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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques, axioms and beliefs, that adherents use primarily as an approach to personal development. NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as beliefs in human potential. The initial ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson.

NLP is based on the idea that if someone excels at something, we can learn how they do it and then teach it to others. NLP has several ways to effect changes in the way we think, learn and communicate. In principle all language and behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are highly structured and even a dysfunctional behavior is trying to satisfy a positive intent at some level.

History and development

Neuro-linguistic Programming is an eclectic field, and covers a wide array of aspects of personal development. NLP practitioners deal with issues ranging from reframing negative beliefs, to dealing with stage fright by reducing simple phobias, and more generally, communications and motivation. Some trainers offer techniques for psychotherapy, self-help, depression, or addiction, as well as peak performance assistance business or sports. NLP as an approach to therapy has been frequently de-emphasized as the primary purpose for NLP. At the same time, others within the NLP community consider therapy to be a core application, and advocate its importance. NLP and its techniques have been widely adopted for use in motivational seminars, adult education, and management and sales training, often being mixed with pop psychology and other applications outside of mainstream.

1970s: Founding and early development

Unrelated to computer programming or neuroscience, "Neuro-linguistic programming" denotes an interconnected relationship between mind and body (neuro), language patterns (linguistic), and the organization of those parts into systemic patterns (programming). It was co-founded and developed jointly by Richard Bandler and UCSC assistant professor of linguistics John Grinder under the tutelage of noted anthropologist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s and 1970s. At that time the Californian human potential seminars were developing into a viable industry. Alfred Korzybski had influenced Gregory Bateson and several schools of thought, including those at Esalen in California. Most notably, the idea that 'the map is not the territory' and ideas about human modeling were adopted by Bandler and Grinder. From 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an interest in the exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H. Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic Series (1975) and Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were published using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon worked with the co-founders and separately to contribute to the development of NLP.

1980s: New developers, new styles, and scientific assessment

In the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic Programming Volume 1 with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazardly by many individuals. During the 1980s John Grinder developed a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP which attempted restore a whole body systemic approach to NLP. Richard Bandler also published new processes with submodalities as in Using Your Brain: For a Change (1984). Meanwhile Anthony Robbins who taught NLP in the late 1970s, began mass marketing products incorporating aspects of NLP (renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning). Other practitioners and trainers modified, renamed and developed their own variations of NLP. Michael Hall offered NLP with Neurosemantics and Tad James offered NLP with Time Line Therapy. New and influential developers Judith DeLozier, and Connirae and Stephen Andreas also emerged during this time. Given the multiplicity of developers and trainers, there was to be no single definitive system of NLP.

In the late 1980s research reviews by Sharpley (1984, 1987) and by the United States National Research Council gave NLP an overall negative assessment. Thereafter, except for sporadic articles on NLP in different fields, there was a marked decrease in NLP research.

1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing

In July of 1996 after many years of legal controversy, Bandler filed a lawsuit against John Grinder et al, claiming retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and the sole right to use the term under trademark. NLP critic Margaret Singer quotes Bandler as saying the term NLP was "phrased on the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his occupation.". Contemporaneous with Bandler's suits in the US Superior Court, Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) asked the UK High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark "NLP", in order to clarify legally whether this was a generic term rather than intellectual property. The UK High Court found in favor of Clarkson, and that NLP was a generic term. Partly due to the legally-driven fragmentation of NLP practice, and partly due to lack of a defining and regulating structure to oversee the rapidly growing field, it seemed for a time that NLP could be (and was) promoted as the "latest thing", a panacea, or universal miracle solution. Dubious models and practices burgeoned, in parallel with bona fide. For a number of these new practices, profit, marketability or New Age appeal proved a stronger motive than realism or ethics.

2000s: Legal settlement, government regulation, and new fields

Whilst the NLP community became splintered, most NLP material acknowledged the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s. Around 2001, the law suits finally became settled with Bandler and Grinder formally agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Following the 1990s attempts to put NLP on a more formally regulated footing in countries such as the UK, some governments began certifying NLP course providers and their course, such as in Australia for example, where a graduate certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP":, the training standards and quality differed greatly. Since 1978, NLP practitioner certification had been set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The length of training varies from a short hobby course, to a 20 day course, to longer courses for trainers and professionals. However the multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to difficulty discerning the comparative level competence, skill and attitude in different NLP trainings.

