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{{Decadebox|134}} {{Decadebox|134}}
The '''1340s''' was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1340, and ended on December 31, 1349.
The '''1340s''' were a ] decade in the ], in the midst of a period in ] often referred to as the ] in the ] and the ] in the ].

In ], the successors of the old ] were in a state of gradual decline. The ] had already fragmented into several political territories and factions struggling to place their puppet leaders over the shell of an old state; the ] was undermined by religious unrest and fell to rebellion. The ] swept through the ] in 1346, and also affected the ] under Mongol siege, thence spreading into Europe. The ] in China was struck by a series of disasters, including frequent flooding, widespread banditry, fires in urban areas, declining grain harvest, increased civil unrest and local rebellion – the seeds of resistance that would lead to its downfall. ] remained free from Mongol power, with several small kingdoms struggling for survival.

In Europe, the decade continued the period of gradual economic decline, often mistitled the "depression" of the 1340s. This followed the end of the ] and the start of the ] in the ], and affected most of Western Europe, with the exception of a few Italian city-states. The state increasingly interfered in the social and economic life of the decade, while Europe entered a period which saw almost continuous war for the next century. The ] (1337–1453) between France and England continued, and ] led an invasion resulting in notable victories at the ] and ] in 1340 and 1346 respectively. The medieval crusading spirit continued in Spain, with a Castilian victory at the ] and the recommencement of the ] in 1340; and in the Baltic, with King ]'s ] against Novgorod in 1347–1348. In the east, the ], then ], saw the start of the disastrous ]. Meanwhile, a crisis of confidence in the Florentine banks caused many of them to collapse between 1341 and 1346.<ref name="Soto">Soto, p 70-71</ref> The ] which struck Europe in 1348 wiped out a full third of the population by the end of the decade.<ref name="Rothbard-p70">Rothbard, p 70</ref>

In Africa, the two great empires were the Christian ] in the east and the Muslim ] in the west. ], who had brought Ethiopia to its height, was succeeded in 1344 by ], who continued to foster trade in East Africa. ] ] assumed office in the Mali Empire in 1341, and similarly took steep measures to reform Mali's finances. ], which had emerged in this decade, was conquered by Mali for the time being.

In the Americas, cities of the ] such as ], ] and ] went into an accelerated state of decline in this decade. Factors such as depletion of resources, ], war, disease, social unrest and declining political and economic power have been suggested, although the sites were not fully abandoned until the 15th century. Central America saw the decayed ] ruled from their capital ] in the ], while the ] from their capital city of ] were on the rise.


{{Events by year for decade|134}} {{Events by year for decade|134}}

==Political leaders==
<gallery widths="125" heights="125" perrow="7">
File:Alfonso XI, king of Leon and Castile 02.jpg|{{flagicon|Castile and León}} ]
File:Edward III of England head.png|{{flagicon|Kingdom of England}} ]
File:Clemens VI.png|{{flagicon|Papal States|old}} ]
File:Phil6france.jpg|{{flagicon|Kingdom of France|valois}} ]

</gallery>


==Significant people== ==Significant people==
{{empty section|date=March 2016}} {{empty section|date=March 2016}}


{{Births and deaths by year for decade|134}}
==Births==
* ] – ]

==Deaths==
{{empty section|date=March 2016}}

==By country==
{{Empty section|date=July 2013}}

==Asia==
]

===Political developments===

====Mongol decline====
In the ], ] of the ] died in 1341, ending what Muslim chroniclers considered a golden age.<ref>Saunders, p 164, 165</ref> His elder son ] ruled for a year or two, before being dethroned and killed at the hands of his younger brother Janibeg in 1342.<ref name="Saunders165">Saunders, p 165</ref> Janibeg's fifteen-year reign was notable for the appearance and rapid transmission of the ] along the trade routes from ] in this decade.<ref name="Saunders165"/> The nation "struggled into new life" after the plague had passed in the following decade.<ref name="Saunders165"/>

The ] was being split by religious dissensions between the traditionalist Mongol adherents of the '']'' and the Mongol and ] converts to Islam.<ref name="Saunders172-173">Saunders, p 172-173</ref> The eastern half of Chagatai seceded under the conservative Mongol element when ] seized power in ] around 1345.<ref name="Saunders172-173"/> The Khanate continued in Transoxiana, but the Chatagai khans became the puppets of the now enthusiastically Muslim Turkish amirs, and the amir ] overthrew the Khan ] in 1347.<ref name="Saunders173">Saunders, p 173</ref>

In the ]n ], the Mongol ] had been extinguished in the male line with the death of Il-Khan ] in 1335, .<ref>Boyle, p 413</ref> As JJ Saunders wrote, "A crowd of competitors for the vacant throne started up, but of some history has scarcely condescended to record their names, much less their actions, and an interval of more than thirty years was filled with confused political struggles"<!--(until the emergence of ] in 1369)-->.<ref>Saunders, p 146</ref> Numerous claimants were set up in the 1330s; by 1339, the two rivals were ] set up by ], and ] supported by ].<ref name="Boyle-p415">Boyle, p 415</ref> In June 1340, the two Hasans and their rival khans met in battle on the Jaghatu; "Hasan-i Buzurg was defeated and fled to ], where he deposed Jahan-Temür and himself assumed sovereignty as the founder of the ]".<ref name="Boyle-p415" /> The deposition of Jahan-Temür can be regarded as the final dissolution of the Ilkhanate. Although his rival retained nominal power among the ] for another year or two, he in turn was deposed by Hasan-i Kuchak's brother and similarly disappears into obscurity.<ref>Boyle, p 415-416</ref> "So insignificant had these figureheads become", according to JA Boyle, "that we are not even informed as to the time and manner of their death".<ref name="Boyle416">Boyle, p 416</ref> Suleiman was replaced as puppet by Anushirvan, "in whose name his Chobanid masters continued to strike coin until 1353".<ref name="Boyle416"/>
<!--
In the 1330s, the claimants included ] (a great-grandson of ]); who was defeated by the ] candidate Musa (a grandson of ]); who was defeated by a great-grandson of ], set up as a claimant by ].<ref>Boyle, p 413-414</ref> ] passed off a Turkish slave as his long deceased father Temür-Tash, as a pretence to attract the supporters of the ] as well as the Oirat tribesmen who had fought under Musa.<ref>Boyle, p 414-415</ref>
-->

