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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques, axioms and beliefs, that adherents use primarily as an approach to personal development. NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as beliefs in human potential. The initial ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson.

NLP is based on the idea that all language and behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are highly structured. It seeks to uncover the structure of subjective experience and by modeling language and behavior, change beliefs and behaviors and treat traumas. It teaches that if someone excels in some activity, we can learn how they do it and then teach it to average performers in the same activity. NLP uses several techniques to effect changes in the way we think, learn and communicate.

NLP was and continues to be controversial as a therapy, and after three decades of existence remains scientifically unvalidated.

History and development

Neuro-linguistic Programming is an eclectic field, and covers a wide array of aspects of personal development. NLP practitioners deal with issues ranging from reframing negative beliefs, to dealing with stage fright by reducing simple phobias, and more generally, communications and motivation. Some trainers offer techniques for psychotherapy, self-help, depression, or addiction, as well as peak performance assistance business or sports. NLP as an approach to psychotherapy has been frequently de-emphasized as the primary purpose for NLP. At the same time, others within the NLP community consider psychotherapy to be a core application, and advocate its importance. NLP and its techniques have been widely adopted for use in motivational seminars, adult learning, and management and sales training, often being mixed with pop psychology and other applications outside of mainstream.

1970s: Founding and early development

"Neuro-linguistic programming" denotes an interconnected relationship between mind and body (neuro), language patterns (linguistic), and the organization of those parts into systemic patterns (programming). It was co-founded and developed jointly by Richard Bandler and UCSC assistant professor of linguistics John Grinder under the tutelage of noted anthropologist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s and 1970s. At that time the Californian human potential seminars were developing into a viable industry. Alfred Korzybski had influenced Gregory Bateson and several schools of thought, including those at Esalen in California. Most notably, the idea that 'the map is not the territory' and ideas about human modeling were adopted by Bandler and Grinder. From 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an interest in the exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H. Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic Series (1975) and Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were published using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon worked with the co-founders and separately to contribute to the development of NLP. Dilts & Delozier (2000) state "NLP is rooted in the synthesis of three areas of modern science: neurophysiology, linguistics and cybernetics (computer programming)" whereas more recent NLP academics such as Tosey and Mathison state it is unrelated to computer programming or neuroscience.

1980s: New developers, new styles, and scientific assessment

In the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic Programming Volume 1 with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazardly by many individuals. During the 1980s John Grinder and Judith Delozier collaborated to develop a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP which attempted restore a whole mind-body systemic approach to NLP. Richard Bandler also published new processes with submodalities and Ericksonian hypnosis as in Using Your Brain: For a Change (1984). Meanwhile Anthony Robbins who taught NLP in the late 1970s, began mass marketing products incorporating aspects of NLP (renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning). Other practitioners and trainers modified, renamed and developed their own variations of NLP. Michael Hall offered NLP with Neurosemantics and Tad James offered NLP with Time Line Therapy. New and influential developers Judith DeLozier, and Connirae and Steve Andreas also emerged during this time. Given the multiplicity of developers and trainers, there was to be no single definitive system of NLP.

In the late 1980s, Sharpley's (1984, 1987) research reviews in experimental counseling psychology and by the United States National Research Council gave NLP an overall negative assessment. Thereafter, except for sporadic articles on NLP in different fields, there was a marked decrease in NLP research.

1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing

In July of 1996 after many years of legal controversy, Bandler filed a lawsuit against John Grinder et al, claiming retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and the sole right to use the term under trademark. NLP critic Margaret Singer quotes Bandler as saying the term NLP was "phrased on the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his occupation.". Contemporaneous with Bandler's suits in the Supreme Court of the United States, Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) asked the UK High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark of "NLP", in order to clarify legally whether this was a generic term rather than intellectual property. The UK High Court found in favor of Clarkson, and that NLP was deemed to be a generic term. Partly due to the legally-driven fragmentation of NLP practice, and partly due to lack of a defining and regulating structure to oversee the rapidly growing field, it seemed for a time that NLP could be (and was) promoted as the "latest thing", a panacea, or universal miracle solution. Dubious models and practices burgeoned, in parallel with bona fide. For a number of these new practices, profit, marketability or New Age appeal proved a stronger motive than realism or ethics.

2000s: Legal settlement, government regulation, and new fields

While the NLP community became splintered, most NLP material acknowledged the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s. Around 2001, the law suits were finally settled with Bandler and Grinder formally agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Following attempts in the 1990s to put NLP on a more formally regulated footing in countries such as the UK, some governments began certifying NLP course providers and their course, such as in Australia for example, where a graduate certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). However, NLP continues to be an open field of training with no 'official' best practice. With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP":, the training standards and quality differed greatly. Since 1978, NLP practitioner certification had been set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The length of training varies from a short hobby course, to a 20 day course, to longer courses for trainers and professionals. The multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to difficulty discerning the comparative level competence, skill and attitude in different NLP trainings. According to Peter Schütz the length of training in Europe varies from 2-3 days, for the hobbiest, to 35-40 days over atleast nine months to achieve a professional level of competency

Concepts and methods

Principles

NLP is based on the idea that with our senses we are able to percieve only a small part of the world. Our view of the world is filtered by our experience, beliefs, values and assumptions. We act on our perception of the world rather than the real world. NLP calls each individuals perception of the world their 'map'. As an approach to therapy it involves recognizing unhelpful or destructive patterns of thinking and responding, people's impoverished maps of the world, then modifying or replacing these with more useful or helpful ones. Its practitioners hold that depression and anxiety are simply nominalizations and seeks to discover how an individual represents this experience so it can be interupted, contextualised or replaced a more useful pattern of behavior.