Concepts and methods

Principles

NLP is predicated on the idea that our subjective reality drives beliefs, perceptions and behaviors, and that therefore behavior change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas is possible. Techniques based upon language patterns and body language cues derived from the observations of several therapists were described by the original developers as "therapeutic magic," with NLP itself described as "the study of the structure of subjective experience". NLP techniques are predicated upon the principle that all behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are not random, but have a structure which can be modeled.

The philosophy of NLP can be summarised in the idea of Korzybski and Bateson that the map is not the territory. That is, rather than acting directly upon the world, we act based on our maps of the world. Because these maps are limited and do not always serve us, the job of an NLP practitioner is to increase choice and flexibility with these maps; and then in the world. There are a number of aphoristic expressions which serve to construct practical models for learning and communication. NLP focuses on the present and thinks about past experiences, even failures, as resources so that there is no failure, only feedback. While this may not be necessarily true, by acting as if, for example, all human action has a positive intention it presupposes that at some level even the most negative behavior is attempting to express some positive intention. This serves as a means to arrive at what works rather than what is true and encourages the feedback cycle to drive the interactions. . This is also evident in the aphorism, the meaning of your communication is in the response. This early stance of Bandler and Grinder could be seen as anti-theoretical; at the same time, it encourages the individual to be responsible for their own learning by way of enriching personal resources and by freeing up their impoverished maps of the world.

Modeling

Neuro-linguistic Programming has developed progressively since its early development by Bandler and Grinder (1979) to include the modeling of successful approaches of exceptional people in any field, together with a set of useful strategies for setting and achieving desired goals. As Bandler and Grinder state "the function of NLP modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful." The purpose of modeling is to assimilate, through imitation, the behaviors of successful people, before transferring the skills to others or otherwise describing them. Belief, objectives, internal state and strategies can be described in terms of the organization and sequences of internal representations; they then have a discernible and communicable structure. Since behavior and its substrates — internal state and strategy — can be imitated and then codified, a person's skill can be learned by others. The aim of NLP modeling is to discover the elements of what the expert is doing of which the expert is not aware.

Core techniques

Main articles: Anchoring, Rapport, Meta model, Reframing, Perceptual positions

Though techniques vary between schools there are some core NLP techniques that are shared. In order to communicate more influentially, physical mirroring of posture, breathing or verbal mirroring of keywords, and sensory specific language (predicates) is used to facilitate and maintain rapport during a conversation. Furthermore, language pattern techniques from the meta model, such as how specifically and what specifically are used to elicit information or define outcomes for a client in psychotherapy, or more generally for information gathering in conversation. The meta model question may be combined with general language and use of metaphor, to induce trance, pace belief, and make interventions.

Numerous techniques have been designed for refining goals, elliciting resource states, or reframing negative beliefs. Most of these techniques rely on manipulating thinking processes or sequences of representational systems. One such technique called anchor involves associating a resourceful state to a certain touch. This resourceful state is then attached to a problem context by thinking about the problem context as the resourceful state is triggered by that same touch. Other techniques encourage thinking about different aspects of goals and objectives. For example in Robert Dilts' Neurological levels, strategic vision, spiritual aspects or other beliefs, as well as effects the proposed changes may have in the environmental context may be considered, whereas John Grinder, in New Code of NLP prefers to use the more general pattern of perceptual positions which temporily engages the points of view of others in a relationship by stepping into the shoes of the others involved.

Representational systems

When people are involved in tasks, internal representations are being engaged at the same time. You may be making conversation, kicking a ball or riding a horse, and visual, auditory, kinesthetic (and possibly olfactory and gustatory), sequences of representations are being activated to different degrees. These representations are either recalled or constructed. A person will also give away cues by way of eye gaze, breathing patterns or verbal predicates, as to what representational system is currently being predominantly used. Robert Dilts summarises the cues as to what representational systems are being used in the BAGEL model:

• Body posture (Head position, and lean)
• Accessing cues (Changes in tone and tempo of voice)
• Gestures (Timing, and position of gestures, for example, Auditory: rhythmic gestures)
• Eye movements (The movement of eyes, for example, Visual: eyes searching upwards or Auditory: eyes glancing side to side)
• Language patterns (Sensory specific language, for example, Visual: "to clearly understand" or Kinesthetic: "to grasp a concept")

Additionally, hemispheric differences were used to support the theory of representational systems in NLP. For instance, Robert Dilts once proposed that eye movements (and sometimes gestures) correspond to visual/auditory/kinesthetic representations and thus to sides of the brain. It has been claimed that eye movements to the left correspond with recalled memory, while eye movements to the right indicate construction. Representational systems are then connected to logic, analysis, and creative, imaginative duality. Modern neuroscience indicates that early NLP's notions of neurology were overly simplistic with regard to these left/right brain hemispheric differences. Further, there is little substantive evidence to support the idea that people have a primary visual, auditory or kinesthetic learning style.

