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| {{About||the mountain in Peru|Uturunku (Peru){{!}}Uturunku (Peru)}} | |||
| {{good article}} | |||
| {{Infobox mountain | |||
| | name = Uturunku | |||
| | other_name = | |||
| | photo = Uturuncu.jpg | |||
| | native_name = | |||
| | native_name_lang = que | |||
| | photo_alt = Uturunku is a cone in a desolate landscape, with an adjacent smaller non-conical mountain. | |||
| | photo_caption = Uturunku in Bolivia, 16 November 2006 | |||
| | map = Bolivia | |||
| | map_alt = A map of Bolivia; the volcano is in the southernmost corner. | |||
| | map_caption = Location of Uturunku in Bolivia | |||
| | location = ], ], ], ] | |||
| | lat_d = 22 | |||
| | lat_m = 16 | |||
| | lat_s = 12 | |||
| | lat_NS = S | |||
| | long_d = 67 | |||
| | long_m = 10 | |||
| | long_s = 48 | |||
| | long_EW = W | |||
| | elevation = {{convert|6008|m|ft}} | |||
| | elevation_ref =<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> | |||
| | listing = ] | |||
| | translation = Jaguar<ref name="Dictionary" /> | |||
| | language = ] | |||
| | range = ] | |||
| | coordinates_ref =<ref name="HickeyGottsmann2013" /> | |||
| | coord_type = adm1st | |||
| | region_code = P | |||
| | type = ] | |||
| | age = ] | |||
| | volcanic_field = ] | |||
| | volcanic_arc/belt = ] | |||
| | last_eruption = 271,000 years ago. | |||
| | first_ascent = | |||
| | access = | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Uturunku''' (] for ],<ref>{{Ref Simi}}</ref><ref>{{Ref Laime}}</ref> ] spellings ''Uturunco, Uturuncu'') is a dormant ] in the ] in ], ]. It is located in the ], ]. It is in the ] of the ], and its highest summit is {{convert|6008|m|ft}} above sea level. The volcano has two summits, with a ] field between them. The volcano's landforms include ]s and lava flows. | |||
| {{R with history}} | |||
| The volcano was sporadically active during the ], with the most recent eruption dated at 271,000 years ago. Since then, Uturunku has displayed ] activity. Starting in 1992, satellite observations have indicated a large area of regional uplift centered on Uturunku, which has been interpreted as an indication of large-scale ] ] under the volcano. This might be a prelude to large-scale volcanic activity, including ] activity and ] formation. | |||
| ==Geography and geology== | |||
| Uturunku is a dormant {{convert|6008|m}} high ] south of Quetena Chico, in the ] of ].<ref name="JayPritchard2011" /> The edifice has a volume of {{convert|85|km3}}, covering an area of {{convert|400|km2}} on a base altitude of {{convert|4500|m}}. It is constructed from ] ] lava flows and ]s.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> ] enclaves are also present and some dacites border on ] andesite in composition.<ref name=MuirBlundy20142 /> The edifice has been affected by ]. The ] and ] lava flows form the base of the edifice and extend {{convert|15|km}} away from the volcano. Middle and ] lavas form the upper part of the volcanoes and extend up to {{convert|10|km}} away. According to geological inspection involving both aerial surveys and field work, the longest lava flows appear to generate from the central vent. Flow features on the lavas are well preserved, and are blocky with high fronts. The flows are several tens of metres thick.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> A ] mine ({{coord|22|14|50|S|67|10|53|W}}{{rp|258}}) was reported in 1975. It was based on ] and minor ] in the ], with an estimated {{convert|50000000|t}} of ]. ] lies at the foot of the volcano and is fed by snow melt from the volcano's northeastern side. Mama Khumu, a lake on the western side of the volcano, is also fed from the volcano.<ref name="USGSB" />{{rp|201–202}} | |||