So this theory holds that in order to effect a change in behavior in the world we must first change our maps. An NLP practitioner seeks to free up impoverished maps of the world and enhance performance. The second important principle is 'modeling'. The founders, Bandler and Grindler started by analysing in detail and then copying the patterns used by successful psychotherapists and then using this model for communication and effecting change . It is self-described as the study of the structure of subjective experience. The third important principle is that all behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are not random, but have a structure which can be modeled. Therefore excellence in others can be modeled and the structure of ones own behaviors can be understood and changed.

The philosophy of NLP can be summarized in the idea of Korzybski and Bateson that the map is not the territory. Bateson's influence is not only found in map-territory but also systemic ideas that life mind and body are highly interconnected systems, and that every abduction may be better understood as a multiple description.

There are a number of aphoristic expressions which serve to construct practical models for learning and communication. NLP focuses on the present and thinks about past experiences, even failures, as resources so that there is no failure, only feedback. While this may not be necessarily true, by acting as if, for example, all human action has a positive intention it presupposes that at some level even the most negative behavior is attempting to express some positive intention. This serves as a means to arrive at what works rather than what is true and encourages the feedback cycle to drive the interactions. . This is also evident in the aphorism, the meaning of your communication is in the response. Treating the reponse as information enables the communication to be changed accordingly.

This early stance of Bandler and Grinder could be seen as anti-positivist; at the same time, it encourages the individual to be responsible for their own learning by way of enriching personal resources and by freeing up their impoverished maps of the world.

Modeling

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"Modeling" in NLP is the process of adopting the behaviors, language, strategies and beliefs of another. Neuro-linguistic programming approaches to human learning led to the development of a specific method of NLP modeling. This theory holds that masters of a skill often fail to take into account the implicit processes involved in carrying out complex skills when they are teaching novices. To combat these tendencies, NLP modeling methods are designed to unconsciously assimilate the tacit knowledge; what the master is doing of which the master is not aware. As Bandler and Grinder state "the function of NLP modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful." In order for modeling to be successful, the learner attempts to minimize preconceptions, must have access to the master (although modeling from books, historical records of people's words, or video is not unknown), must engage in unconscious micro-muscle modeling, and must be able to reproduce the desired skill accurately. "When modeling another person the modeler suspends his or her own beliefs and adopts the structure of the physiology, language, strategies, and beliefs of the person being modeled. After the modeler is capable of behaviorally reproducing the patterns (of behavior, communication, and behavioral outcomes) of the one being modeled, a process occurs in which the modeler modifies and readopts his or her own belief system while also integrating the beliefs of the one who was modeled."

Core techniques

Main articles: Anchoring, Rapport, Meta model, Reframing, Perceptual positions

Though techniques vary between schools there are some core NLP techniques that are shared. In order to communicate more influentially, physical mirroring of posture, breathing or verbal mirroring of keywords, and sensory specific language (predicates) are used to facilitate and maintain rapport during a conversation. Furthermore, language pattern techniques from the meta model, such as how specifically and what specifically are used to elicit information or define outcomes for a client in psychotherapy, or more generally for information gathering in conversation. The specifying questions may be combined with general language and use of metaphor, to induce trance, pace belief, and make cognitive interventions.

Numerous techniques have been designed for refining goals, eliciting resource states, or reframing negative beliefs. Most of these techniques rely on manipulating thinking processes or sequences of representational systems. One such technique called anchoring involves associating a resourceful state to a unique stimulus, that is a touch, word, tone, or gesture. This resourceful state is then attached to a problem context by thinking about the problem context as the resourceful state is triggered by that same stimulus. Other techniques encourage thinking about different aspects of goals and objectives. For example in Robert Dilts' Neurological levels, strategic vision, spiritual aspects or other beliefs, as well as effects the proposed changes may have in the environmental context may be considered, whereas John Grinder, in New Code of NLP prefers to use the more general pattern of perceptual positions which temporarily engages the points of view of others in a relationship by stepping into the shoes of the others involved.

Representational systems

Representational systems are our ways of perceiving the world through our senses and how we store and code the information in our minds. In personal development, meditation and sports psychology the idea of internal imagery is common place. NLP teaches that if we include what we will see, hear and feel the imagery will be more vivid and engaging because the subjective character of experience is strongly tied into, and influenced by, how memories and perceptions are processed within each sensory system. When people are involved in tasks sequences of representations are being activated at the same time. You may be making conversation, kicking a ball or riding a horse. At the same time you will be making sequences of internal representations made up of images, sounds, feelings (and possibly smell and taste). Moreover these representations are either recalled or constructed. The accessing cue model holds that the various cues indicate the type and sequence of these representations. Indicators include: direction of eye movements, changes in posture, shifts in breathing and use of sensory-based predicates. For example, "That looks good" indicates visual imagery, whereas "I have a firm grasp of the concept" indicates primarily kinesthetic processing at that time. Representational systems and submodalities are seen in NLP as offering a valuable therapeutic insight (or metaphor) and potential working methods, into how the human mind internally organizes and subjectively attaches meaning to events.