Submodalities

A fundamental idea in NLP is that rather than responding to the world directly, we respond to our maps of the world. Internal imagery is a common theme in personal development, psychotherapy and sports. NLP adds to this the idea of submodalities, that is the subjective size, location and brightness of internal imagery, the volume and location of internal sounds, and the location and intensity of other sensations can increase or decrease the quality of our responses. A change in the submodalities will change the maps and then the way we respond in the world.. For example, the swish pattern is a visualization technique designed to change behaviors by switching (or swishing) the cue stimulus for an unwanted behaviour with the self-image doing a desired alternate behavior. As with most techniques, the imagined consequences of any proposed changes are also normally considered within a framework of ecology.

Milton model

NLP was in part derived from the work of Milton H. Erickson, an important figure in clinical hypnotherapy. The 'Milton Model' was created by Grinder and Bandler (1976) by modeling Milton's hypnotic techniques over many months. The Model, published in two volumes, lists the key parts of speech and key patterns that are useful in directing another person's line of thinking by being "artfully vague", and follows Milton's rapport technique of building rapport with his client by mirroring physical and verbal patterns. To model this requires attention being placed primarily on the client's responses. They also borrowed Erickson's notion of conscious and unconscious mind.

The Model is a means to use deliberately imprecise language to enable a person to work at an unconscious or somatic level rather than a cognitive level, to resolve clinical issues more effectively.

Those who emphasise the therapeutic application of NLP often use terminology borrowed from Erickson. They focus on hypnotic phenomena, such as, the use of unconscious communications, therapeutic metaphor, post-hypnotic suggestion, pain control, age regression, and enhanced sensory perception.

The Milton Model contrasts with the Meta Model and together the two form the basis of NLP.

Ecology

"Ecology" in NLP is used in the sense of "how disparate things co-exist in balance." Ecological thinking encompasses the exploration of behavior and how changes in behavior might have consequences in the environment or for other people, and the careful checking needed to ensure that all aspects of a situation are taken into account, such as the well-being of others involved, the ethics of the work done, the beneficial nature of goals sought, any secondary gains effected, and so on. If there are any objections, alternative resolutions may be found. The same process has been applied to business or conflict resolution and in this case could also be seen as a win-win philosophy. It is considered an essential principle in some training and explicit ecological checks feature in some NLP techniques such as the "six step reframe". This usage can also be seen in Gregory Bateson's 1972 collection Steps to an Ecology of Mind, published around the same time NLP was being developed. Bateson's influence can be found in map-territory, as well as systemic ideas that life mind and body are highly interconnected systems, and that multiple descriptions are better than one.

Reception of NLP

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Views neither supportive nor critical in various disciplines

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While NLP has been coordinated within some psychotherapy and industry associations, NLP has remained an eclectic field with no inherent controls over training and ethical standards. A literature review by Sharpley (1984) found "little research evidence supporting its usefulness as an effective counseling tool" and no reproducible support for preferred representational systems (PRS) and predicate matching. Einspruch and Forman (1985) broadly agreed with Sharpley but disputed the conclusions identifying a failure to address methodological errors in the research reviewed. They argued that the researchers lacked a full understanding of pattern recognition in an experienced NLP context and furthermore, that there was inadequate control of context, an unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy, inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous logical mistakes in the research methodology. Sharpley (1987) replied with more experiments stating "certainly research data do not support the rather extreme claims that proponents of NLP have made as to the validity of its principles or the novelty of its procedures.” and also that NLP may be untestable stating "perhaps NLP principles are not amenable to research evaluation. This does not necessarily reduce NLP to worthlessness for counseling practice. Rather, it puts NLP in the same category as psychoanalysis, that is, with principles not easily demonstrated in laboratory settings but, nevertheless, strongly supported by clinicians in the field."

Views of supporters in various disciplines

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Views of critics in various disciplines

Research reviews in the late 1980s suggested the techniques and underlying theory of NLP were both empirically unvalidated and unsupported. Subsequent peer-reviewed psychological and experimental NLP literature has been sporadic. Moreover evidence-based psychologists (eg. Lilienfeld, Beyerstein) are concerned about the adoption of scientifically unvalidated techniques such as NLP in the mental health profession and also the spread of misconceptions about how the mind works.