====China====
] posed a serious problem for the Yuan administration, effecting a recentralisation and regulation of power by the end of the decade]]
In China, the Mongol Yuan dynasty was in a gradual state of decline, due to complex and longstanding problems such as the "endemic tensions among its ruling elites".<ref name="Franke561">Franke, p 561</ref> ] had been installed as emperor at age thirteen in 1333, and was to reign as the last Yuan emperor until 1368.<ref name="Franke561"/> In March 1340, the Yuan chancellor, ], was removed in a carefully orchestrated coup, and replaced by his nephew ].<ref name="Franke572">Franke, p 572</ref> In Bayan's overthrow by the younger generation, the movement to restore the status quo from reign of ] effectively died.<ref>Franke, p 568, 572</ref> Bayan's purges were called off; his supporters dismissed; positions he had closed to the Chinese were reopened; the meritocratic system of examinations for official service was restored.<ref name="Franke573">Franke, p 573</ref> By this time, Temür had just begun to participate in the formal functions of state, and assisted in the "anti-Bayan coup": he issued a posthumous denunciation of his uncle ]; he exiled the grand empress dowager Budashiri and his cousin El Tegüs; and entrusted the upbringing of his infant son Ayushiridara to Toghto's household.<ref name="Franke573-574">Franke, p 573-574</ref>

Toghto's first term exhibited a fresh new spirit which took a predominantly centralist approach to political solutions.<ref name="Franke573"/> He directed an unsuccessful project to connect the imperial capital to the sea and the ] foothills by water; he was more successful in his attempt to organise funds for the completion of the official histories of the ], ] and ].<ref name="Franke573"/> In June 1344, however, he tendered his resignation following a series of local rebellions that had broken out against the Yuan in scattered areas of China.<ref name="Franke574">Franke, p 574</ref>

Toghto's replacement as chancellor was Berke Bukha, an effective provincial administrator who took the opposite, decentralised approach to Toghto.<ref>Franke, p 573, 574</ref> Bukha had learned firsthand from the great ] fire of 1341 that central regulations had to be violated to provide immediate and effective relief.<ref name="Franke574"/> Accordingly, he promoted able men to local positions and gave them discretionary authority to handle relief and other problems.<ref name="Franke574"/> Similarly, he granted local military garrisons blanket authorisation to prevent the spread of banditry.<ref name="Franke574"/> In 1345, Bukha's administration sent out twelve investigation teams to visit each part of China, correct abuses, and "create benefits and remove harms" for the people.<ref name="Franke574"/>

Bukha's approach failed to arrest the mounting troubles of Yuan China in the 1340s, however.<ref name="Franke574"/> The central government was faced with chronic revenue shortfalls.<ref name="Franke574"/> Maritime grain shipments — vital for the inhabitants of the imperial capital — had seriously declined from a peak of 3.34 million bushels in 1329 to 2.6 million in 1342.<ref>Franke, 574–575</ref> From 1348 on, they continued only when permitted by a major piratical operation led by Fang Kuo-chen and his brothers, which the authorities were unable to suppress.<ref name="Franke575">Franke, p 575</ref> Additionally, the ] was repeatedly swelled by long rains, breaching its dykes and flooding the surrounding areas.<ref name="Franke575"/> When the river finally began shifting its course, it caused "widespread havoc and ruin".<ref name="Franke575"/> In 1349, the emperor recalled Toghto to office for a second term.<ref name="Franke575"/> With high enthusiasm and strong belief from his partisans that the problems were soluble, he began a radical process of recentralisation and heavy restriction of regional and local initiative in the following decade.<ref name="Franke575"/>

====India====
* Founding of the ] in central India
* Wars between the Muslims of the north and the Hindus of the ] in India
* In 1341, the ] chose ] to lead a diplomatic mission to ].<!--Copied from ] article-->{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} ] travels throughout Asia

====Ottoman Empire====
* Turkish attacks on the Aegean, Bulgaria, and the Byzantine Empire

===Society and economy===

===Culture, religion and philosophy===
Pope ] had despatched the Italian Franciscan ] in 1339, who travelled safely through the Yuan territories of ] and ] during the ] and reached the imperial capital of Ta-tu<!--source: "Peking"; today: "Beijing"--> in 1342.<ref name="Saunders153">Saunders, p 153</ref> He was received in an audience with Toghon Temür, to whom he presented some large European horses — their bulk, according to JJ Saunders, "surprised Chinese and Mongols alike, accustomed as they were to the small, wiry animals of the ]".<ref name="Saunders153"/> Marignolli stayed in China for five years, departing by ship in 1347 and returning to Avignon in 1353.<ref>Saunders, p 153-154</ref>

====Military technology====
* The poet ] wrote the ''Iron Cannon Affair'' in 1341, detailing the destructive use of ] and the cannon.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Artillery : a History.|last=John.|first=Norris|date=2013|publisher=The History Press|isbn=9780750953238|location=New York|oclc=856868990}}</ref>

==Europe==

===Political developments===

====War and decline in Western Europe====
{{see also|Hundred Years' War (1337–1360)}}
In Europe, the decade continued the period of gradual economic decline,<ref name="R67">Rothbard, p 67</ref> which followed the end of the ] and the start of the ] in the ]. This secular decline, often mistitled a "depression", affected most of Western Europe, with the exception of a few Italian city-states.<ref name="R67"/> It was the result of factors which had begun earlier in the century, the main cause being the breaking of the balance between Church and state.<ref name="R67"/> The more dominant state increasingly interfered in the social and economic life of late medieval Europe, imposing detrimental taxation and regulation.<ref name="R67"/> King ] faced a brief standoff with some dissident barons in 1341 — one of only two such isolated standoffs in his popular reign.<ref>Hollister, p 269</ref> Meanwhile, the role of the ] became more defined, with the ] regularly petitioning Edward from about 1343 onward.<ref>Hollister, p 278</ref>

] in ] was the first great land battle of the ]. In the 1340s, Europe entered a century of virtually continuous war.]]
<!--] of ]; his arms show his claim to both France and England]]-->
Europe entered a period which saw almost continuous war for the next century.<ref name="R67"/> Fighting took place in the ], "a country well suited to guerilla warfare", from 1342–1365 in the ].<ref>Fossier, p 69</ref> The ] (1337–1453) between France and England continued, and Edward III led an invasion resulting in a number of victories. One of the earlier English victories was at the naval ] in 1340, which annihilated the French fleet and gave the English control of the ] for several years.<ref name="H272">Hollister, p 272</ref> The initial campaigns were frustrating and expensive, so Edward altered his strategy to use English armies that were lightly supported but prepared to ] off the land.<ref name="H272"/> It successfully established English control over ] in 1342.<ref name="H272"/> Further armies were sent to Brittany and ] in 1345, and Edward himself crossed the Channel in 1346 with 10,000 men — an enormous army by contemporary standards.<ref name="H272"/> They ], an important town in ], and eventually began moving back toward the Channel.<ref name="H272"/>