| Uturunku's lavas contain ],<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> ],<ref name="KussmaulHörmann1977" /> ], ], ] and ]. They also contain inclusions, a few percent ], ] and ]s derived from the ] containing ] ] and ]s. Morphological and chemical analysis of the eruption products indicate that the dacites formed by ] of andesite magma. Some of the dacite magma was modified by mixing of dacite and andesite magmas. The magma also underwent ] and ] during ascent.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> Analysis of the erupted dacites indicate that the magma was nearly water-] and stored at depths given differently as {{convert|2|-|4|km}}<ref name="LaumonierGaillard2014" /> or {{convert|5.7|km}}<ref name="MuirBlundy2014" /> by studies, and temperatures of {{convert|870|C}}. The chemistry and microstructure suggest that Uturunku magmas formed in ]s subject to episodic replenishment with hotter magmas.<ref name="LaumonierGaillard2014" /><ref name="MuirBlundy2014" /> Major and ] analysis indicates a substantial similarity of Uturunku lavas to local ]s.<ref name="FernàndezHörmann1973" /> | |||
| ===Regional setting=== | |||
| The Central Andes and the ] formed in response to the subduction at a rate of about {{convert|6.5|cm/yr}} at an angle of 25° of the ] below the ].<ref name="KühnKüster2014" /> The onset of the modern orogeny was precipitated by the breakup of the ] 26 ], resulting in accelerated and steepening subduction of the now-Nazca plate. After a 14 million year phase of shallow subduction, 12 mya the subduction steepened to the current angle of 30° by 3 mya. The ] (APVC) formed during this time.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> | |||
| The APVC is an area of the ] where an upper crust magmatic system has generated large-scale ignimbrite eruptions and ]s between one and ten mya. The melting of the crust that generated this activity is also thought to have contributed to crustal thickening in the area to about {{convert|70|km}}. An underlying area of partial melts (around 20% volume) with low ] and ] and high ] has been identified with a top at {{convert|17|km}} depth.<ref name="HickeyGottsmann2013" /> This area accumulates magma at an average rate of {{convert|0.001|km3/yr}}.<ref name="Annen2009" /> This area of melt arches upward and has its thickest and shallowest parts below Uturunku, with the slowest seismic velocity zones located south and west of the volcano.<ref name="WardZandt2014" /> | |||
| ===Local setting=== | |||
| Uturunku is located {{convert|70|km}} west of the main ].<ref name="PritchardHenderson2014" /> Starting 11-10 mya ago during the ], the Lípez area was affected by ignimbritic activity.<ref name="SalisburyJicha2010" /> ] formed in the ] from dacites and ]s intruding into Middle Miocene ash flows. Ignimbritic activity includes the 2.89 mya ], the 1.98 mya Laguna Colorada and the 0.7 mya ] ignimbrite. The smaller Vilama caldera formed 8.4 mya and the larger Panizo caldera between 6.8–7.9 mya. The ] was the last active volcano in the area with intrusions dated 85,000 years ago. Further west on the border between Bolivia and Chile activity continues today with ], ], ], ] and others.<ref name="DeroinTéreygeol2012" /> | |||
| The volcano is constructed on local ignimbrite layers, the 8.1 mya Vilama and the 5.65 mya ] ignimbrites.<ref name="MuirBlundy2014" /> The Lipez–] lineament (also known as the Pastos Grandes-Cojina lineament) runs through the volcano, and seismic activity in the area is aligned to this and neighbouring NW–SE ]. These fault zones may influence the activity of the volcano<ref name="JayPritchard2011" /> and are associated with caldera formation. Volcanoes in the Uturunku area rise about {{convert|1600|-|1700|m}} above the surrounding terrain.<ref name="KussmaulHörmann1977" /> | |||
| ==Climate and glaciation== | |||
| Present-day climate conditions at Uturunku volcano are scarcely recorded. Most of the humidity comes from the ] in the east; this generates a decreasing gradient over the Altiplano westwards. The Lipez area is dry, receiving less than {{convert|100|mm/yr}} of precipitation. Because of this insufficient precipitation, there is no present-day glaciation on Uturunku despite the {{convert|0|C}} ] being lower than the summit of the volcano and of other neighbouring summits at {{convert|5000|m}}.<ref name="BlardLave2014" /> | |||
