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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques, axioms and beliefs, that adherents use primarily as an approach to personal development. NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as beliefs in human potential. The initial ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson.

NLP is based on the idea that a person's language and behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are highly structured , and that this underlying structure can be modeled into a reproducible form. Proponents believe that by modeling language and behavior from one person, they can affect belief and behavior changes in another person to improve their functioning. NLP teaches that if someone excels in some activity, we can learn specifically how they do it by observing certain important details of their behaviour. NLP uses several techniques to effect changes in the way we think, learn and communicate.

NLP was and continues to be controversial as a therapy, and after three decades of existence remains scientifically unvalidated.

History and development

Neuro-linguistic Programming is an eclectic field, and covers a wide array of aspects of personal development. While the early focus of NLP was the language patterns of therapists, its techniques have been applied to a variety of fields. NLP practitioners deal with issues ranging from reframing negative beliefs, to dealing with stage fright, and simple phobias, and more generally, communications and motivation. Some trainers offer techniques for psychotherapy, self-help, depression, or addiction, as well as peak performance assistance in business or sports. NLP as an approach to psychotherapy has been frequently de-emphasized as the primary purpose, even though some consider it a core application. NLP and its techniques have been widely adopted for use in motivational seminars, adult learning, and management and sales training, often being mixed with pop psychology and other applications outside of mainstream.

1970s: Founding and early development

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is based on the idea that our mind-body (neuro) and what we say (language) all interact together to form our perceptions of the world, or maps (programming).

It was co-founded and developed jointly by Richard Bandler and UCSC assistant professor of linguistics John Grinder under the tutelage of noted anthropologist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s and 1970s. At that time the Californian human potential seminars were developing into a viable industry. Alfred Korzybski had influenced Gregory Bateson and several schools of thought, including those at Esalen Institute in California. Most notably, the idea that 'the map is not the territory' and ideas about human modeling were adopted by Bandler and Grinder. From 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an interest in the exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H. Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic Series (1975) and Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were published using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon worked with the co-founders and separately to contribute to the development of NLP.

1980s: New developers, new styles, and scientific assessment

In the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic Programming Volume 1 with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazardly by many individuals. During the 1980s John Grinder and Judith Delozier collaborated to develop a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP which attempted to restore a whole mind-body systemic approach to NLP. Richard Bandler also published new processes with submodalities and Ericksonian hypnosis as in Using Your Brain: For a Change (1984). Meanwhile Anthony Robbins who taught NLP in the late 1970s, began mass marketing products incorporating aspects of NLP (renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning). Other practitioners and trainers modified, renamed and developed their own variations of NLP. Michael Hall offered NLP with Neurosemantics and Tad James offered NLP with Time Line Therapy. New and influential developers Judith DeLozier, and Connirae and Steve Andreas also emerged during this time. Given the multiplicity of developers and trainers, there was to be no single definitive system of NLP.

In the late 1980s, Sharpley's (1984, 1987) research reviews in experimental counseling psychology and by the United States National Research Council gave NLP an overall negative assessment. Thereafter, except for sporadic articles on NLP in different fields, there was a marked decrease in NLP research.

1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing

In July of 1996 after many years of legal controversy, Bandler filed a lawsuit against John Grinder et al, claiming retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and the sole right to use the term under trademark. NLP critic Margaret Singer quotes Bandler as saying the term NLP was "phrased on the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his occupation.". Contemporaneous with Bandler's suits in the Supreme Court of the United States, Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) asked the UK High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark of "NLP", in order to clarify legally whether this was a generic term rather than intellectual property. The UK High Court found in favor of Clarkson, and that NLP was deemed to be a generic term. Partly due to the legally-driven fragmentation of NLP practice, and partly due to lack of a defining and regulating structure to oversee the rapidly growing field, it seemed for a time that NLP could be (and was) promoted as the "latest thing", a panacea, or universal miracle solution. Dubious models and practices burgeoned, in parallel with bona fide. For a number of these new practices, profit, marketability or New Age appeal proved a stronger motive than realism or ethics.