In 1346, the Battle of Crecy became the first great land battle of the Hundred Years' War, and the most stunning victory of Edward's career.<ref name="H272"/> English longbowmen crippled the French knights for many years to come, allowing Edward to take the key Channel port of ] in 1347.<ref name="H272"/> Meanwhile, public discontent caused the town of ] to riot in 1347.<ref>Fossier, p 38</ref> Importantly, the English campaign of the 1340s "brought the hegemony of high medieval France to a decisive close."<ref name="H272"/>

====Central Europe====
Expand on:
* ]

In the ], ] was in conflict with the ].<ref name="Rendina378">Rendina, p 378<!--Source gives "Charles" as "Karl"--></ref> Pope Clement VI influenced the German ]s to elect ] as rival king to Ludwig.<ref name="Rendina378"/> He was crowned in 1346 in ].<ref name="Rendina378"/> After the death of Emperor Ludwig in September 1347, Charles IV was recognised as ] by all of the German princes.<ref name="Rendina378"/>

In 1341, ], Countess of ], had expelled her husband ]. She then married ], a son of Ludwig, without an annulment of her previous marriage. The result was the ] of the couple.<!--Copied from ] article-->{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Meanwhile, in 1342, ] became part of ].<!--Copied from ] article-->{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}

====Northern Europe====
{{further|Northern Crusades|Crusader states}}
]
In 1340, a German law-code was drawn up by the ] for their long-settled ] district of ].<ref name="Christiansen210">Christiansen, p 210</ref> The code defined two categories of people: the unfree, who came under peasant law (''Gebauersrecht'') and were consigned to the jurisdiction of their lords; and the freedmen.<ref name="Christiansen210"/> The latter group included peasants who had the right to demand trial by the written code and could not be sentenced to death in private courts.<ref name="Christiansen210"/> However, an appendix to the law-code also made it clear that the ] peasant converts were discriminated against by the Teutonic Knights, and were allowed remain "semi-pagan, uncouth and lawless".<ref name="Christiansen211">Christiansen, p 211</ref> Such treatment shocked contemporary commentators such as ].<ref name="Christiansen211"/>

The ] had disintegrated in the ], but was restored in 1340 by ] after a long interregnum.<ref name="Christiansen200">Christiansen, p 200</ref> In the Danish crusader state of ], some 80% of the indigenous population was subject to immigrant lords, to whom they owed tithe and military duty.<ref name="Christiansen212">Christiansen, p 212</ref> When the lords reacted to falling grain-prices by increasing the level of tithe, which led to the ] in 1343.<ref name="Christiansen212"/> On 23 April, the Estonians rose up and killed their masters — German sources give a figure of 18,000 dead as a result of the uprising, although this total is unlikely.<ref name="Christiansen212"/> The Danish government in Estonia was overthrown when a major group of vassals in Tallinn handed over castles to the Teutonic Order in 1344–1345.<ref name="Skyum-Nielsen129">Skyum-Nielsen, p 129</ref> Beset by pressing problems at home and unable to break the monopoly of the ] at sea, Valdemar decided to sell the territory to the master of the Teutonic Order for 10,000 marks.<ref name="Christiansen200"/> The final sale was approved by the king's Danish counsellors, and the shift of sovereignty took place on 1 November 1346.<ref name="Skyum-Nielsen129"/>

]" or ] of the ], which officially became independent by the ] in 1348]]
In ], the court was continually reminded of its religious duties by Bridget of Sweden, who was the king's cousin and beginning to win fame as a prophetess.<ref name="Christiansen190">Christiansen, p 190</ref> Her primary aim was to reform and purify the upper class, and her posthumously complied ''Revelations'' contain thoughts on the ] which must have been expressed in the 1344–1348 period.<ref name="Christiansen190"/> After King ] had tried and failed to take possession of Denmark in the early 1340s, she advised him not to offend his people by raising taxes to fund wars against their co-religionists, but instead to raise taxes only for self-defence or in crusading against unbelievers.<ref name="Christiansen190"/> Therefore, after Magnus had at least temporarily resolved difficulties at home, he prepared for a crusade against the ] Novgorod.<ref>Christiansen, p 191-192</ref> Envoys were sent to the Russians in 1347, and an army was assembled that included Danish and German auxiliaries, and the support of Henry of Rendsburg.<ref>Christiansen, p 192</ref> The army set sail for the campaign in 1348.<ref name="Christiansen193" />

Accordingly, there were political divisions in the Russian states in this decade. The southern territories of ] had been subjugated by Prince ] in 1346, and ] had failed to intervene.<ref>Christiansen, p 191</ref> The city was divided between competing ] factions, and the lack of unity between Novgorod and her allies allowed for the success of Magnus' campaign of 1348.<ref>Christiansen, p 191 & 193</ref> ] officially broke away from Novgorod that year;<ref>Nossov (2007), p 8</ref> and Simeon was again delayed in helping against the Swedes, this time by business with his overlord, the Khan of the ].<ref name="Christiansen193">Christiansen, p 193</ref> Orekhov was taken by the Swedes, although it was to fall in 1349.<ref name="Christiansen193"/>

====Eastern Europe====
{{further|Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347}}
Areas to expand on:
* ] within the ]
* ] becomes ] (1342)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire|last=Lawler|first=Jennifer|publisher=McFarland|year=2011|isbn=978-1476609294|location=|pages=326}}</ref><!--Copied from ] article-->
* Guy de Lusignan becomes King ] (1342).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks|last=Stewart|first=Angus Donal|publisher=Brill|year=2001|isbn=9004122923|location=|pages=185}}</ref><!--Copied from ] article-->
* The ] is transferred to ] under Ignatius II (1342).<!--Copied from ] article--><ref>{{cite web |title=Primates of the Apostolic See of Antioch |url=http://ww1.antiochian.org/patofant/primates |website=Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese |publisher=Primates of the Apostolic See of Antioch |accessdate=3 April 2020}}</ref>
* ]
* Serbian expansion
* In 1342, ] became King of ].<!--Copied from ] article--><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-I-king-of-Hungary |website=Britannica |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |accessdate=3 April 2020}}</ref>
* ]