According to some NLP practitioners, problems can occur when people get "stuck" in one representational system. A more controversial idea that originated with NLP is that people have visual, kinesthetic or auditory learning styles. Learning styles and teaching styles theory has borrowed in part of representational systems. For example some students may prefer a visual learning style whereby ideas, concepts, data and other information are associated with images and represented graphically to enhance thinking and learning skills.

This idea was criticized by Sharpley (1984, 1987) and its importance has been subsequently deemphasized by some and retained by other practitioners.

Submodalities

Submodalities are the fine details of our representational systems. To internal imagery are added auditory and kinesthetic representations,, that is the subjective size, location and brightness of internal imagery, the volume and location of internal sounds, and the location and intensity of other sensations can increase or decrease the quality of our responses. A change in the submodalities will change the maps and then the way we respond in the world.. For example, the swish pattern is a visualization technique designed to change behaviors by switching (or swishing) the cue stimulus for an unwanted behaviour with the self-image doing a desired alternate behavior. If the subject is motivated toward by large, bright, colorful representations then the unwanted habit is made small and dark, while the desired outcome is imagined as larger than life, colorful and bright to make the outcome more inviting. As with most techniques, the imagined consequences of any proposed changes are also normally considered within a framework of ecology.

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In an empirical study using a heuristic qualitative methodology the submodality change process was testing for treating grief and mourning. The study suggested that manipulating certain submodalities can help the subject shift into more resourceful state and speed to healing process.

Meta model

Milton model

In the mid-early 1970s Gregory Bateson sent Bandler and Grinder to learn from Milton H. Erickson, an important figure in clinical hypnotherapy, with the objective of capturing the essence of Milton's techniques.

According to Norma Barretta (2004) NLP as a model was "primarily extracted from Grinder and Bandler's (1981) synthesis of Milton Erickson's patterns of hypnotic language."

The pair spent many months modeling and practicing being Milton. When they were confident they had mastered the skills, they began teaching others. The pair implicitly captured several language patterns and unconscious communication that Milton was using to communicate with his clients. The resulting milton model was published in two volumes, lists the key parts of speech and nonverbal patterns that are useful in directing another person's line of thinking by being "artfully vague" and metaphoric, and follows Milton's non-verbal technique of building rapport with his client by pacing verbal and nonverbal communication patterns. To model this requires attention being placed primarily on the client's responses. NLP also borrowed Erickson's notion of conscious and unconscious mind.

The Model is a means to use deliberately imprecise and metaphoric language to enable a person to work at an unconscious or somatic level rather than a cognitive level, to resolve clinical issues more effectively.

Those who emphasize the therapeutic application of NLP often use terminology borrowed from Milton H. Erickson and hypnotherapy. They focus on hypnotic phenomena, such as, the use of unconscious communications, therapeutic metaphor, post-hypnotic suggestion, pain control, age regression, and enhanced sensory perception.

The Milton model (general and metaphoric) contrasts with the Meta model (specifics and information gathering) and together these opposing models form the basis of NLP.

Ecology

"Ecology" in NLP is used in the sense of "how disparate things co-exist in balance." Ecological thinking encompasses the exploration of behavior and how changes in behavior might have consequences in the environment or for other people, and the careful checking needed to ensure that all aspects of a situation are taken into account, such as the well-being of others involved, the ethics of the work done, the beneficial nature of goals sought, any secondary gains effected, and so on. If there are any objections, alternative resolutions may be found. The same process has been applied to business negotiation or conflict resolution and in this case could also be seen as a win-win philosophy. It is considered an essential principle in some training and explicit ecological checks feature in some NLP techniques such as the "six step reframe". This usage can also be seen in Gregory Bateson's 1972 collection Steps to an Ecology of Mind, published around the same time NLP was being developed.

Soft science

Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, important figures in NLP, claim it has scientific roots stating "NLP is rooted in the synthesis of three areas of modern science: neurophysiology, linguistics and cybernetics (computer programming)" but goes on to say "In considering NLP as a science however, it is important to recognise that the epistemology of NLP is more 'subjective' and 'systematically' oriented than many 'hard' sciences, which tend to be more 'objective' and 'deterministic'. That is the patterns explored and identified by NLP are often necessarily contextual and influenced by the perceptual filters of the observer." and "As a scientific approach, then, NLP tends to be more 'qualitative' than 'quantitative' and more 'structuralist' than 'materialistic'" and "In fact from the NLP standpoint, "science" is a function of systematically developing and applying a particular set of perceptual filters, criteria and cause-effect beliefs."

In the introduction to The Structure of Magic Series, Gregory Bateson argues that Bandler and Grinder "create the beginnings of an appropriate theoretical base for the describing of human interaction." Bateson goes on to say that "The behavioral sciences, and especially psychiatry, have always avoided theory, and it is easy to make a list of the various maneuvers whereby theory could be avoided". Grinder and Bandler "have succeeded in making linguistics into a base for theory and simultaneously into a tool for therapy." ... "We already knew that most of the premises of individual psychology were useless, and we knew that we ought to classify modes of communicating." ... "Grinder and Bandler have succeeded in making explicit the syntax of how people avoid change and, therefore, how to assist them in changing. Here they focus on verbal communication" ... and "develop a general model of communication and change involving the other modes of communication which human beings use to represent and communicate their experience."