2000s: Legal settlement, government regulation, and new fields

While the NLP community became splintered, most NLP material acknowledged the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s. Around 2001, the law suits were finally settled with Bandler and Grinder formally agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Following attempts in the 1990s to put NLP on a more formally regulated footing in countries such as the UK, some governments began certifying NLP course providers and their course, such as in Australia for example, where a graduate certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). However, NLP continues to be an open field of training with no 'official' best practice. With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP":, the training standards and quality differed greatly. Since 1978, NLP practitioner certification had been set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The length of training varies from a short hobby course, to a 20 day course, to longer courses for trainers and professionals. The multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to difficulty discerning the comparative level competence, skill and attitude in different NLP trainings. According to Peter Schütz the length of training in Europe varies from 2-3 days, for the hobbyist, to 35-40 days over atleast nine months to achieve a professional level of competency

Concepts and methods

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is based on the idea that with our senses we are only able to perceive a small part of the world. Our view of the world is filtered by our experience, beliefs, values and assumptions. We act and feel based on our perception of the world rather than the real world.

Internal 'maps' of the world

NLP calls each individuals perception of the world their 'map'. NLP teaches that our mind-body (neuro) and what we say (language) all interact together to form our perceptions of the world, or maps (programming). Specifically, our maps of the world determine our feelings and our behavior. Therefore, impoverished - and unrealistic - maps can restrict our choices and result in problems. As an approach to therapy it involves recognizing unhelpful or destructive patterns of thinking based on people's impoverished maps of the world, then modifying or replacing these patterns with more useful or helpful ones. There is also an emphasis on ways to change internal representations or maps of the world in order to increase behavioral flexibility.

Modeling

"Modeling" in NLP is the process of adopting the behaviors, language, strategies and beliefs of another. The founders, Bandler and Grindler started by analysing in detail and then searching for what made successful psychotherapists different to their peers. The patterns discovered were adapted for general communication and effecting change. NLP is self-described as the study of the structure of subjective experience. NLP teaches that all behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are not random, but have a structure which can be modeled. Therefore excellence in others can be modeled and the structure of ones own behaviors can be understood and changed.

Neuro-linguistic programming approaches to human learning led to the development of a specific method of NLP modeling. This theory holds that masters of a skill often fail to take into account the implicit processes involved in carrying out complex skills when they are teaching novices. To combat these tendencies, NLP modeling methods are designed to unconsciously assimilate the tacit knowledge; what the master is doing of which the master is not aware. As Bandler and Grinder state "the function of NLP modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful." In order for modeling to be successful, the learner attempts to minimize preconceptions, must have access to the master (although modeling from books, historical records of people's words, or video is not unknown), must engage in unconscious micro-muscle modeling, and must be able to reproduce the desired skill accurately. "When modeling another person the modeler suspends his or her own beliefs and adopts the structure of the physiology, language, strategies, and beliefs of the person being modeled. After the modeler is capable of behaviorally reproducing the patterns (of behavior, communication, and behavioral outcomes) of the one being modeled, a process occurs in which the modeler modifies and readopts his or her own belief system while also integrating the beliefs of the one who was modeled."

Meta model

In NLP the Meta-model or Meta-model for Therapy is a set of specifying questions or language patterns designed to challenge and expand the limits to a person's model or 'map' of the world. Practitioners are trained to respond to the distortions, generalizations, and deletions in language which is supposed to disclose information about the limits to people's maps of the world. Its practitioners hold that depression, or motivation can be thought of as nominalizations and seek to discover how an individual represents each experience so it can be interrupted, reframed or replaced with more useful choices. Grinder and Bandler (1975) based the meta model patterns on the way Virginia Satir and Fritz Perls communicated with clients and a set of language patterns found from transformational linguistics.

Furthermore, language pattern techniques from the meta model, such as how specifically and what specifically are used to elicit information or define outcomes for a client in psychotherapy, or more generally for information gathering in conversation. The specifying questions may be combined with general language and use of metaphor, to induce trance, pace belief, and make cognitive interventions.

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Milton model (unconscious communications)