Elich et al (1985) stated that "NLP has achieved something akin to a cult status when it may be nothing more than another psychological fad" (p.625)." (p.625). NLP is considered a "dubious therapy" by Dryden (2001). and as a "dubious technique" by Keith Dobson in Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies (2001) . NLP has been criticized by some clinical psychologists, management scholars, linguists, and psychotherapists, concerning ineffectiveness, pseudoscientific explanation of linguistics and neurology, ethically questionable practices, promotion by exaggerated claims, and promises of extraordinary therapeutic results. Some reviews have characterized NLP as mass-marketed psychobabble. Sanghera, a columnist for Financial Times (London, 2005) writes, "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions"

Research reviews

Main articles: NLP and science, List of studies on Neuro-linguistic programming

Sharpley (1987) states “there are conclusive data from the research on NLP, and the conclusion is that the principles and procedures of NLP have failed to be supported by those data”. . In 1988 a report by Druckman and Swets from the United States National Research Council, found that "individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique". They also concluded influence techniques of NLP were unsupported (including matching representational systems to gain rapport). Moreover "instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors". They stated that the idea of modeling of expert performance "merits further consideration" but NLP itself was not included in a follow up study on modeling (amongst other matters) by Swets and Bjork (1991) except by way of acknowedgement for the idea which has been pursued through other disciplines.

Efran and Lukens (1990) stated that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy".(p.122).

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Extending from the lack of support for the efficacy of representational systems (PRS) in influencing trainers, Beyerstein asserts that "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies."

In Crazy Therapies (1996) Margaret Singer states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else".

According to Von Bergen et al (1997) NLP was dropped from the experimental psychology research stream. They stated that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error" and that "NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny" .

Donald Eisner (2000) in 'The Death of Psychotherapy', states that not "one iota of clinical research supports their (NLP proponents) claims. Apparently, no peer-reviewed researched has been published in over a decade. Moreover, there has been virtually no comparative research recently that assesses NLP's effectiveness." Eisner (2000) believes that with no clinical support, NLP proponents make grossly misleading claims about its effectiveness.

Devilly (2005) states that "controlled studies shed such a poor light on NLP and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers found it unwise to test the theory any further"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets"..."The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains".

Mental health practice

NLP is used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies, including the National Phobics Society of Great Britain. MIND, USU: Student Health and Wellness Center, the British Stammering Association, the Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism, and Advocates of Child Abuse Survivors. There has been little scientific research conducted to evaluate these NLP techniques for use in psychological care and interventions (psychotherapy). A notable example is V/KD or the cinema technique which has been taught alongside other "promising treatments" in trauma workshops. Other so called "power therapies" led by Professor Charles Figley include Thought Field Therapy or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, Emotional Freedom Technique and Traumatic Incident Reduction. These "power therapies" have been criticised for lacking substantive clinical support and for being pseudoscientific

Proponents of NLP use scientific sounding language and make exaggerated claims whilst relying on anecdotal evidence and testimonials, and there has been and remains a lack of peer reviewed literature. Furthermore, there have even been suggestions that NLP may be an untestable theory. According to Eisner, NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed thinking, and continues "There was great initial enthusiasm, but as time passed, it appears the so-called effective results have diminished or disappeared" Clinical psychologists have identified characteristics that help to separate unvalidated or scientifically unsupported approaches to psychotherapy from those based on the scientific method. According to Lilienfeld (2002) the majority of interventions in the psychotherapy and mental health context, including NLP, are unvalidated or scientifically unsupported which threatens to undermine the reliability of mental health practice.

Commercialization

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NLP is sometimes marketed as a science. This is evident in the popular titles such as NLP: The New Technology of Achievement. It is also evident in some marketing and advertising of NLP. Clinical psychologist Margaret Singer criticises NLP for appealing to science to raise its profile, stating that "none of the NLP developers have done any research to prove their models correct though NLP promoters and advertisers continue to call the originators scientists and use such terms as science, technology and hi-tech psychology in describing NLP"(p.172). Steve Salerno is more critical of NLP, portraying NLP as simply part of the self-help movement.

Corballis argues that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability. NLP has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable subdiscipline of neurolinguistics". Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states that (translated into English by Pieter Drenth) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming".