====Southern Europe====
**] sacked by ] (1341).<!--Copied from ] article-->{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}
** In 1342, ] became King of ] and ].<!--Copied from ] article-->{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}
** An earthquake and ] of 1343 devastated the ].<!--Copied from ] article--><ref>{{Cite web|last=Del Lungo|first=Stefano|date=July 2012|title=Reckless foundations, Natural disasters or Divine punishment in the 14th century Italian culture (the storm or tsunami of Amalfi in 1343)|url=https://www.academia.edu/26091361/Reckless_foundations_Natural_disasters_or_Divine_punishment_in_the_14th_century_Italian_culture_the_storm_or_tsunami_of_Amalfi_in_1343_|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=June 18, 2020|website=Research Gate}}</ref>

In ], the general despair brought on by the Plague and the absence of the Pope have been cited as possible causes for the rise of the Roman notary ]: in 1347, he assumed the title of ] and claimed to restore the ].<ref name="Fossier105">Fossier, p 105</ref> He utilised popular rhetoric, and invited the men of ] to sack the palaces of the fleeing Roman nobility.<ref name="Fossier105"/> Cola tried to establish direct government with elections in the '']'' of the city, but he lacked the means to take the ] and he was cut down by the Roman aristocracy in 1354.<ref name="Fossier105"/>

] coin of ], dated circa 1345.]]
There were several rulers of the Kingdoms of Spain in the 1340s. ] ruled until the end of the decade as ].<ref name="Davies393">Davies, p 393</ref> Castile and León surrounded Granada by land, and Alfonso advanced the Christian '']''.<ref name="Davies393"/> In 1340, at the ], he won the first Castilian victory over the ] for over a century, and crossed the straits to ].<ref name="Davies393"/> In ], he attacked Gibraltar, but was unable to conquer it.<ref>O'Callaghan, p 212</ref>

] ruled from 1336 as ], ], ], ] and ].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} By 1343, Aragon had acquired the ],<ref>Fossier, p 66</ref> and in 1344 Peter deposed ] to become ] himself.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} ] was ruled by ] until 1343, his ] wife ] until 1349, and finally ] ruled into the late 14th century. The ] was meanwhile ruled by ], from 1325 until his death in 1357.

===Society and economy===

====Fashion====
]'', completed c. 1340.]]
{{see also|1300–1400 in fashion}}

====Economic collapse and crisis====
To finance the continuing wars of the 1340s, Edward III of England granted to a small group of merchants a ] on the export of wool.<ref name="Rothbard221">Rothbard, p 221</ref> In return, they agreed to collect the "]", or wool tax, on his behalf.<ref name="Rothbard221"/> This included a ] on the import of woolen cloth, which put out of business the Italian and foreign merchants that had dominated the wool export trade.<ref name="Rothbard221"/> The monopoly merchants went bankrupt in the following decade.<ref name="Rothbard221"/>

Edward also introduced three new gold coins in 1344: the ], ], and ]. However, the gold content of these coins did not match their respective value of 6 shillings, 3 shillings, and 1 shilling and sixpence, so they had to be withdrawn and mostly melted down by August of that year.<!--Copied from ] article-->{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}

In France, the king's personal expenditure on dowries, gratuities, the upkeep of the palace, his travels and his wardrobe, consumed the entirety of the royal income.<ref>Fossier, p 113</ref> Therefore, a monopoly on ], an essential commodity, was established in 1341; monopolies in salt had already been established in ] and ] in the ].<ref name="Fossier34">Fossier, p 34</ref> The French salt tax or '']'' itself never amounted to more than 2%.<ref name="Fossier34"/> '']s'' were also levied in 1342 and 1349.<ref>Fossier, p 115</ref>

The Italian city states were booming at the start of the decade. In 1340, ] wrote his '']''.<ref>Fossier, p 99</ref> Meanwhile, rulers such as the Neapolitan princes had begun withdrawing massive funds from ] banks.<ref name="Soto"/> England found itself unable to repay its debts, and both factors resulted in a ] in the Florentine banks<ref name="Soto"/> The family-based banks and mercantile associations of Florence and Genoa generally kept only 25–30% of their ] in ]s,<ref name="Fossier100">Fossier, p 100</ref> and between 1341 and 1346, many of the most important of the Florentine banks collapsed.<ref name="Soto"/> — an "avalanche of bankruptcies", in the words of Robert Fossier.<ref name="Fossier100"/> These were owned by the following banking families: the ]s, the ]s, the ]s, the ]s, the ]s, the ], the ]s, the ]s and the ].<ref name="Soto"/>

====Social unrest====
The situation in the towns remained delicate: while on one hand the trades were dominant, and ] counted no fewer than 200 textile workshops in Florence around 1340, working conditions and entry restrictions imposed by the guilds created tensions with the unemployed and unskilled labourers.<ref>Fossier, p 102</ref> ] or ''grèves'' occurred in ] in 1337–1345 and in Florence in 1346.<ref>Fossier, p 107</ref> In 1349–1350, the ] and ] of Ghent and ] massacred each other.<ref>Fossier, p 104</ref> The failures in the food supply in the regions of ] and ], in 1340 and 1348 respectively, affected contemporaries particularly harshly.<ref name="Fossier40">Fossier, p 40</ref> This was not just because these generations were unused to them, but because they were accompanied by war and followed by epidemic in this decade.<ref name="Fossier40"/>

====The Black Plague====
{{main|Black Death}}
[[Image:Bubonic plague-en.svg|thumb|left|Spread of plague in the 1340s:
{{legend|#a1584e|1347}} {{legend|#FF7F50|mid-1348}} {{legend|#ED9121|early-1349}} {{legend|#fad07d|late-1349}} {{legend|#50C878|Areas that escaped with minor plague outbreak}}]]
In 1340, the total population of Europe was 54 million; by 1450, it would be 37 million, a 31% drop in only a century.<ref name="R67"/> In addition to the earlier social and economic decline, the ] is identified as the superficial cause, which struck Europe and wiped out a full third of the population in short space of 1348–1350.<ref name="Rothbard-p70" /><ref name="R67"/> It has been described as "a pandemic of plagues such as the world had not seen since the sixth century and was not destined to see again till the ]."<ref name="Davies409">Davies, p 409</ref> It was actually three related diseases: ] and ], carried by fleas hosted by the ], and ], the especially fast and lethal airborne variant.<ref name="Davies409"/> The few areas that escaped included ],<ref name="Davies411">Davies, p 411</ref> ],<ref name="Fossier55">Fossier, p 55</ref> ] in France,<ref name="Fossier55"/> ] in ],<ref name="Davies411"/> and the county of ] in the ].<ref name="Davies411"/> It has been suggested that these areas were spared due to the predominance of O-], which had only recently taken root in the heartlands of Europe, although this hypothesis has yet to be proven.<ref name="Fossier55"/>