In the mid-early 1970s Gregory Bateson sent Bandler and Grinder to learn from Milton H. Erickson, an important figure in clinical hypnotherapy, with the objective of capturing the essence of Milton's techniques. According to Norma Barretta (2004) NLP as a model was "primarily extracted from Grinder and Bandler's (1981) synthesis of Milton Erickson's patterns of hypnotic language." The pair spent many months modeling and practicing being Milton. When they were confident they had mastered the skills, they began teaching others. The pair implicitly captured several language patterns and unconscious communication that Milton was using to communicate with his clients. The resulting milton model was published in two volumes, lists the key parts of speech and nonverbal patterns that are useful in directing another person's line of thinking by being "artfully vague" and metaphoric, and follows Milton's non-verbal technique of building rapport with his client by pacing verbal and nonverbal communication patterns. To model this requires attention being placed primarily on the client's responses. NLP also borrowed Erickson's notion of conscious and unconscious mind. The Model is a means to use deliberately imprecise and metaphoric language to enable a person to work at an unconscious or somatic level rather than a cognitive level, to resolve clinical issues more effectively. Those who emphasize the therapeutic application of NLP often use terminology borrowed from Milton H. Erickson and hypnotherapy. They focus on hypnotic phenomena, such as, the use of unconscious communications, therapeutic metaphor, post-hypnotic suggestion, pain control, age regression, and enhanced sensory perception. The Milton model (general and metaphoric) contrasts with the Meta model (specifics and information gathering) and together these opposing models form the basis of NLP.

In order to communicate more influentially, physical mirroring of posture, breathing or verbal mirroring of keywords, and sensory specific language (predicates) are used to facilitate and maintain rapport during a conversation.

Representational systems

In NLP, representational systems are seen as our ways of perceiving the world through our senses and how we store and code the information in our minds. In personal development, meditation and sports psychology the idea of internal imagery is commonplace. NLP teaches that if we include what we will see, hear and feel the imagery will be more vivid and engaging because the subjective character of experience is strongly tied into, and influenced by, how memories and perceptions are processed within each sensory system. When people are involved in tasks, sequences of representations are being activated at the same time. You may be making conversation, kicking a ball or riding a horse. At the same time you will be making sequences of internal representations made up of images, sounds, feelings (and possibly smell and taste). Moreover these representations are either recalled or constructed. The accessing cue model holds that the various cues indicate the type and sequence of these representations. Indicators include: direction of eye movements, changes in posture, shifts in breathing and use of sensory-based predicates. For example, "That looks good" indicates visual imagery, whereas "I have a firm grasp of the concept" indicates primarily kinesthetic processing at that time. Representational systems and submodalities are seen in NLP as offering a valuable therapeutic insight (or metaphor) and potential working methods, into how the human mind internally organizes and subjectively attaches meaning to events.

Numerous techniques have been designed for refining goals, eliciting resource states, or reframing negative beliefs. Most of these techniques rely on manipulating thinking processes or sequences of representational systems.

According to some NLP practitioners, problems can occur when people get "stuck" in one representational system. A more controversial idea that originated with NLP is that people have visual, kinesthetic or auditory learning styles. Learning styles and teaching styles theory has borrowed in part of representational systems. For example some students may prefer a visual learning style whereby ideas, concepts, data and other information are associated with images and represented graphically to enhance thinking and learning skills.

This idea was criticized by Sharpley (1984, 1987) and its importance has been subsequently deemphasized by some and retained by other practitioners.

Submodalities

Submodalities are the fine details of NLP representational systems. To internal imagery are added auditory and kinesthetic representations,, that is the subjective size, location and brightness of internal imagery, the volume and location of internal sounds, and the location and intensity of other sensations. These can increase or decrease the quality of our responses. A change in the submodalities will change the maps and then the way we respond in the world.. For example, the swish pattern is a visualization technique designed to change behaviors by switching (or swishing) the cue stimulus for an unwanted behaviour with the self-image doing a desired alternate behavior. If the subject is subjectively motivated toward large, bright, colorful internal pictures then the unwanted habit is made small and dark and the desired outcome is pictured larger than life, bright and colorful. This is supposed to make the outcome more inviting. Most practitioners insist on checking the consequences within a frame of ecology (an impact check) before proceeding with any changes.

Anchoring

NLP teaches that in our minds and bodies we constantly make associations between our various sensory systems. When we are in a certain emotional state and we hear, see or feel something unique, we make an association (anchor) between our emotional state and the stimulus. Thereafter, if we hear, see or feel that same unique stimulus it can trigger the same emotional state. For example, a particular perfume may trigger images and feelings about a friend from the past who wore the same perfume. In addition, flicking through an old family photo album stirs visual memories and some of the feelings associated with them.

Sharpley (1987) stated that several processes in NLP, including anchoring, may be useful in counseling, however, he says, these processes are not unique to NLP. NLP teaches that anchors can be deliberately created and triggered to help people enter positive or 'resourceful' emotional states. For example, a resourceful state anchor can be added to a problem by triggering the anchor while thinking of the problem.