Implied religiosity and spirituality

Of NLP, Sociologist and Christian scholar, Stephen J Hunt says "it is a technique rather than an organised religion and is used by several different human potential movements" yet that it has an "implied religiosity".(p.195). Skeptics have described NLP as simply a "New Age" development, especially given its apparent lack of empirical evidence, but this also has religious connotations. Regarding spiritual practices, Dilts states that John Grinder was influenced by Carlos Castaneda's Don Juan in developing the "double hypnotic induction, perceptual positions", and "moving energies into other realities" (p.143). At the same time Grinder contends that any venture into personal beliefs of "spirituality" in psychotherapy or NLP would be an ethical violation. Dilts' 'Neurological Levels of Learning' are sometimes associated with the chakras with spirit linked to the crown chakra. David V. Barrett (2001) states that "the brief biographies of NLP Trainers usually give the names of the people they have trained under, this could be seen as similar to new Eastern origin religions tracing themselves back through a progression of gurus"(p.434), he states in his work The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions, NLP is not included as a religion; it is described as a technique or series of techniques, or a process. It is used by some religions, and NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are sometimes found in some religions, but "overall the balance comes down against it being labelled as a religion."(p.26)

Manipulation and ethical concerns

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Ethical concerns regarding NLP and persuasion tend to fall into two diametrically opposite camps:

• NLP is ineffective pseudoscience without foundation, and sells methods and products by hype which are worthless to the purchaser.
• NLP (done well) is extremely powerful, and there is no apparent way to control how these skills are used by individuals.

NLP is sometimes referred to by journalists and researchers as a kind of cult or psychocult. A German educational authority has forbidden the use of NLP in local schools, citing a similarity to Scientology. NLP has been described by Margaret Singer as a commercial cult, and has been criticised within the business sector for being coercive.

Critics say NLP is adopted as a pretext for applying ritual, authority control, dissociation, reduced rationalization, and social pressure to obtain compliance or to induce dependence. According to Devilly (2005) it is common for pseudoscientific developments to set up a granfalloon in order to promote in-group rituals and jargon, and to attack critics. Ethical concerns of NLP’s encouragement towards manipulation have been raised by exaggerated book titles such as The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP and NLP the New Art and Science of Getting What You Want. In contrast, therapy and coaching fields require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counseling Federation of Australia Ethical Guidelines).

Salerno has criticised NLP for unethically encouraging the belief in non existent maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal individuals . Salerno claims there is a contradiction in Tony Robbins becoming divorced while marketing products for the "perfect marriage", and that these actions disenchanted followers of Robbins. Drenth (2003) states that NLP is driven by economic motives and "manipulation of credulity" of clients, and that "often pseudoscientific practices are motivated by loathsome pursuit of gain". Drenth states this with reference to "victims of scientology, Avatar and similar movements".

Human resources

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Human resource professional Von Bergen considers NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training . Within management training there have been complaints concerning pressured adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion.

Education

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NLP views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds and encourages students take responsibility for their own states, and learning experience.. Furthermore Mathison and Tosey (2002) comment that this approach to learning and development appears similar in theory to Lev Vygotsky and constructivist learning theory.