The pandemic, which began in central Asia, was first reported in Europe in the summer of ].<ref name="Davies409"/> The ] colony of ] in the ] was besieged by the ], who catapulted plague-ridden corpses into the city.<ref name="Davies409"/> The defenders carried the disease back to Italy; in October 1347 it reached ] in ],<ref name="Davies409"/> in December a ship carried the plague into Marseille,<ref name="Fossier53">Fossier, p 53</ref> and by January 1348 it was in Genoa.<ref name="Davies409"/> The plague then moved northward through France.<ref name="Hollister283">Hollister, p 283</ref> According to the French monk ]:

{{quote|Victims were only ill for two or three days and died suddenly, their bodies almost sound… They had swellings in the armpits and groin, and the appearance of these swellings was an unmistakable sign of death… Soon, in many places, of every twenty inhabitants only two remained alive. The mortality was so great at the hospital of ] that for a long time more than 500 bodies were carried off on wagons each day, to be buried at the cemetery of the Holy Innocents.<ref name="Hollister283"/>}}<!--

-->The reasons for the plague's success are not yet entirely understood.<ref name="Fossier53"/> Urban overcrowding,<ref name="Fossier53"/> declining sanitary conditions<ref name="Fossier53"/> and the "lively European trade in (rat-infested) grain" have been cited as causes of the plague's rapid transmission;<ref name="Hollister283"/> while favourable climatic conditions and the summer months may also have aided its spread.<ref name="Fossier53"/> In the summer of 1348 it reached England, arriving first at ] in ].<ref name="Hollister283"/> It had spread through the southwestern shires to ] by winter.<ref name="Hollister283"/> It peaked in the summer of 1349,<ref>Hollister, p 283-284</ref> when it was passed on into ] and ], and in winter it was in ], ] and ].<ref name="Fossier53"/>

In general, towns were hit more severely than rural areas, the poor more than the rich, and the young and fit more than the old and infirm.<ref name="Davies412">Davies, p 412</ref> Norman Davies generalises that "No pope, no kings were stricken."<ref name="Davies412"/> Hundreds died in each parish, although some figures may have been exaggerated.<ref name="Hollister284" /> ], a city that did not exceed 17,000, was reported as having lost 57,000.<ref>Smith, p 28</ref> The Italian humanist ] records a loss of 100,000 in Florence, exceeding the total population of the city.<ref name="Davies412"/> The figure was probably closer to 50,000.<ref name="Davies412"/> Regardless, modern studies make it clear that the plague's toll in this decade was heavy.<ref name="Hollister284">Hollister, p 284</ref>

Heaviest hit were the clergy, who were brought into direct contact with plague victims. Guillaume de Nangis records that "some monks and friars, being braver, ]", and that the sisters at the hospital of Paris, "fearless of death, carried out their task to the end with the most perfect gentleness and humility. These sisters were all wiped out by death…"<ref name="Hollister283"/> In the ] and ], about 44% of the clergy perished, while nearly 50% died in the ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Hollister284"/> In all, half of the English clergy may have died.<ref name="Hollister284"/>

In 14th century England, the Black Plague "served as a somber backdrop to a deepening economic crisis… and growing social tensions and religious restlessness."<ref>Hollister, p 282</ref> Villages were deserted, herds were untended, wool and grain markets were crippled and land values plummeted.<ref name="Hollister285">Hollister, p 285</ref> The plague would strike periodically in subsequent decades.<ref name="Hollister285"/> However, it is also suggested that in Europe in general, the Black Plague solved the economic recession, in that the reduction in population returned the ] per capita to its pre-crisis level, laying the foundation for recovery.<ref>Soto, p 71</ref> Wages rose, and the peasantry benefited from a more open, fluid society.<ref name="Hollister285"/><sup>]]</sup> At the end of the decade, the economic effects of the Black Plague "may well have been more purgative than toxic."<ref name="Hollister285"/>

===Culture, religion and philosophy===

====Architecture====
], completed in 1345]]
{{see also|14th century in architecture}}
A number of European building projects were completed in the 1340s, mainly consisting of cathedrals and universities. In ], construction was finished on the ] begun in 1220, which was later rebuilt as the 16th century ]. In the German city of ], work was completed on the ], begun in 1267. In ], three decades of work were finished on the ] of ].

The High Gothic choir of ], was consecrated in 1340.<ref>Toman, p 478</ref> ], then a collegiate church, was started with the choir in 1342.<ref>Toman, p 178</ref> In 1344, ] was made an archbishopric, and the foundation stone was laid on the new ].<ref>Toman, p 209</ref> ]s completed in this decade, excluding later alterations, include ] and the ], completed around 1345 and 1346 respectively. In ], the last part of the repairs to the structure was finished with the richly decorated ] in 1345.<ref>Toman, p 144-145</ref>

In ], the ] ], or Doge's Palace, was erected on top of older buildings in 1340.<ref>Toman, p 260</ref> In ], the walls of the ] were extended up to the ], from 1344 to 1346. Berne's Käfigturm was erected from 1256 to 1344 as the second western city gate.<ref>{{cite web|title=Käfigturm (Prison Tower) |url=http://www.berninfo.com/en/navpage-SightsBET-AttractionsBET-32481.html |publisher=Berninfo.com |accessdate=2008-07-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129054412/http://www.berninfo.com/en/navpage-SightsBET-AttractionsBET-32481.html |archivedate=2007-01-29 }}</ref> In ], the ] of the ] was completed in 1348.<ref>Toman, p 280</ref> That same year, land in the English town of ] held by the ] was ].