Reframing

NLP teaches that difficulties in human experience emerge from how an individual perceives the circumstances. Reframing attempts to create alternative choices and more appropriate contexts so that the difficulty becomes an ally. It can be found in children's literature, for example, Pollyanna would play The Glad Game whenever she felt down about life, and found this was a helpful way to remind her of the things that she could do, and not to worry about the things she couldn't. Alice Mills says "it also occurs when the ugly duckling of the Hans Christian Andersen story no longer conceives his judgment of himself in the world of ducks but moves to the world of swans. For Rudolf the reindeer the red nose is in one context ridiculous and in another a precious source of light."

According to Bandler and Grinder (1983) reframing may be thought of as taking the essential information and a presenting it in a different context whereby the reality of the situation is seen in a new light. In its core, reframing seeks to alter the context and the framing of memories surrounding certain events, with a view to change the perceived meaning. This idea holds that when the framing and meaning is altered, the related responses and behaviours also change. The purpose here is to help clients in adopting new ways to think about difficult situations or setback in their relationship with self, others and the world.

Reframing as an NLP technique can involve making intention and behaviour distinct for the purpose of achieving the intention by different and more successful behaviours. It is based on the notion that there is a positive intention behind all behaviors, but that the behaviors themselves may be unwanted or counterproductive in other ways. NLP uses the 'six step reframe', a staged process, to identify the intention and create alternative choices to satisfy that intention.

Goal setting

Goal setting in NLP involves setting specific, measurable and time targeted objectives. It can be used in organizational or business contexts as a tool to make progress by ensuring that participants are clearly aware of what is expected from them if an objective is to be achieved. On a personal level, goal setting is a process intended to enable people to specify, then work towards, their own objectives - most commonly used for financial or career-based goals. Goal setting is a major component in NLP literature and other personal development literature. There are a number of tools and techniques specific to NLP. Firstly the desired state is rehearsed in all senses in the imagination in order to get a sense for what might be seen, heard, and felt during the process of completing the goal successfully. The aim is to help establish sensory-based evidence for the successful completion of the goal and to establish what the required resources might be. Secondly, it could involve an ecology check. This is a check on the impact of pursuing and achieving the goal on relationships with others and the environment.

Other techniques encourage thinking about different aspects of goals and objectives. For example in Robert Dilts' Neurological levels, strategic vision, spiritual aspects or other beliefs, as well as effects the proposed changes may have in the environmental context may be considered. John Grinder, in New Code of NLP prefers to use the more general pattern of perceptual positions which temporarily engage the points of view of others in a relationship by stepping into the shoes of the others involved.

Additional teachings

There are a number of aphorisms which serve to construct practical models for learning and communication. NLP focuses on the present and thinks about past experiences, even failures, as resources so that there is no failure, only feedback. While this may not be necessarily true, by acting as if, for example, all human action has a positive intention it presupposes that at some level even the most negative behavior is attempting to express some positive intention. This serves as a means to arrive at what works rather than what is true and encourages the feedback cycle to drive the interactions. . This is also evident in the aphorism, the meaning of your communication is in the response. Treating the response as information enables the communication to be changed accordingly. This early stance of Bandler and Grinder could be seen as anti-positivist; at the same time, it encourages the individual to be responsible for their own learning by way of enriching personal resources and by freeing up their impoverished maps of the world.

Classifying NLP

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Science and pseudoscience

Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, important figures in NLP, claim it has scientific roots stating "NLP is rooted in the synthesis of three areas of modern science: neurophysiology, linguistics and cybernetics (computer programming)" but go on to say "In considering NLP as a science however, it is important to recognise that the epistemology of NLP is more 'subjective' and 'systematically' oriented than many 'hard' sciences, which tend to be more 'objective' and 'deterministic'. That is the patterns explored and identified by NLP are often necessarily contextual and influenced by the perceptual filters of the observer." and "As a scientific approach, then, NLP tends to be more 'qualitative' than 'quantitative' and more 'structuralist' than 'materialistic'" and "In fact from the NLP standpoint, "science" is a function of systematically developing and applying a particular set of perceptual filters, criteria and cause-effect beliefs."

Grinder and Delozier (1984) argue that the epistemology of Gregory Bateson (and NLP) attempts to synthesize the overdrawn positions of empiricists (eg. David Hume and the logical positivists) and idealists (eg. Immanuel Kant and German Idealism) In Whispering in the Wind Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) make suggestions about what needs to be done next to "improve the practice and take its rightful place as a scientifically based endeavor with its precise focus on one of the extremes of human behavior: excellence and the high performers who actually do it." They ask those interest to work with researchers in cognitive linguistics and neuroscience to begin to improve the relationship with those fields.

Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states (as translated in Prometheus chained) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises." Levelt opined "NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming".

Drenth (1999) in Prometheus Chained, having classified NLP as a pseudoscience states "pseudo-scientists flirt with scientific terms and concepts, and suggest that they want to participate in the scientific debate, albeit in an anti-positivist manner." and goes on to say "but even for new theories and hypothetical frameworks, the requirement still holds that they should be scrutinized and tested on logical grounds and, in the case of empirical or experimental science, on the basis of empirical or experimental evidence" .

Drenth (2003) expands his argument in saying "Unlike diagnosis, predicition of human performance or behavior, and assessment, therapy is not a (applied) sciencific activity. Criteria for therapeutic activity is effectiveness, not verity; at stake is not whether it is true but whether it works". At first sight this would seem to accord with NLP's "what works" philosophy. However, Drenth, using NLP as his prime example, goes on to say "But what brings some of these therapeutic approaches into the category of pseudoscience is the claim that their presumptions are predicated on scientific understanding and scientific evidence."

Cognitive neuroscience researcher Michael C Corballis argues that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability" and wrote "NLP has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable subdiscipline of neurolinguistics".

In his book Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience which the Skeptical Inquirer reviewed as "failing" to contain "material that is both correct and objective", Dr. William F. Williams includes an entry on NLP wherein it is characterized by "reading" automatic changes in skin color, muscle tension, eye movements, moisture on the lips and eyes, as well as other physiological responses, the NLP practitioner uses these cues to supposedly guide the client through issues related to identity, personal beliefs, and life goals.

In their book "Introducing NLP" (2002), originally published in 1990 and endorsed by both Dilts and Grinder, O'Connor and Seymour state "NLP is the art and science of personal excellence. Art because everyone brings their unique personality and style to what they do, and this can never be captured in words or techniques. Science because there is a method and process for discovering the patterns used by outstanding individuals in any field to achieve outstanding results. This process is called modelling,...". According to them, the name 'neuro-linguistic programming' simple denotes 'neuro' as in the idea that all behaviors stem from neurological processes of the senses, 'linguistic' because we use language to order our thoughts and behaviour and to communicate and 'programming' because of the ways we choose to organise our ideas and actions..

Humanistic psychology

Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to positivist and scientific approaches to the mind. It views the usage of quantitative methods in the study of the human mind and behaviour as misguided and advises qualitative research methods. It stresses a phenomenological view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting qualitative research methods.

Jaap Hollander (1999) in making a number of recommendations for the field of NLP to develop better relationships with science, states that "qualitative scientific inquiry bears a striking resemblance with the process of modelling in NLP. So, NLP, after all, may not be as unscientific as it is often made out to be. Modelling, like qualitative research, uses data from naturalistic settings. Modeling also uses inductive analysis of the data. Rather than testing for the presence of predetermined patterns, the modeller looks for patterns in the observations of the expert, patterns that he or she had not consciously formulated beforehand." The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist and phenomenological philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence.

However, not only has NLP fared badly when tested under positivist counseling research conditions, (see Research Reviews below) there is also an absence of a substantial accumulated body of positive qualititive research.

In the introduction to The Structure of Magic Series, Gregory Bateson argues that Bandler and Grinder "create the beginnings of an appropriate theoretical base for the describing of human interaction." Bateson goes on to say that "The behavioral sciences, and especially psychiatry, have always avoided theory, and it is easy to make a list of the various maneuvers whereby theory could be avoided". Grinder and Bandler "have succeeded in making linguistics into a base for theory and simultaneously into a tool for therapy." ... "We already knew that most of the premises of individual psychology were useless, and we knew that we ought to classify modes of communicating." ... "Grinder and Bandler have succeeded in making explicit the syntax of how people avoid change and, therefore, how to assist them in changing. Here they focus on verbal communication" ... and "develop a general model of communication and change involving the other modes of communication which human beings use to represent and communicate their experience."