Drenth (1999) in Prometheus Chained, having classified NLP as a pseudoscience states "pseudo-scientists flirt with scientific terms and concepts, and suggest that they want to participate in the scientific debate, albeit in an anti-positivist manner." and goes on to say "but even for new theories and hypothetical frameworks, the requirement still holds that they should be scrutinized and tested on logical grounds and, in the case of empirical or experimental science, on the basis of empirical or experimental evidence" .

Drenth (2003) expands his argument in saying "Unlike diagnosis, predicition of human performance or behavior, and assessment, therapy is not a (applied) sciencific activity. Criteria for therapeutic activity is effectiveness, not verity; at stake is not whether it is true but whether it works". At first sight this would seem to accord with NLP's "what works" philosophy. However, Drenth, using NLP as his prime example, goes on to say "But what brings some of these therapeutic approaches into the category of pseudoscience is the claim that their presumptions are predicated on scientific understanding and scientific evidence."

The field of humanistic psychology views the usage of quantitative methods in the study of the human mind and behaviour as misguided and advises qualitative research methods. However, not only has NLP fared badly when tested under empirical science conditions, (see Research Reviews below) there is also an absence of an accumulated body of positive qualititive research.

In their book "Introducing NLP" (2002), originally published in 1990 and endorsed by both Dilts and Grinder, O'Connor and Seymour state "NLP is the art and science of personal excellence. Art because everyone brings their unique personality and style to what they do, and this can never be captured in words or techniques. Science because there is a method and process for discovering the patterns used by outstanding individuals in any field to achieve outstanding results. This process is called modelling,...". According to them, the name 'neuro-linguistic programming' simple denotes 'neuro' as in the idea that all behaviors stem from neurological processes of the senses, 'linguistic' because we use language to order our thoughts and behaviour and to communicate and 'programming' because of the ways we choose to organise our ideas and actions..

Grinder and Delozier (1984) argue that the epistemology of Gregory Bateson (and NLP) attempts to synthesize the overdrawn positions of empiricists (eg. David Hume and the logical positivists) and idealists (eg. Immanuel Kant and German Idealism) In Whispering in the Wind Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) make suggestions about what needs to be done next to "improve the practice and take its rightful place as a scientifically based endeavor with its precise focus on one of the extremes of human behavior: excellence and the high performers who actually do it." They ask those interest to work with researchers in cognitive linguistics and neuroscience to begin to improve the relationship with those fields.

More recent NLP academics such as Tosey and Mathison (2003) also have expressed NLP in terms of cybernetic epistemology of Gregory Bateson. Paul Tosey, University of Surrey, is the director of research project into the theory and application of NLP in teaching theory. At the same time they state that NLP is unrelated to computer programming or neuroscience.

Reception of NLP

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This article is missing information about The positive reception of NLP by the public, by publishers, by clinicians, and corporations. A reception section should detail the history of how NLP has been received everywhere, not just by psychologists and scientific reviewers.. Please expand the article by making an edit requestto include this information . Further details may exist on the talk page.

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Views neither supportive nor critical in various disciplines

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Views of supporters in various disciplines

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Views of critics in various disciplines

Peer-reviewed psychological and experimental literature in NLP has been sporadic. Moreover evidence-based psychologists (eg. Lilienfeld, Beyerstein) are generally concerned about the adoption of scientifically unvalidated techniques in the mental health profession (listing various forms of psychotherapies including NLP) and also the spread of misconceptions about how the mind works.

Elich et al (1985) tested the model that proposed a relationship between eye movements, spoken predicates, and internal imagery. They found no support for this model and then stated that "NLP has achieved something akin to a cult status when it may be nothing more than another psychological fad"

Cognitive neuroscience researcher Michael C Corballis argues that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability" and wrote "NLP has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable subdiscipline of neurolinguistics".

Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states (as translated in Prometheus chained) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises." Levelt opined "NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming".

Williams et al (2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience also includes an entry on NLP. Here it is characterised by "reading" automatic changes in skin color, muscle tension, eye movements, moisture on the lips and eyes, as well as other physiological responses, the NLP practitioner uses these cues to supposedly guide the client through issues related to identity, personal beliefs, and life goals. Evidence-based Psychologist Pieter Drenth has also characterized NLP as pseudoscience. Keith Dobson's handbook on CBT also lists NLP as a "dubious technique" .

Noting some proponents claim that NLP must work because it has lasted three decades, Journalist Satham Sanghera wrote in a 2005 in a Financial Times news column that "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions"

Research reviews

Main articles: NLP and science, List of studies on Neuro-linguistic programming

Sharpley (1987), coming from the positivist psychological tradition, stated that the techniques and underlying theory of NLP, as a counseling tool, were both empirically unvalidated and unsupported. A literature review by Sharpley (1984) found "little research evidence supporting its usefulness as an effective counseling tool" and no reproducible support for preferred representational systems (PRS) and predicate matching. Sharpley (1987) states "there are conclusive data from the research on NLP, and the conclusion is that the principles and procedures of NLP have failed to be supported by those data".

Einspruch and Forman (1985) broadly agreed with Sharpley but disputed the conclusions identifying a failure to address methodological errors in the research reviewed. They argued that the researchers lacked a full understanding of pattern recognition as part of advanced NLP training and furthermore, that there was inadequate control of context, an unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy, inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous logical mistakes in the research methodology.

