 33% are declining ... Globally, a compiled index of all invertebrate population declines over the past 40 years shows an overall 45% decline".<ref name=NYT18/><ref name=S14/>

In 2016, the ] produced a report from their long-term records of insect collections in ]. This showed that, in the period 1990 to 2016, there had been a decline of 75% in the amount of flying insects.<ref name=NYT17/><ref name=PLoS/>

In 2019, a ] of the issue – ''Worldwide decline of the entomofauna'' – was published in the journal '']''.<ref name=G/> This analysed 73 reports and studies and found that, overall, there were "dramatic rates of decline".<ref name=BC/>{{quote|From our compilation of published scientific reports, we estimate the current proportion of insect species in decline (41%) to be twice as high as that of vertebrates, and the pace of local species extinction (10%) eight times higher, confirming previous findings (Dirzo et al., 2014). At present, about a third of all insect species are threatened with extinction in the countries studied (Table 1). Moreover, every year about 1% of all insect species are added to the list, with such biodiversity declines resulting in an annual 2.5% loss of biomass worldwide (Fig. 2).|author=Francisco Sánchez-Bayo, Kris Wyckhuys |title="Worldwide decline of the entomofauna" |source='']'' (2019)}}

==Conservation measures==
Following the 2016 report of the ''Entomologischer Verein Krefeld'' and other studies, the German environment ministry – the ] – started its Action Program for Insect Protection (''Aktionsprogramm Insektenschutz'').<ref name=FAO/> This initially contained nine goals:<ref name=BMU/>
:# "Promote insect habitats and structural diversity in the agricultural landscape"
:# "Restore and connect habitats for insects in other landscape areas"
:# "Strengthen protected areas as habitats for insects"
:# "Reduce the use of pesticides"
:# "Reduce inputs of nutrients and pollutants in soil and water"
:# "Reduce light pollution"
:# "Deepening research - multiplying knowledge - closing gaps"
:# "Improve funding - create incentives"
:# "Promote commitment of the company"


==See also== ==See also==
Line 10: Line 35:


==References== ==References==
{{reflist |refs=
{{Reflist|30em}}
<ref name=BBC>{{citation |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-47198576 |title=Global insect decline may see 'plague of pests' |publisher=BBC |author=Matt McGrath |date=11 February 2019}}</ref>
<ref name=BC>{{citation |journal=Biological Conservation |date=31 January 2019 |volume=232 |pages=8–27 |title=Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers |first1=Francisco|last1=Sánchez-Bayo |authorlink1=Francisco Sánchez-Bayo |first2=Kris A.G. |last2=Wyckhuys |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020}}</ref>
<ref name=G>{{citation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/feb/10/plummeting-insect-numbers-threaten-collapse-of-nature |title=Plummeting insect numbers 'threaten collapse of nature' |author=Damian Carrington |date=10 February 2019 |newspaper=The Observer}}</ref>
<ref name=S17>{{citation |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/05/where-have-all-insects-gone |journal=Science |title=Where have all the insects gone? |author=Gretchen Vogel |date=10 May 2017}}</ref>
<ref name=NYT18>{{citation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/27/magazine/insect-apocalypse.html |title=The Insect Apocalypse Is Here |newspaper=The New York Times |author=Brooke Jarvis |date=27 November 2018}}</ref>
<ref name=S14>{{citation |first1=Rodolfo |last1=Dirzo |authorlink1=Rodolfo Dirzo |first2=Hillary |last2=Young |first3=Mauro |last3=Galetti |first4=Gerardo |last4=Ceballos |first5=Nick |last5=Isaac |first6=Ben |last6=Collen |title=Defaunation in the Anthropocene |journal=Science |date=25 July 2014 |volume=345 |number=6195 |pages=401–406 |doi=10.1126/science.1251817 |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1436030/1/Collen_Dirzo%20etal%202014%20Science%20Accepted.pdf }}</ref>
<ref name=ZSL>{{citation |url=https://www.zsl.org/sites/default/files/document/2014-02/spineless-lr-2039.pdf |title=Spineless – Status and trends of the world's invertebrates |publisher=Zoological Society of London |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-900881-70-1 |editor=Ben Collen |editor2=Monika Böhm |editor3=Rachael Kemp |editor4=Jonathan E. M. Baillie}}</ref>
<ref name=SA>{{citation |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/one-fifth-of-invertebrate-species-at-risk-of-extinction/ |journal=Scientific American |title=One Fifth of Invertebrate Species at Risk of Extinction |author=Brendan Borrell |date=4 September 2012}}</ref>
<ref name=NYT17>{{citation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/04/world/europe/krefeld-germany-insect-armageddon.html |title=The German Amateurs Who Discovered 'Insect Armageddon' |newspaper=The New York Times |author=Sally McGrane |date=4 December 2017}}</ref>
<ref name=PLoS>{{citation |last1=Hallmann |first1=CA |last2=Sorg |first2=M |last3=Jongejans |first3=E |last4=Siepel |first4=H |last5=Hofland |first5=N |last6=Schwan|first6=H |title=More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect biomass in protected areas |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=12 |number=10 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0185809 |date=18 October 2017}}</ref>
<ref name=PNAS>{{citation |title=Climate-driven declines in arthropod abundance restructure a rainforest food web |first1=Bradford C. |last1=Lister |first2=Andres |last2=Garcia |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=October 2018 |volume=115 |number=44 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1722477115}}</ref>
<ref name=WP>{{citation |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2018/10/15/hyperalarming-study-shows-massive-insect-loss/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.2529193c7530 |title='Hyperalarming' study shows massive insect loss |newspaper=The Washington Post |author=Ben Guarino |date=15 October 2018}}</ref>
<ref name=BMU>{{citation |url=https://www.bmu.de/download/aktionsprogramm-insektenschutz/ |title=Action program insect protection |date=10 October 2018 |publisher=Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit}}</ref>
<ref name=FAO>{{citation |url=http://www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/CA3129EN.pdf |publisher=FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture |year=2019 |editor=J. Bélanger & D. Pilling |location=Rome |title=The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture |page=133}}</ref>
}}


] ]

Revision as of 08:25, 6 March 2019

An annual decline of 5.2% in flying insect biomass found in nature reserves in Germany – about 75% loss in 26 years.