Notes and references

1. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
2. ^ Dilts, Robert B, Grinder, John, Bandler, Richard & DeLozier, Judith A. (1980). Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I - The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Meta Publications. pp. 3–4, 6, 14, 17.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "nlpvol1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
3. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1979). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. 15, 24, 30, 45, 52.
4. ^ Tosey, P. Jane Mathison (2003) Neuro-linguistic Programming and learning theory: a response The Curriculum Journal Vol.14 No.3 p.371-388 See also (available online): Neuro-linguistic programming: its potential for learning and teaching in formal education
5. ^ Druckman and Swets (eds) (l988) Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques, National Academy Press.
6. Cite web: 'NLP Knowledge Centre'
7. Cite web: 'NLP Schedule'
8. ^ Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich (1997). Crazy Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work?. Jossey Bass. 0787902780. {{cite book}}: Text "p.169" ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "singer97" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
9. Cite web: ANLP News: NLP Matters
10. Platt, 2001, NLP - No Longer Plausible?
11. Guidance Counsellor's handbook, section 1.4.5: http://www.ncge.ie/resources_handbooks_guidance.htm section 1.4.5 (DOC)
12. Cite web: NTIS: Graduate Certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming
13. Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary". . Retrieved 2003. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
14. ^ Peter Schütz () A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training: A European perspective
15. Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1983). Reframing: Neurolinguistic programming and the transformation of meaning. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. appendix II, p.171.
16. ^ Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory". Communication and Cognition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1: 103–107, 105.
17. What is Neuro-Linguistic Programming.
18. Vaihinger, H. "The Philosophy of "As If." (originally published, 1924)". Routledge, Kegan and Paul Ltd, London, England. -. Retrieved -. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
19. ^ Dilts & Delozier (2000) The Encyclopedia of Systemic NLP
20. Jacobson, S. (1994) "Neuro-Linguistic Programming" INFO-LINE, American Society For Training and Development, . Adapted from
21. John Clabby, PhD; Robert O’Connor, MD (2005) "Teaching Learners to Use Mirroring: Rapport" Journal of Family Medicine Vol. 36, No. 8 p.541
22. Krugman, Martin, et al., (1985): "Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth?." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Aug, Vol. 53(4) pp. 526-530.
23. ^ Craft, A. (2001) The Curriculum Journal Vol.12(1) pp.125-136 Cite error: The named reference "Craft 2001" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
24. ^ Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. p. pp.xx, xxi, xix,62,197. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
25. Bandler, Richard, John Grinder, Judith Delozier (1977). Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume II. Cupertino, CA: Meta Publications. pp. p.10, 81, 87. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
26. ^ Corballis, M. in Sala (ed) (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain Author: Sergio Della Sala Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons ISBN 0-471-98303-9 p.41
27. ^ Drenth, J.D. (2003). [Pieter J.D. Drenth (2003) Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science in ALLEA Annual Report pp.60-72
28. Hines, Terence (1987). Left Brain/Right Brain Mythology and Implications for Management and Training. The Academy of Management Review, 12:4, 600-606.
29. Bandler, Richard (1985). . Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. pp. -. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
30. ^ Masters, B Rawlins, M, Rawlins, L, Weidner, J. (1991) "The NLP swish pattern: An innovative visualizing technique. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. Vol 13(1) Jan 1991, 79-90. "
31. ^ Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001.). Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises. pp. 127, 171, 222, ch.3, Appendix. -. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
32. Buckner, Meara, Reese, and Reese (1987) Journal of Counselling Psychology , Vol. 34(3), pp.283-287
33. Sharpley, C. F. (1984). Predicate matching in NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 238-248.
34. Einspruch, E. L., & Forman, B. D. (1985). Observations Concerning Research Literature on Neuro-Linguistic Programming. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(4), 589-596. See also:
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36. Elich, M., Thompson, R. W., & Miller, L. (1985). Mental imagery as revealed by eye movements and spoken predicates: A test of neurolinguistic programming. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(4), 622-625.
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Further reading

• Andreas, Steve & Charles Faulkner (Eds.) (1996). NLP: the new technology of achievement. New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-688-14619-8.
• Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0044-7.
• Grinder, John & Richard Bandler (1975). The Structure of Magic II: A Book About Communication and Change. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0049-8.
• Dilts, Robert B & Judith A DeLozier (2000). Encyclopaedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding. NLP University Press. ISBN 0-9701540-0-3.

See also

Philosophy relevant to NLP

• Empiricism
• Epistemology
• Constructivist epistemology
• Social constructionism
• Subjective character of experience
• Subject-object problem
• List of cognitive biases
• Consensus reality
• Philosophy of perception

Academic subjects relevant to NLP

• Cognitive science
• Communication
• Conceptual metaphor
• General Semantics
• Humanistic psychology
• Linguistics
• Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
• Transformational grammar

Other topics

• Four stages of competence
• Hypnosis
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Persuasion
• MKULTRA
• Paul McKenna
• Tony Robbins

External links

Associations

• Neuro Linguistic Psychotherapy & Counselling Association (NLPtCA) - Member Organisation of the UKCP
• European Association for Neuro-Linguistic Psychotherapy (EANLPt) - European wide accrediting organisation for NLPt
• Professional Guild of NLP
• Global Organisation of NLP
• List of German Associations
• IANLP International Association for Neuro-Linguistic Programming

Research

• Article addressing the scientific criticism on NLP research
• Database and review of academic research
• NLP Glossary
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP

Skeptics

• Criticism from Skeptic's Dictionary

• Articles lacking reliable references from December 2006
• Human communication
• Mind-body interventions
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming concepts and methods
• Pseudoscience
• Psychotherapy