The ], one of the six ], was built in 1343. Two ] were established in the 1340s: the ] (1343) and the ] (1347).<ref>Davies, p 1248</ref> The ] was also granted a '']'' by Pope ] in 1347, during the reign of Alfonso XI.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Historical University, Tradition and Progress since the 13th century |url=http://www.universityofvalladolid.uva.es/past/index.html |publisher=] |accessdate=2008-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212125253/http://www.universityofvalladolid.uva.es/past/index.html |archive-date=2008-12-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ], was founded by the chaplain ] in 1341, and ] secured the lands of a small hospital in Southampton for the college in 1343.<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of The Queen's College |url=http://www.queens.ox.ac.uk/history/ |publisher=] |accessdate=2009-06-18 }}</ref> Meanwhile, ] was founded in ] in 1344 by the Queen Mother, ].<!--Copied from ] article-->,{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} while ], was completed in 1347.<ref>Neillands, p 109-110</ref>

====Art====
]'s ''Crucifixion'' (1340–1345)]]
{{see also|1340s in art}}
In religious art, a series of ] windows were completed for the choir ] of ] in Normandy c. 1340.<ref name="Toman477">Toman, p 477</ref> Stained glass was also completed for the former Königsfelden Abbey in ], around the same time.<ref name="Toman477"/>

The possibilities of ]'s art were developed further in this decade by his pupils ] and ].<ref name="Toman444">Toman, p 444</ref> Significant of their works is '']'', painted in 1340 by di Banco for the ] in ].<ref name="Toman444"/> An illustration by the artist Domenico Lenzi, the ''City Scene'' of 1340 from the ''Il Biadaiolo'' codex, shows just how much the Florentine artists were influenced by Giotto.<ref>Toman, p 464-465</ref>

In 1340, toward the end of his life, the painter ] was called to ] to work for the papal court.<ref name="Toman446">Toman, p 446</ref> His frescos in the portico of ] have been lost, but the frescoes in the papal palace, painted by his pupils or colleagues around 1340, survive.<ref name="Toman446"/> Another notable religious artist was the ]n painter ], who painted the ''Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas'' as part of an Italian altarpiece "which reflects the divine order of the cosmos".<ref>Toman, p 439</ref>

In sculpture, the main artist was ], who maintained a workshop in Pisa with his son ] from 1343–1347.<ref name="Toman331">Toman, p 331</ref> They are noted for the famous sculpture ''Maria lactans'', and their work on ].<ref name="Toman331"/>

====Literature====
{{see also|14th century in literature|Medieval literature}}
In 1341, ] was crowned poet laureate in Rome, the first man since antiquity to be given this honor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Renaissance Profiles|last=Plumb|first=J.H.|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1965|isbn=9780061311628|location=New York|pages=1–17|quote=|via=}}</ref><!--Copied from ] article-->
* '']'', completed 1340
* Michael of Northgate ('']'', 1340)
* ] (])
* ] ('']'', 1343)
* ] (born 1343)
* '']'', completed 1344

====Military technology====
It was around this decade that ] began to be used more widely in Europe, appearing in small numbers in several European states by the 1340s.<ref name="Nicolle">Nicolle, p 21</ref> "Thunder jar" weaponry utilizing gunpowder and other firearm technology spread to Spain in 1342 and to the city of ] in Northern Germany in 1346.<ref>Delbrück, p 28</ref><ref>Nossov (2005), p 209</ref> "]" were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts between 1345 and 1346, during preparations for the campaign in France.<ref name="Nicolle"/> The effectiveness of these cannon was limited, as they are believed to have only shot large arrows and simple grapeshot, but they were so valuable that they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe.<ref name="Nicolle"/> Contemporary chroniclers such as the French ] and the Florentine ] record their destructiveness on the field at the ] in 1346.

====Philosophy and religion====
], from a 1341 manuscript of Ockham's earlier ] work, '']'']]

In the 1340s, Catholic Church was governed under the ]. Pope ] died on 25 April 1342, and was buried in a mausoleum in ].<ref name="Rendina376">Rendina, p 376</ref> Thirteen days later, the ] elected ] cardinal and theologian Pierre Roger de Beaufort as Pope ].<ref name="Rendina376"/> He reigned as pope until 1352.<ref name="Rendina376"/>

In 1340s, the controversial ] ] and ] philosopher ] was at ] under the protection of the ], ], since 1330.<ref name="CRVP">{{cite web|title=William of Ockham, Philosopher of Nominalism |url=http://www.crvp.org/book/Series01/I-9/chapter_vii.htm |publisher=Council for Research in Values and Philosophy |accessdate=2008-07-12 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720111114/https://www.crvp.org/book/Series01/I-9/chapter_vii.htm |archivedate=2008-07-20 }}</ref> During this time, he wrote exclusively on political matters,<ref name="StanfordOckham">{{cite encyclopedia |title=William of Ockham – 1.3 Munich |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#1.3 |encyclopedia=] |publisher=] |accessdate=2008-07-12 }}</ref> as an advocate of ] against ], for which he had previously been excommunicated.<ref name="Newadvent">{{cite encyclopedia |title=William of Ockham |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15636a.htm |encyclopedia=] (1913) |publisher=Newadvent.org |accessdate=2008-07-12 }}</ref> Among the followers of Ockhamism — condensed as the omnipotence of God and ] — were ] (fl. c. 1345) and ] (fl. c. 1347), both of whom taught at the ].<ref name="CRVP"/> Ockham, Mirecourt and Autrecourt all agreed on the ] and experience as bases of certainty.<ref name="CRVP"/>

On November 21, 1340, Autrecourt too was summoned him to ] to respond to allegations of false teaching.<ref name="StanfordAutrecourt">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Nicholas of Autrecourt |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/autrecourt/ |encyclopedia=] |publisher=] |accessdate=2008-07-12 }}</ref> The trial, under ] and his successor ], lasted until his conviction in 1346.<ref name="StanfordAutrecourt"/> Autrecourt was charged with 66 erroneous teachings or "articles", which he publicly recanted before the papal court.<ref name="StanfordAutrecourt"/> He recanted them in public again, in Paris in 1347.<ref name="StanfordAutrecourt"/> Although Ockham also expressed willingness to resubmit to the Church and Franciscan Order, there is no evidence of a formal reconciliation.<ref name="CRVP"/> Ockham is sometimes said to have died in 1349,<ref name="Newadvent"/> but it is more likely to have been 1347,<ref name="StanfordOckham"/> possibly of the Black Plague.<ref name="CRVP"/>

In 1343, Clement VI issued the ] ''Unigenitus''. The bull defined the doctrine of "The Treasury of Merits" or "The Treasury of the Church" as the basis for the issuance of ]s by the Catholic Church.<!--Copied from ] article--><ref>''The Forge of Vision: A Visual History of Modern Christianity'' {{ISBN|978-0-52028-695-5}} p. 75</ref>

==Africa==
] around the end of the decade]]
* Ayyubid dynasty

In Egypt, the Mameluk sultans were constantly changing. In 1347, the ] was completed in ].