Sharpley (1987) replied with more experiments stating "certainly research data do not support the rather extreme claims that proponents of NLP have made as to the validity of its principles or the novelty of its procedures." and also that NLP may be untestable stating "perhaps NLP principles are not amenable to research evaluation. This does not necessarily reduce NLP to worthlessness for counseling practice. Rather, it puts NLP in the same category as psychoanalysis, that is, with principles not easily demonstrated in laboratory settings but, nevertheless, strongly supported by clinicians in the field."

Druckman and Swets (1988) in a report from the United States National Research Council, found that "individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique". They also concluded influence techniques of NLP were unsupported (including matching representational systems to gain rapport). Moreover "instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors". They conceeded that the idea of modeling of expert performance "merits further consideration" but NLP itself was not included in a follow up study on modeling (amongst other matters) by Swets and Bjork (1991) except by way of acknowledgment for the idea which has been pursued through other disciplines.

Efran and Lukens (1990) stated that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy".

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Barry Beyerstein (1990) asserts that "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies." With reference to all the 'neuromythologies' covered in his article, including NLP, he states "In the long run perhaps the heaviest cost extracted by neuromythologists is the one common to all pseudosciences—deterioration in the already low levels of scientific literacy and critical thinking in society. "

Von Bergen et al (1997) state NLP was dropped from the experimental psychology research stream. They stated that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error" and that "NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny" .

Carbonell and Figley of Florida State University Traumatology published an exploratory study (1999) on Visual/Kinesthetic Disassociation a component of NLP and three other novel treatments or power therapies for trauma (Thought Field Therapy or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and Traumatic Incident Reduction), which was not designed to be a comparison study and the methodology used was the "systematic clinical demonstration (SCD) methodology. This methodology guides the examination, but does not test the effectiveness of clinical approaches". With reference to Brief Treatments for the Traumatized (including NLP) John Wilson states that while it is "adequately descriptive of the clinical procedures, there is little, if any, empirically validated dated outcome studies to substantiate a theory driven and research informed brief treatment (p. 173–207)."

Michael Heap (1988), a researcher in hypnosis, asserted that "the effectiveness of NLP therapy undertaken in authentic clinical contexts of trained practitioners has not yet been properly investigated." and further that "there is not, and never has been, any substance to the conjecture that people represent their world internally in a preferred mode which may be inferred from their choice of predicates and from their eye movements."

Donald Eisner (2000) in 'The Death of Psychotherapy', states that not "one iota of clinical research supports their (NLP proponents) claims. Apparently, no peer-reviewed researched has been published in over a decade. Moreover, there has been virtually no comparative research recently that assesses NLP's effectiveness." Eisner (2000) believes that with no clinical support, NLP proponents make grossly misleading claims about its effectiveness.

Lilienfield et al (2002),Evidence-based psychologists, in relation to NLP state "(Quick Fix + Pseudoscientific Gloss) x Credulous Public = High Income" and say that NLP is unvalidated and a New Age therapy.

Grant Devilly (2005) states that "at the time of its introduction, NLP was heralded as a breakthrough in therapy and advertisements for training workshops, videos and books began to appears in trade magazines. The workshops provided certification... However, controlled studies shed such a poor light on the practice, and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers began to question the wisdom of researching the area further and even suggested that NLP was an untestable theory"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets of the human resource community. The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains".

Mental health practice

NLP has been coordinated within some industry associations, psychotherapy associations, and has been used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies. NLP has remained an eclectic field with no inherent controls over training and professional code of ethics.

There has been little scientific research conducted to evaluate NLP techniques for use in psychological care and interventions (psychotherapy).

Under the veneer of scientific-sounding language and exaggerated claims, there is a lack of peer-reviewed literature and an over-reliance on anecdotal evidence. Psychologist Margaret Singer states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else". She criticizes NLP for appealing to science to raise its profile, stating that "none of the NLP developers have done any research to prove their models correct"(p.172).

According to Eisner, NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed thinking, and continues "There was great initial enthusiasm, but as time passed, it appears the so-called effective results have diminished or disappeared" Clinical psychologists have identified characteristics that help to separate unvalidated or scientifically unsupported approaches to psychotherapy from those based on the scientific method. Opining that proof of the validity of new practices falls on the proponents of these practices, evidence-based psychologist Lilienfield expresses concern that largely untested treatments, amongst which he includes NLP, comprise a major proportion—in some cases a majority—of the interventions delivered by mental health professionals. He raises concerns that unvalidated or scientifically unsupported mental health practices can be harmful, undermine the general public's confidence in our professions, eat away at the scientific foundations of our professions, and can lead individuals to forgo effective treatments.

Education

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NLP views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds and encourages students take responsibility for their own states, and learning experience.. According to Craft, "Neuro-linguistic Programming is best understood as a strategy which at fiŽrst sight appears to draw on constructivist theories of learning. However, I have raised some problems in both the strategy itself (first, the lack of awareness of learning and performance styles, in that although it comes from the perspective that individuals respond uniquely to the world, it nevertheless offers an experiential approach to learning" Furthermore Mathison and Tosey (2002) add that this approach to learning and development appears similar in theory to Lev Vygotsky and constructivist learning theory.