| The presence of a shallow (less than 100-metre / 330 ft) difference between the altitude of the valley bottom of the southern glacial valley, and its shoulders indicates past low-volume glaciation. Five different ] stages between {{convert|4800|m}} and {{convert|4850|m}} altitude have been identified. ] rocks and ]s are also present in the area. Based on ] ], these moraines originated from Pleistocene glacier fluctuations between 65,000 and 14,000 years ago. The lowest of the moraines, and thus the largest extent of glaciation, coincides with the highstand of the "Lake Tauca" lake episode 16,000-14,000 years ago, where the Altiplano was covered by a large lake. Rapid deglaciation occurred after the disappearance of Lake Tauca 14,000 years ago.<ref name="BlardLave2014" /> | |||
| ==Eruptive history== | |||
| ===Pre-Holocene=== | |||
| Uturunku was active between 890,000 and 271,000 years ago. Lavas higher up the edifice are younger and less extensive. The volcano was constructed in two phases dated by ], one 890,000–549,000 years ago and the younger, less extensive one 427,000–271,000 years ago. The youngest age belongs to the summit lava dome. Older estimates by the {{lang|es|Servicio Geológico de Bolivia}} proposed that the northern and western flows were between 10 and 15 mya old and the summit flows older than one million years.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> | |||
| Two lava domes south of the summit, with a combined volume of {{convert|1|km3|abbr=on}}, are the oldest structures of the volcano, having formed 1,050 ] and 1,041 ka. Lava flows on the southern and southwestern sides of the edifice have similar ages of 1,028 and 1,018 ka. Subsequently, two lava flows on the southern and eastern side of the volcano and a group of flows on the northeastern side erupted 890, 714 and 660 ka were the only eruptions until 595 ka. Ten domes and flows were erupted between 595–590 ka, including two large domes located north–northwest of the summit erupted at the start and end of this period. These domes formed directly on the Altiplano and are {{convert|500|m|abbr=on}} high, {{convert|1|km|abbr=on}} wide and have a combined volume of {{convert|0.4|km3|abbr=on}}. 549 ka the western dome was erupted {{convert|5.5|km|abbr=on}} southeast of the NNW domes; it subsequently collapsed, forming a ] that covered {{convert|1.3|km2|abbr=on}}. The largest lava flow from Uturunku was erupted 544 ka; this {{lang|es|Lomo Escapa}} flow flowed {{convert|9|km|abbr=on}} over the ignimbrite plain. Based on a thickness of {{convert|200|m|abbr=on}} a volume of {{convert|1.7|km3|abbr=on}} was estimated from this flow.<ref name="MuirBarfod2015" /> | |||
| Starting from 450,000 years ago, the morphology of the flows change. Between 458 and 387 ka flows and domes are shorter and originate mostly around the summit area; the longest flow from this phase erupted 455 ka and is {{convert|2.6|km|abbr=on}}. The last major pulse occurred 316-267 ka, and its products have dimensions similar to those older than 500,000. The youngest flow in the southeastern summit area is dated 250 ka.<ref name="MuirBarfod2015" /> | |||
| Volcanic activity at Uturunku was episodic, with bursts of eruptions separated by between 50,000 and 180,000 years of rest.<ref name="MuirBarfod2015" /> Eruptions were likely voluminous, with lava flow volumes of about {{convert|0.1|-|10|km3|abbr=on}} erupted in short time periods. Such eruptions originated from ephemeral magma chambers formed by repeated transfer of magmas from the APVC melt generating zone. In these magma chambers, andesites and silica-rich magmas formed dacites that erupted to the surface when the magma chamber grew to the point of rupturing its walls. Assuming that the magma output of the volcano was a total of {{convert|170|km3|abbr=on}}, the average flux rate was less than {{convert|0.00027|km3/yr|abbr=on}}, below the average for local volcanoes.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> | |||