In the 21st century, there appears to be a widespread decline in the number of insects. About 40% of species are threatened by extinction and the types most affected include ants, bees, butterflies, moths and wasps. While some species such as flies and cockroaches might increase as a result, the total biomass of insects is decreasing by about 2.5% per year. The phenomenon is due to multiple factors including habitat destruction, pesticides, introduced species and climate change.

Reviews and studies

In 2012, the Zoological Society of London produced a survey of the prospects of the world's invertebrates: Spineless. It estimated that about 20% of all species were threatened with extinction and that species with the least mobility and smallest ranges were the most at risk.

A comparison of the amount of arthropods in the El Yunque National Forest showed a large decline from 1976 to 2012. Depending on the method of collection, the declines ranged from a factor of 4 to 60. A corresponding decline in the number of insect-eating species such as birds, frogs and lizards was also observed. The decline was attributed to a rise in the average temperature as tropical insect species cannot tolerate a wide range of temperatures.

A 2014 review in Science – Defaunation in the Anthropocene – found that "Of all insects with IUCN-documented population trends, 33% are declining ... Globally, a compiled index of all invertebrate population declines over the past 40 years shows an overall 45% decline".

In 2016, the Entomologischer Verein Krefeld produced a report from their long-term records of insect collections in nature reserves in Germany. This showed that, in the period 1990 to 2016, there had been a decline of 75% in the amount of flying insects.

In 2019, a systematic review of the issue – Worldwide decline of the entomofauna – was published in the journal Biological Conservation. This analysed 73 reports and studies and found that, overall, there were "dramatic rates of decline".

From our compilation of published scientific reports, we estimate the current proportion of insect species in decline (41%) to be twice as high as that of vertebrates, and the pace of local species extinction (10%) eight times higher, confirming previous findings (Dirzo et al., 2014). At present, about a third of all insect species are threatened with extinction in the countries studied (Table 1). Moreover, every year about 1% of all insect species are added to the list, with such biodiversity declines resulting in an annual 2.5% loss of biomass worldwide (Fig. 2).

— Francisco Sánchez-Bayo, Kris Wyckhuys, "Worldwide decline of the entomofauna", Biological Conservation (2019)

Conservation measures

Following the 2016 report of the Entomologischer Verein Krefeld and other studies, the German environment ministry – the BMU – started its Action Program for Insect Protection (Aktionsprogramm Insektenschutz). This initially contained nine goals:

  1. "Promote insect habitats and structural diversity in the agricultural landscape"
  2. "Restore and connect habitats for insects in other landscape areas"
  3. "Strengthen protected areas as habitats for insects"
  4. "Reduce the use of pesticides"
  5. "Reduce inputs of nutrients and pollutants in soil and water"
  6. "Reduce light pollution"
  7. "Deepening research - multiplying knowledge - closing gaps"
  8. "Improve funding - create incentives"
  9. "Promote commitment of the company"

See also

References

  1. ^ Hallmann, CA; Sorg, M; Jongejans, E; Siepel, H; Hofland, N; Schwan, H (18 October 2017), "More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect biomass in protected areas", PLoS ONE, 12 (10), doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185809{{citation}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  2. Matt McGrath (11 February 2019), Global insect decline may see 'plague of pests', BBC
  3. ^ Sánchez-Bayo, Francisco; Wyckhuys, Kris A.G. (31 January 2019), "Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers", Biological Conservation, 232: 8–27, doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020
  4. ^ Damian Carrington (10 February 2019), "Plummeting insect numbers 'threaten collapse of nature'", The Observer
  5. Gretchen Vogel (10 May 2017), "Where have all the insects gone?", Science
  6. Ben Collen; Monika Böhm; Rachael Kemp; Jonathan E. M. Baillie, eds. (2012), Spineless – Status and trends of the world's invertebrates (PDF), Zoological Society of London, ISBN 978-0-900881-70-1
  7. Brendan Borrell (4 September 2012), "One Fifth of Invertebrate Species at Risk of Extinction", Scientific American
  8. Lister, Bradford C.; Garcia, Andres (October 2018), "Climate-driven declines in arthropod abundance restructure a rainforest food web", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115 (44), doi:10.1073/pnas.1722477115
  9. Ben Guarino (15 October 2018), "'Hyperalarming' study shows massive insect loss", The Washington Post
  10. Brooke Jarvis (27 November 2018), "The Insect Apocalypse Is Here", The New York Times
  11. Dirzo, Rodolfo; Young, Hillary; Galetti, Mauro; Ceballos, Gerardo; Isaac, Nick; Collen, Ben (25 July 2014), "Defaunation in the Anthropocene" (PDF), Science, 345 (6195): 401–406, doi:10.1126/science.1251817
  12. Sally McGrane (4 December 2017), "The German Amateurs Who Discovered 'Insect Armageddon'", The New York Times
  13. J. Bélanger & D. Pilling, ed. (2019), The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture (PDF), Rome: FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, p. 133
  14. Action program insect protection, Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit, 10 October 2018
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