A German educational authority has forbidden the use of NLP in local schools, citing a similarity to Scientology.

Human resources

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NLP has influenced some corporate executive coaches, who provide one-on-one training and collaborative relationships to executive interested in developement skills in career or business and may help resolve related personal issues.

Skinner and Stephens (2003) explored the use the model of representational systems in television marketing and communications.

Human resource professional Von Bergen considers NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training . Within management training there have been complaints concerning pressured adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion.

NLP, Religiosity and Spirituality

Of NLP, Sociologist and Christian scholar, Stephen J Hunt states that NLP is an "alternative to Scientology" and "it is a technique rather than an organised religion and is used by several different human potential movements" yet that it has an "implied religiosity".(p.195). Skeptics have described NLP as simply a "New Age" development citing the USNRC study which found no hard empirical evidence for its efficacy. Regarding spiritual practices, Dilts states that John Grinder was influenced by Carlos Castaneda's Don Juan in developing the double hypnotic induction, perceptual positions and rechanneling of attention and energy to more appropriate contexts. At the same time Grinder contends that any venture into personal beliefs of "spirituality" in psychotherapy or NLP would be an ethical violation.

David V. Barrett (2001) states in his work The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions, describes NLP as a technique or series of techniques, or a process, and notes it is sometimes used by some religious sects. He states while "the brief biographies of NLP Trainers usually give the names of the people they have trained under... could be seen as similar to new eastern origin religions tracing themselves back through a progression of gurus", and that NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are sometimes found in some religions, "overall the balance comes down against it being labeled as a religion." Lilienfeld (2002) describes NLP as a New Age therapy.

Eisner (2000), Elich et al (1985), and Sharpley (1987) call NLP a cult. In his book 'Recovery from Cults' Michael Langone expresses a concern about the use of NLP and "hypnotic induction" by cults. Langone states "We know that NLP is also used by some very aggressive cults because the NLP method can be used by such groups to instill a reliance upon the cult, and provides a conditioning method to further induce compliance." Langone links NLP to est, Transcendental Meditation and Scientology in that it teaches that the "perceived world is an illusion" and describe NLP as "a tool for generating change for changes sake" .

Manipulation and ethical concerns

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Ethical concerns regarding NLP and persuasion tend to fall into two diametrically opposite camps:

• NLP is ineffective pseudoscience without foundation, and sells methods and products by hype which are worthless to the purchaser.
• NLP is extremely powerful, and there is no apparent way to control how these skills are used by individuals.

NLP is sometimes referred to by journalists and researchers as a kind of cult or psychocult.

In contrast with therapy and coaching fields which require an ethical code of conduct, concerns of manipulation have been raised regarding books such as The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP and NLP the New Art and Science of Getting What You Want.

According to Devilly (2005) it is common for pseudoscientific developments to set up a granfalloon in order to promote in-group rituals and jargon, and to attack critics.

Freelance writer Steve Salerno in his book SHAM states "NLP has shown up in many settings inside and outside SHAM" (his acronym for the Self-Help and Actualization Movement) but particularly aims his criticism at Anthony Robbins (Tony) who he claims "made NLP his own, refining it and personalizing it into what he christened "neuroassociative conditioning" (a claim with which other proponents of NLP would disagree; see history section). Salerno criticizes proponents of SHAM, including Tony Robbins stating it "actually fans the fires of discontent, making people feel impaired or somehow deficient as a prelude to (supposedly) curing them." He also claims that when working for SHAM publishers,"failure and stagnation, thus, were central to our ongoing business model".

Commercialization

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Described by Singer as a purely commercial enterprise. NLP is sometimes marketed as a science, such as in NLP book titles like NLP: The New Technology of Achievement.

Pieter Drenth (1999) having put NLP firmly in the category of pseudo science states "Partly it is a shrewd commercial formula, and the marketing. Just take the name. Why not PQR or BYG (believe in your own goal) or something like that?" and goes on to say "but even for new theories and hypothetical frameworks, the requirement still holds that they should be scrutinized and tested on logical grounds and, in the case of empirical or experimental science, on the basis of empirical or experimental evidence".

Cognitive neuroscience researcher Michael C Corballis argues that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability" and wrote "NLP has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable subdiscipline of neurolinguistics".