| ===Recent unrest=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The volcano has two fields of ]s (<{{convert|80|C}}) in the area between Uturunku's two summits and has caused ] of ].<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> These fumaroles form visible clouds of steam.<ref name="JayWelch2013" /> This heat may have been replenished from the APVC melt generating zone or survived since the last eruption of the volcano.<ref name="LaumonierGaillard2014" /> Fumarolic activity is distinct enough to be visible from ] satellite image but barely visible from the ground. The temperature of the hotspot has been relatively constant in contrast to Lascar.<ref name="JayWelch2013" /> The presence of lava flows overlying moraines, which indicate post-glacial activity,<ref name="KussmaulHörmann1977" /> is controversial;<ref name="PritchardSimons2004" /> the summit lava flows have been glaciated.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> | |||
| Starting in 1992, and increasing in 1998, a {{convert|70|km|abbr=on}} wide circular region around Uturunku has been deforming at a rate of {{convert|1|-|2|cm/yr|abbr=on}}. Research has indicated that the sources must be deep to create large-scale ground inflation, but above the partially molten layer of the APVC partial melt zone.<ref name="HickeyGottsmann2013" /><ref name="PritchardSimons2004" /> A ring of ] surrounds the uplift and expands the size of the deformed area to a diameter of {{convert|150|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="WardZandt2014" /> The total volume changes over 14 years amount to {{convert|40000000000|m3|abbr=on}} at a depth of {{convert|17|-|30|km|abbr=on}} below the surface.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> Magma accumulation rates of {{convert|0.01|km3/yr}} have been estimated. These inflation and accumulation rates are comparable to the inflation rates at ] and ] in the United States and ] (Lastarria–]) in ].<ref name="Annen2009" /> The depth and scale of deformation and the absence of a large-scale hydrothermal system indicates that the ground inflation is unlikely to be hydrothermal.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> Evidence from prehistoric levels in local lakes does not suggest that such ground movements occurred in the volcano's past.<ref name="Spiegel" /> | |||
| Anomalous ] was also observed centered in a source {{convert|3|-|4|km|abbr=on}} deep, {{convert|4|km|abbr=on}} southwest of the summit.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> Microseismic activity was also registered. Such seismicity exceeds that of other volcanoes in the region (with the exception of ] during active periods, and ] and ]) and is unlikely to be normal background activity for the area. Some earthquake activity and ] were triggered by the ], which may be indicative of unstable ] or interactions of the magmatic system with far field earthquake waves.<ref name="JayPritchard2011" /> Hypotheses regarding the earthquake activity either consider shallow ] deforming in a brittle manner, ] movements or a combination of these with a disturbance of a ] system. The presence of partial melts below the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex suggests a magmatic origin of the activity.<ref name="HickeyGottsmann2013" /> | |||
| ] data indicate that a vertical low density body connects Uturunku with the APVC magma body at a depth of {{convert|25|km|abbr=on}}. Several such bodies with ] {{convert|12|-|20|km|abbr=on}} are found beneath the APVC. In 2013, del Potro ''et al.'' estimated that this body may contain 25% by volume of molten dacite.<ref name="HickeyGottsmann2013" /> The formation of buoyant mobile layers following heating may destabilize this magma mush and cause lavas to accumulate a few kilometres below the volcano and erupt.<ref name="MuirBarfod2015" /> | |||
| ==Threats== | |||