In the ], the 1340s were part of the century and a half (1314–1468) that comprised "the crowning era of medieval ]", which began with the reign of ].<ref>Henze, p 63-64</ref> The crusading spirit of Amda's conquests in the previous decades had established an effective Ethiopian hegemony over his divided Muslim neighbours, but the chief concern of his conquests had been above all to maintain trade for both Muslims and Christians.<ref>Henze, p 65-66</ref> On Amda's death in 1344, the size of his Christian Empire was double what it had been in 1314.<ref>Henze, p 66</ref> Trade flourished in ] and other animal products from the western and southwestern border regions, while food products were exported from the highlands to the eastern lowlands and coastal ports.<ref>Henze, p 65</ref> He was succeeded as ] by his eldest son ], who followed his father's policies toward the Mulisms in the east, most of whom continued to be tributaries of Ethiopia.<ref>Henze, p 67</ref>

In the ] of ], ] ], who had assumed office in 1341, took steep measures to put Mali back into financial shape, developing a reputation for miserliness.<ref name=peoplesand/> However, he proved to be a good and strong ruler despite numerous challenges. It is during his reign that Fula raids on Takrur began. There was also a palace conspiracy to overthrow him hatched by the Qasa (Manding term meaning Queen) and several army commanders.<ref name=peoplesand>Stride (page numbers please!)</ref> Mansa Souleyman's generals successfully fought off the military incursions, and the senior wife behind the plot was imprisoned. Mali was at this time the dominant empire of West Africa, having conquered ]. The Songhai Empire would not regain independence for another three decades.<ref>Rees, p 6</ref>

==The Americas==
] accelerated from the 1340s on.]]
Very little is known of the Americas in this period, save what can be determined from ]. In North America, the ] was in a continued state of decline. The city of ] had experienced gradual decline since the ], possibly due to contributory factors such as depletion of resources, ], war, disease, social unrest and declining political and economic power.<ref>{{cite web |title=Welcome to Cahokia Mounds |url=http://www.cahokiamounds.org/learn |publisher=Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site |year=2008 |accessdate=2009-06-18}}</ref> The final abandonment of the city may have taken place some time between this decade and 1400. Radiocarbon dating of wash material from ] give a date of around 1350, which can be taken as the time the mound was last used.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mound 55 |url=http://www.cahokiamounds.com/explore/cahokia-mounds/name/murdock/ |publisher=Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site |year=2008 |accessdate=2009-06-18 |archive-url=https://archive.is/20130615063139/http://www.cahokiamounds.com/explore/cahokia-mounds/name/murdock/ |archive-date=2013-06-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Other Mississippian sites which went into decline after this decade, from about 1350 on, include the ]<ref>{{cite web |title=Kincaid Mounds – A Prehistoric Cultural and Religious Center In Southern Illinois |url=http://www.kincaidmounds.com/history.htm |publisher=Kincaid Mounds Organization |author=Schwegman, John E |accessdate=2009-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517082519/http://www.kincaidmounds.com/history.htm |archive-date=2009-05-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the ].<ref name="Moundville">{{cite web |title=An Archaeological Sketch of Moundville |url=http://www.ua.edu/academic/museums/moundville/sketch.html |publisher=] |year=2009 |accessdate=2009-06-18}}</ref> In the case of the latter, the decline was marked by a loss of the appearance of a town and a decrease in the importation of goods.<ref name="Moundville"/> Although the site retained its ceremonial and political functions, some of the mounds were abandoned while others lost their religious importance altogether.<ref name="Moundville"/>

In Central America, the ], who centuries earlier had suffered a serious decline, were ruled from a capital in the ] called ]. Other ] civilisations, however, were on the rise. The precursors to the ]s, the ], had recently founded their capital city of ]. They also had occasional skirmishes with the nearby ] civilization.

==Notes==
# According to Fossier (p 89), a number of ] had benefited by the disappearance of many of their neighbours, as they were able to take over their empty farmlands and were then in a position to pay the going wages. However, while Hollister (p 285) and Soto (p 71) argue for the plague's positive socio-economic effects, Fossier (p 89) further suggests these were offset by state intervention in the form of royal taxation and wage restrictions. Edward III's issuance of the ''Ordinance of Labourers'' in 1349 limited the steep rise in wages that resulted from the plague, and the yeomen who had previously benefited now found themselves "deprived by royal ordinance of their essential workforce". The enforcement of such wage restrictions in 1351–1359 was to provoke serious unrest in ] and ] in ], while increased taxation in France caused similar discontent culminating in the '']'' (Fossier, p 89-90).


==References== ==References==
{{reflist|3}} {{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |title=The Northern Crusades |last=Christiansen |first=Eric |year=1997 |publisher=Penguin |location= |isbn=0140266534 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/northerncrusades00eric |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |title=Europe: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0 |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=] |year=1996 |isbn=0-19-820171-0}}
* Delbrück, Hans et al. History of the Art of War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0803265867}}
* {{cite book |last=Frank |first=Herbert |author2=Twitchett, Denis |title=The Cambridge History of China |publisher=Cambridge University Press | others=Volume VI: Alien regimes and border states, 907–1368 |location= |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-24331-5 |id=}}
* {{cite book |last=Fossier |first=Robert |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250–1520 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00robe |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |year=1986 |isbn=0521266467 |id=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Henze |first=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |edition=Illustrated |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=1850655227 | id= }}
* {{Cite book | first = C. Warren | last = Hollister | edition=Sixth | date=1992 | title = The Making of England, 55 BC to 1399 | volume=I | work=A History of England | editor=Lacey Baldwin Smith | publisher = | location=] | orig-year = 1966 | isbn = 0-669-24457-0 }}
* Neillands, Robin. The Hundred Years' War. New York: Routledge, 1990. {{ISBN|0415071496}}
* {{Cite book | first = David | last = Nicolle| authorlink = David Nicolle | title = Crécy 1346: Triumph of the Longbow | publisher = ] | year = 2000 | isbn = 9781855329669 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lujfZqpd2JoC&printsec=frontcover}}
* Nossov, Konstantin. Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons. City: The Lyons Press, 2005. {{ISBN|1592287107}}
* {{cite book|last=Nossov|first=Konstantin|year=2007|title=Medieval Russian Fortresses AD 862–1480|publisher=]|isbn=9781846030932}}
* {{Cite book | first = Joseph | last = O'Callaghan | title = Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain | publisher = ] | year = 2004 | isbn = 0812218892 | location=]}}
* Rees, Bob and ]. ''Black Peoples of the Americas''. City: Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 1992. {{ISBN|0435314254}}
* {{Cite book | first=Murray N. | last=Rothbard |authorlink=Murray Rothbard |title=Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought |url=http://mises.org/books/histofthought1.pdf |publisher=Edward Elgar | location=Cheltnam, UK | year = 2006 |isbn = 094546648X }}
* {{cite book |first=Claudio |last=Rendina |title=The Popes: Histories and Secrets |url=https://archive.org/details/popes0000rend |url-access=registration |translator=Paul McCusker |year=2002 |publisher=Seven Locks Press |isbn=193164313X }}
* {{cite book |title=Danish Medieval History & Saxo Grammaticus |last=Skyum-Nielsen |first=Niels |year=1981 |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |location= |isbn=8788073300 |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUFCkqua7dUC&dq }}
* {{Cite book | first = Lacey Baldwin | last = Smith | edition=Fifth | date=1988 | title = This Realm of England, 1399 to 1688 | volume=II | work=A History of England | editor=Lacey Baldwin Smith | publisher = | location=] | orig-year = 1966 | isbn = 0-669-13422-8 }}
* {{cite book |first=JJ |last=Saunders |title=The History of the Mongol Conquests |year=2001 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=] |isbn=0-8122-1766-7 }}
* Soto, Jesús Huerta de. ''Money, Bank Credit, and Economic Cycles.'' (], 2006) Translated by Melinda A. Stroup. {{ISBN|0945466390}}
* Stride, G.T & C. Ifeka: "Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000–1800". Nelson, 1971
* Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972).
* {{cite book |title=The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting |editor=Toman, Rolf |others=photography by Achim Bednorz |year=2007 |publisher=] |isbn=978-3-8331-4676-3 }}