Notes and references

1. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1979). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. 15, 24, 30, 45, 52.
2. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
3. ^ Dilts, Robert B, Grinder, John, Bandler, Richard & DeLozier, Judith A. (1980). Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I - The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Meta Publications. pp. 3–4, 6, 14, 17.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Dilts et al 1979" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
4. ^ Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory". Communication and Cognition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1: 103–107, 105.
5. ^ Dilts, Robert B (2000). Encyclopedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding. NLP University Press. ISBN 0970154003. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Dilts & Delozier 2000" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
6. ^ Tosey, P. Jane Mathison (2003) Neuro-linguistic Programming and learning theory: a response The Curriculum Journal Vol.14 No.3 p.371-388 See also (available online): Neuro-linguistic programming: its potential for learning and teaching in formal education
7. ^ Druckman and Swets (eds) (l988) Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques, National Academy Press.
8. Cite web: 'NLP Knowledge Centre'
9. Cite web: 'NLP Schedule'
10. ^ Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich (1997). Crazy Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work?. Jossey Bass. 0787902780. {{cite book}}: Text "p.169" ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "Singer & Lalich 1997" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
11. Cite web: ANLP News: NLP Matters
12. ^ Platt, G. "NLP - No Longer Plausible?". Retrieved 2001. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) Cite error: The named reference "Platt 2001" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
13. Guidance Counselor's handbook, section 1.4.5: http://www.ncge.ie/resources_handbooks_guidance.htm section 1.4.5 (DOC)
14. Cite web: NTIS: Graduate Certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming
15. Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary". . Retrieved 2003. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
16. ^ Peter Schütz (Accessed 24th December 2006) A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training: A European perspective
17. Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1983). Reframing: Neurolinguistic programming and the transformation of meaning. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. appendix II, p.171.
18. What is Neuro-Linguistic Programming.
19. ^ Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. p. pp.xx, xxi, xix,62,197. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
20. ^ Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001.). Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises. pp. 127, 171, 222, ch.3, Appendix. -. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
21. Vaihinger, H. "The Philosophy of "As If." (originally published, 1924)". Routledge, Kegan and Paul Ltd, London, England. -. Retrieved -. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
22. (Bander & Grinder 1975, 1976; Einspruch & Forman 1985; Grinder & Bostic St Clair 2001).
23. Jacobson, S. (1994) "Neuro-Linguistic Programming" INFO-LINE, American Society For Training and Development, . Adapted from
24. ^ Einspruch, Eric L., Forman, Bruce D. (1985): "Observations Concerning Research Literature on Neuro-Linguistic Programming." Journal of Counseling Psychology. October, Vol. 32(4) pp. 589-596.
25. John Clabby, PhD; Robert O’Connor, MD (2005) "Teaching Learners to Use Mirroring: Rapport" Journal of Family Medicine Vol. 36, No. 8 p.541
26. Krugman, Martin, et al., (1985): "Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth?." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Aug, Vol. 53(4) pp. 526-530.
27. ^ Craft, A. (2001) The Curriculum Journal Vol.12(1) pp.125-136 Cite error: The named reference "Craft 2001" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
28. Hines, Terence (1987). Left Brain/Right Brain Mythology and Implications for Management and Training. The Academy of Management Review, 12:4, 600-606.
29. Felder, Richard, (1993) Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education." Journal College Science Teaching, 23(5), 286-290.
30. Bandler, Richard (1985). . Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. pp. -. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
31. ^ Masters, B Rawlins, M, Rawlins, L, Weidner, J. (1991) "The NLP swish pattern: An innovative visualizing technique. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. Vol 13(1) Jan 1991, 79-90. "
32. Miller, F. Clayton. (Nov 1997) The NLP loss pattern: Imagery and experience in grief and mourning. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. Vol 58(5-B) pp. 2691.
33. Norma Barretta. (2004) American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. Bloomingdale: Vol.46, Iss. 3; pg.261
34. Gregory Bateson Steps to an Ecology of Mind (1972) is cited in: Bandler and Grinder 1975, 1975 (epistemology); Dilts et al 1980; Dilts 1983; Grinder & Delozier, 1984; Dilts & Delozier, 2000; Grinder & Bostic St Clair 2001; Tosey & Mathison 2003; Malloy et al 2005
35. ^ Drenth, P. (1999) Prometheus chained: Social and ethical constraints on psychology. Vol. 4.4 pp.233-239 European psychologist
36. Pieter J.D. Drenth (2003) Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science in ALLEA Annual Report pp.60-72'
37. Joseph O'Connor, John Seymour (2002 (first published 1990)). Introducing NLP. London: HarperCollins. 1855383446. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
38. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2002). "Our Raisson D'etre". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 1(1): 20.
39. ^ Beyerstein. B.L (1990). "Brainscams: Neuromythologies of the New Age" (PDF). International Journal of Mental Health. 19(3): 27–36, 27.
40. Elich, M., Thompson, R. W., & Miller, L. (1985). Mental imagery as revealed by eye movements and spoken predicates: A test of neurolinguistic programming. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(4), 622-625. note: "psychological fad"p.625
41. ^ Corballis, M. in Sala (ed) (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain Author: Sergio Della Sala Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons ISBN 0-471-98303-9 p.41
42. Willem Levelt (1996) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguïstisch Programmeren! Skepter Vol.9(3)
43. Williams, W F. general editor. (2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience: From alien abductions to Zone Therapy, Publisher: Facts On File, New York.
44. Dobson, Keith (2001) The Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies, Second Edition p.331
45. Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be a loser, Financial Times (London, First addition p.9), Sanghera, Satham.
46. John E Thompson, Lisa Courtney, D Dickson. (2002) The effect of neurolinguistic programming on organizational and individual performance: A case study Journal of European Industrial Training. Bradford. Vol. 26, Iss. 6/7; p. 292 (7 pages)
47. Buckner, Meara, Reese, and Reese (1987) Journal of Counselling Psychology , Vol. 34(3), pp.283-287
48. Sharpley, C. F. (1984). Predicate matching in NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 238-248.
49. John A. Swets and Robert A. Bjork (1991) Enhancing human performance: An Evaluation of "New Age" Techniques Considered by the U.S
50. Efran, J S. Lukens M.D. (1990) Language, structure, and change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy, Published by W.W. Norton, New York. p.122
51. ^ Von Bergen, C W, Barlow Soper, Gary T Rosenthal, Lamar V Wilkinson (1997). "Selected alternative training techniques in HRD". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 8(4): 281–294.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Von Bergen et al 1997" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
52. Charles Figley (December 1997). The active ingredients of the Power Therapies. Conference for the Integrative and Innovative Use of EMDR, TFT, EFT, Advanced NLP, and TIR, Lakewood, CO.
53. ^ Bertoli (2003) The Use of Neuro-linguistic Programming and Emotionally focused therapy with Divorcing Couples in Crisis in in Charles R. Figley (Ed) Brief Treatments for the Traumatized: A Project of the Green Cross Foundation
54. Joyce L. Carbonell, Charles Figley (1999). "Promising PTSD treatment approaches: Systematic Clinical Demonstration of Promising PTSD Treatment Approaches". TRAUMATOLOGYe. 5:1, Article 4: -.
55. Wilson, John P. (August 2004) Review of Brief Treatments for Trauma and PTSD. PsycCRITIQUES. 49(4):472-474
56. Heap, M. (1988). Neuro-linguistic programming, In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices (PDF). London: Croom Helm.
57. ^ Eisner, D. (2000) The Death of Psychotherapy: From Freud to Alien Abductions
58. Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, Jeffrey M. Lohr (eds) (2004) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology
59. ^ Grant J. Devilly (2005) Power Therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry Vol.39 p.437 Cite error: The named reference "Devilly 2005" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
60. NLP is used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies:
    • National Phobics Society of Great Britain
    • National Phobics Society of Great Britain: List of treatments and help
    • Mental Health Promotions: How to Assert Yourself
    • USU The Student Health and Wellness Center: What are Eating Disorders?
    • Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism
    • Advocates of Child Abuse Survivors: Counselling and therapy
61. Schütz, P. "A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training". . Retrieved December 2006. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
62. Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.
63. Michael Sommer (1998) Esoterischer Spuk oder effektive Lehrmethoden?
64. Peter Bluckert (2004) The state of play in corporate coaching: current and future trends. Industrial and Commercial Training. Guilsborough Vol.36(2) p.53
65. Skinner, H. and Stephens, P. (2003). "Speaking the Same Language: Exploring the relevance of Neuro-Linguistic Programming to Marketing Communications". Journal of Marketing Communications. Volume 9, Number 3 / September: 177–192. {{cite journal}}: |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
66. Also appearing in the issue: Karen E Watkins (1997) Invited reaction: Selected alternative training techniques in HRD Human Resource Development Quarterly. vol. 8(4)
67. ^ Singer, Margaret (1995). Cults in Our Midst : The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace. New York, NY: Jossey Bass. ISBN 0-7879-6741-6.
68. Hunt, Stephen J. (2003) Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction ISBN 0-7546-3410-8
69. ^ David V. Barrett (2001) The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions Available online from Google Books. pp.434,26
70. Michael D Langone (Ed). Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse. New York, NY: W W Norton & Company.
71. Novopashin, A (2004) Totalitarian Sects and the Democratic State in International Conference in Novosibirsk: 9-11
72. Steve Salerno (2005) Sham: How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless, ISBN 1-4000-5409-5