| The magma intrusion rate below Uturunku is considerably larger than the magma output of the Pleistocene volcano, being comparable to the magma flux of historic eruptions and estimates of magma generation rates in local caldera forming magma chambers. Evidence for the formation of such a magma chamber is elusive but might be hidden by the deformation activity of the APVC melt generation zone.<ref name="SparksFolkes2008" /> Uturunku may be developing into a ],<ref name="NYTimes" /> and a caldera forming super-eruption may occur there;<ref name="MatthewsSmith2012" /> this possibility has resulted in international media attention.<ref name="Spiegel" /><ref name="NYTimes" /> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|refs= | |||
| <ref name="SalisburyJicha2010">{{cite journal|last1=Salisbury|first1=M. J.|last2=Jicha|first2=B. R.|last3=de Silva|first3=S. L.|last4=Singer|first4=B. S.|last5=Jimenez|first5=N. C.|last6=Ort|first6=M. H.|title=40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|date=21 December 2010|volume=123|issue=5-6|pages=821–840|doi=10.1130/B30280.1}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="SparksFolkes2008">{{cite journal|last1=Sparks|first1=R. S. J.|last2=Folkes|first2=C. B.|last3=Humphreys|first3=M. C. S.|last4=Barfod|first4=D. N.|last5=Clavero|first5=J.|last6=Sunagua|first6=M. C.|last7=McNutt|first7=S. R.|last8=Pritchard|first8=M. E.|title=Uturuncu volcano, Bolivia: Volcanic unrest due to mid-crustal magma intrusion|journal=]|volume=308|issue=6 |year=2008|pages=727–769|issn=0002-9599|doi=10.2475/06.2008.01}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="HickeyGottsmann2013">{{cite journal|last1=Hickey|first1=James|last2=Gottsmann|first2=Joachim|last3=del Potro|first3=Rodrigo|title=The large-scale surface uplift in the Altiplano-Puna region of Bolivia: A parametric study of source characteristics and crustal rheology using finite element analysis|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems |volume=14|issue=3|year=2013|pages=540–555|issn=1525-2027|doi=10.1002/ggge.20057}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Dictionary">{{cite web | url=http://www.illa-a.org/cd/diccionarios/DicAMLQuechua.pdf | title=otoronqo | publisher=Gobierno Regional Cusco | work=Diccionario Quechua – Español – Quechua | date=January 2006 | accessdate=August 26, 2015 | author=Amos Becker Batto | pages=122 | language=es}}</ref> | |||
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| <ref name="Annen2009">{{cite journal|last1=Annen|first1=C.|title=From plutons to magma chambers: Thermal constraints on the accumulation of eruptible silicic magma in the upper crust|journal=] |volume=284|issue=3–4|year=2009|pages=409–416|issn=0012-821X|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2009.05.006|bibcode=2009E&PSL.284..409A}}</ref><ref name="JayPritchard2011">{{cite journal|last1=Jay|first1=Jennifer A.|last2=Pritchard|first2=Matthew E.|last3=West|first3=Michael E.|last4=Christensen|first4=Douglas|last5=Haney|first5=Matthew|last6=Minaya|first6=Estela|last7=Sunagua|first7=Mayel|last8=McNutt|first8=Stephen R.|last9=Zabala|first9=Mario|title=Shallow seismicity, triggered seismicity, and ambient noise tomography at the long-dormant Uturuncu Volcano, Bolivia|journal=] |volume=74|issue=4|year=2011|pages=817–837|issn=0258-8900|doi=10.1007/s00445-011-0568-7|bibcode=2012BVol...74..817J}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="BlardLave2014">{{cite journal|last1=Blard|first1=Pierre-Henri|last2=Lave|first2=Jérôme|last3=Farley|first3=Kenneth A.|last4=Ramirez|first4=Victor|last5=Jimenez|first5=Nestor|last6=Martin|first6=Léo C. P.|last7=Charreau|first7=Julien|last8=Tibari|first8=Bouchaïb|last9=Fornari|first9=Michel |title=Progressive glacial retreat in the Southern Altiplano (Uturuncu volcano, 22°S) between 65 and 14ka constrained by cosmogenic 3He dating|journal=] |volume=82|issue=1|year=2014|pages=209–221|issn=0033-5894|doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2014.02.002|bibcode=2014QuRes..82..209B}}</ref> | |||