==Further reading==
Useful sources as yet unused:
* {{Cite book | first = Stella Mary | last = Newton | title = Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince: A Study of the Years 1340–1365 | publisher = Boydell & Brewer | year = 1999 | isbn = 085115767X | location=}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:1340s}} {{DEFAULTSORT:1340s}}

Revision as of 11:25, 7 August 2020

Millennium
2nd millennium
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The 1340s was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1340, and ended on December 31, 1349.

Events

1340

This section is transcluded from 1340. (edit | history)

Date unknown

  • Europe has about 74 million inhabitants.
  • An epidemic in northern Italy is recorded by Augustine of Trent, in his Epistola astrologica.
  • The Monarchy of Japan reaches its 2,000 year anniversary (according to traditional starting dates).

1341

This section is transcluded from 1341. (edit | history)
The Byzantine Empire around the start of the civil war

Date unknown

1342

This section is transcluded from 1342. (edit | history)

January–December

Date unknown

1343

This section is transcluded from 1343. (edit | history)

January–December

Date unknown

1344

This section is transcluded from 1344. (edit | history)

January–December

Date unknown

1345

This section is transcluded from 1345. (edit | history)

1346

This section is transcluded from 1346. (edit | history)

1347

This section is transcluded from 1347. (edit | history)

January–December

1348

This section is transcluded from 1348. (edit | history)

January–December

Date unknown

1349

This section is transcluded from 1349. (edit | history)

January–December

Ongoing

Significant people

This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (March 2016)

Births

Transcluding articles: 1340, 1341, 1342, 1343, 1344, 1345, 1346, 1347, 1348, and 1349

1340

1341

1342

1343

1344

1345

1346

1347

1348

1349

Deaths

Transcluding articles: 1340, 1341, 1342, 1343, 1344, 1345, 1346, 1347, 1348, and 1349

1340

1341

1342

1343

1344

1345

1346

1347

1348

Emperor Hanazono

1349

References

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  2. National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Significant Earthquake Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K
  3. Papadopoulos, G. A., Diakogianni, G., Fokaefs, A., and Ranguelov, B.: Tsunami hazard in the Black Sea and the Azov Sea: a new tsunami catalogue, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 945–963, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-11-945-2011, 2011.
  4. "Escape from Delhi to the Maldive Islands and Sri Lanka: 1341 - 1344 | ORIAS". orias.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-08.
  5. "More studies needed at Pattanam". The Hindu. 2013-05-24.
  6. Das verflixte "Genua-Tief", Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 2008-08-25, archived from the original on 2011-12-30, retrieved 2016-02-12
  7. Lock, Peter (2013). The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 9781135131371.
  8. Lock, Peter (2013). The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 9781135131371.
  9. pgs. 143–148 ASIN B000K6TDP2
  10. Horrox, Rosemary. The Black Death. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-7190-3498-5 pg.104–105
  11. Ioannes Cantacuzenus. Historiarum... 2, p.530
  12. Andrzej Pleszczynski; Grischa Vercamer (2021). Germans and Poles in the Middle Ages: The Perception of the 'Other' and the Presence of Mutual Ethnic Stereotypes in Medieval Narrative Sources. Brill. p. 216. ISBN 9789004466555.
  13. Nicephorus Gregoras. Byzantina historia. 2, p.729
  14. Jonathan Sumption, The Hundred Years War: Trial by Battle, Vol. I, (Faber & Faber, 1990), ISBN 978-0-571-20095-5, p. 465.
  15. E. Howard Harris (1956). The Literature of Friesland. Van Gorcum & Comp. p. 13.
  16. Jonathan Sumption, The Hundred Years War: Trial by Battle, Vol. I, (Faber & Faber, 1990), ISBN 978-0-571-20095-5, pp. 467–470.
  17. Jonathan Sumption, The Hundred Years War: Trial by Battle, Vol. I, (Faber & Faber, 1990), ISBN 978-0-571-20095-5, p. 474.
  18. ^ Benedictow, Ole Jørgen. The Black Death, 1346–1353. Ipswich: Boydell Press, 2004. ISBN 0-85115-943-5 pp. 51
  19. ^ David, Dr. Crecy. 1346: Triumph of the Longbow. Osprey Publishing (UK), 2000. p. 85 ISBN 1-85532-966-2
  20. Evans, Arthur. Ancient Illyria. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007. ISBN 1-84511-167-2 pg. iv
  21. Vitale, Vito Antonio (1937). "Vignoso, Simone". Enciclopedia Italiana (in Italian).
  22. Setton, Kenneth M. (1976). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. p. 207. ISBN 0-87169-114-0.
  23. ^ Jeep, John. Medieval Germany. New York: Garland Pub, 2001. p. 108 ISBN 0-8240-7644-3
  24. ^ Lynn, John. Battle: a History of Combat and Culture. Boulder: Westview Press, 2004. pp. 91–92 ISBN 0-8133-3372-5
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