List of most cited books

1. Bandler and Grinder (1979). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. (125 citations)
2. Bandler and Grinder (1975) The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy (112+ citations)
3. Joseph O'Connor (1995) Introducing NLP: Neuro-Linguistic Programming (53 ciations)
4. Bandler and Grinder (1981) Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning (36 citations)
5. Grinder and Bandler (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickon (31 citations)
6. Robert Dilts (1990) Changing belief systems with NLP (28 citations)
7. Bandler, R., Steve) and Connirae Andreas(Eds) (1985) Using Your Brain-for a Change (26 citations)
8. Michael Grinder (1991) Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt (23 citations)
9. Robert Dilts, Tim Hallbom & Suzi Smith (1990) Beliefs: Pathways to Health & Well-being (15 citations)
10. Virginia Satir, Grinder and Bandler (1976) Changing with Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human (14 citations)
11. Sue Knight (2000) Nlp at Work: The Difference That Makes a Difference in Business (12 citations)

Note: This list was compiled based on the number of citations listed in Google Scholar (accessed: 20th December, 2006).

See also

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Philosophy relevant to NLP

• Empiricism
• Epistemology
• Constructivist epistemology
• Social constructionism
• Subjective character of experience
• Subject-object problem
• List of cognitive biases
• Consensus reality
• Philosophy of perception

Academic subjects relevant to NLP

• Cognitive science
• Communication
• Conceptual metaphor
• General Semantics
• Humanistic psychology
• Linguistics
• Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
• Transformational grammar

Other topics

• Four stages of competence
• Hypnosis
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Persuasion
• MKULTRA
• Paul McKenna
• Tony Robbins

External links

Associations

• Neuro linguistic psychotherapy & counselling Association (NLPtCA) - Member of UKCP
• European Association for Neuro-Linguistic Psychotherapy (EANLPt) - European accrediting organisation for NLPt
• Professional Guild of NLP
• The Society of NLP
• Global Organisation of NLP
• List of German associations
• International Association for NLP (IANLP)

Research

• Article addressing the scientific criticism on NLP research
• Database and review of academic research
• NLP Glossary
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP

Skeptics

• Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary".

• Articles lacking reliable references from December 2006
• Human communication
• Mind-body interventions
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming concepts and methods
• Pseudoscience
• Psychotherapy