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| <ref name="USGSB">{{cite web | url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1975/report.pdf | title=Geology and mineral resources of the Altiplano and Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia | publisher=] and Servicio Geologico de Bolivia| work=U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1975 | date=1975 | accessdate=August 27, 2015 | author=Donald I. Bleiwas and Robert G. Christiansen.}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="KussmaulHörmann1977">{{cite journal |last1=Kussmaul|first1=S.|last2=Hörmann|first2=P.K.|last3=Ploskonka|first3=E.|last4=Subieta|first4=T.|title=Volcanism and structure of southwestern Bolivia|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume=2|issue=1|year=1977|pages=73–111|issn=0377-0273|doi=10.1016/0377-0273(77)90016-6|bibcode=1977JVGR....2...73K}}</ref> | |||
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| <ref name="PritchardSimons2004">{{cite journal|last1=Pritchard|first1=M. E.|last2=Simons|first2=M.|title=An InSAR-based survey of volcanic deformation in the central Andes|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|volume=5|issue=2|year=2004|pages=n/a–n/a|issn=1525-2027|doi=10.1029/2003GC000610|bibcode=2004GGG.....5.2002P}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="MatthewsSmith2012">{{cite journal|last1=Matthews|first1=Naomi E. |last2=Smith|first2=Victoria C.|last3=Costa|first3=Antonio|last4=Durant|first4=Adam J.|last5=Pyle|first5=David M.|last6=Pearce|first6=Nicholas J. G. |title=Ultra-distal tephra deposits from super-eruptions: Examples from Toba, Indonesia and Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand|journal=Quaternary International |volume=258|year=2012|pages=54–79|issn=1040-6182|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.010}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="JayWelch2013">{{cite journal|last1=Jay|first1=J. A.|last2=Welch|first2=M.|last3=Pritchard|first3=M. E.|last4=Mares|first4=P. J.|last5=Mnich|first5=M. E.|last6=Melkonian|first6=A. K.|last7=Aguilera|first7=F.|last8=Naranjo|first8=J. A.|last9=Sunagua|first9=M.|last10=Clavero|first10=J.|title=Volcanic hotspots of the central and southern Andes as seen from space by ASTER and MODVOLC between the years 2000 and 2010|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |volume=380|issue=1|year=2013|pages=161–185|issn=0305-8719|doi=10.1144/SP380.1|bibcode=2013GSLSP.380..161J}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Spiegel">{{cite news | url=http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/natur/uturuncu-in-den-anden-forscher-entdecken-neuen-supervulkan-a-823405.html | title=Anden: Forscher entdecken neuen Supervulkan | work=] Wissenschaft | date=March 26, 2012 | agency=] | accessdate=August 27, 2015 | author=Axel Bojanowski | location=] | language=de}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/14/science/a-fascinating-growth-spurt-at-the-uturuncu-volcano-in-bolivia.html | title=Growth Spurt at a Bolivian Volcano Is Fertile Ground for Study | work=]| date=February 13, 2012 |accessdate=August 27, 2015 | author=JEAN FRIEDMAN-RUDOVSKY}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=MuirBlundy20142>{{cite journal|last1=Muir|first1=Duncan D.|last2=Blundy|first2=Jon D.|last3=Hutchinson|first3=Michael C.|last4=Rust|first4=Alison C.|title=Petrological imaging of an active pluton beneath Cerro Uturuncu, Bolivia|journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology|date=20 February 2014|volume=167|issue=3|doi=10.1007/s00410-014-0980-z}}</ref>}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| {{Commons category|Uturuncu|Uturunku}} | |||
| * {{cite gvp | |||
| | vn = 355838 | |||
| | name = Uturuncu | |||
| | accessdate = 27 August 2015 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite summitpost | |||
| | id = 153750 | |||
| | name = Uturuncu | |||
| | accessdate = 27 August 2015 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book|author=John Biggar|title=The Andes: A Guide for Climbers|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BXLsT8hzahYC|year=2005|publisher=Andes|isbn=978-0-9536087-2-0}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
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