Technology

Labouchere (2004) states that there are multiple definitons of NLP. Bandler defines NLP as "an attitude and a methodology which leaves behind a trail of techniques" whereas Grinder defines NLP as "the study of excellence and how to reproduce it" Labouchere states that "NLP has a very pragmatic, applied focus on what is helpful, what works and how to replicate it (Bandler & Grinder, 1990). While it draws on and shares common ground with ‘mainstream’ cognitive psychology, from its inception in the 1970s it has continued to develop, refine, and apply its own unique range of concepts, models and techniques."

Sharpley (1987) says that a number of "'NLP' techniques are known to be beneficial or of value in counselling, citing predicate matching, moving sensory modalities, reframing, anchoring and changing history, but disputes that all of these techniques originated within NLP, for example, "NLP may be seen as a partial compendium of rather than as an original contribution to counseling practice and, thereby, has a value distinct from the lack of research data supporting the underlying principles that Bandler and Grinder posited to present NLP as a new and magical theory".

NLP teaches that each learner is a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds and encourages students take responsibility for their own states, and learning experience.. According to Craft, "Neuro-linguistic Programming is best understood as a strategy which at first sight appears to draw on constructivist theories of learning. However, I have raised some problems in both the strategy itself (first, the lack of awareness of learning and performance styles, in that although it comes from the perspective that individuals respond uniquely to the world, it nevertheless offers an experiential approach to learning"

In response to Craft, NLP academics Tosey and Mathison (2003) expressed NLP in terms of the cybernetic epistemology of Gregory Bateson stating, "Early statements from the originators of NLP dismissed interest in articulating or acquiring theory, for example; `We have no idea about the "real" nature of things, and we're not particularly interested in what's "true". The function of modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful.' (Bandler and Grinder 1979 p.7). Bandler and Grinder's intent, perhaps, was to stay close to experience and avoid abstract discussion about truths of human experience. It seems that this stance has persisted, even if it is not shared by all leading NLP practitioners. We suggest that NLP may be regarded as a transdisciplinary (Gibbons et al 1994), in the sense that it draws on sources from academe and from elsewhere, and has been generated through application more than being deduced from axioms." They go on to state "It seems unarguable that to become regarded as academically credible there is a need for NLP to be more thoroughly theorised, particularly to consider how it relates to and differs from existing theoretical perspectives such as semiotics, phenomenology, discourse analysis, and more." Paul Tosey, University of Surrey, is the director of research project into the theory and application of NLP in teaching theory. Furthermore Mathison and Tosey (2002) add that this approach to learning and development appears similar in theory to Lev Vygotsky and constructivist learning theory and unrelated to computer programming or neuroscience.

Religiosity and spirituality

Sociologist and Christian scholar, Stephen J Hunt states that NLP "is a technique rather than an organised religion and is used by several different human potential movements" yet that it has an "implied religiosity".(p.195). Skeptics have described NLP as simply a "New Age" development citing the USNRC study which found no hard empirical evidence for its efficacy. Regarding spiritual practices, Dilts states that John Grinder was influenced by Carlos Castaneda's Don Juan in developing the double hypnotic induction, perceptual positions and rechanneling of attention and energy to more appropriate contexts. At the same time Grinder contends that any venture into personal beliefs of "spirituality" in psychotherapy or NLP would be an ethical violation.

David V. Barrett (2001) states in his work The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions, describes NLP as a technique or series of techniques, or a process, and notes it is sometimes used by some religious sects. He states while "the brief biographies of NLP Trainers usually give the names of the people they have trained under... could be seen as similar to new eastern origin religions tracing themselves back through a progression of gurus", and that NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are sometimes found in some religions, "overall the balance comes down against it being labeled as a religion."

Reception

This section may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

This article is missing information about The positive reception of NLP by the public, by publishers, by clinicians, and corporations. A reception section should detail the history of how NLP has been received everywhere, not just by psychologists and scientific reviewers.. Please expand the article by making an edit requestto include this information . Further details may exist on the talk page.

Mental health practice

NLP has been coordinated within some industry associations, psychotherapy associations, and has been used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies.

Labouchere et al (2002) incorporated a number of NLP behaviour change techniques (anchoring, isomorphic metaphor, goal setting) into a program for learning about and preventing the spread of AIDS. They recommended that these tools be promoted and adopted internationally.

In an empirical study using a heuristic qualitative methodology the submodality change process was tested for treating grief and mourning. The study suggested that manipulating certain submodalities can help the subject shift into more resourceful state and speed the healing process.

At the same time, NLP has remained an eclectic field with no inherent controls over training or a professional code of ethics, moreover evidence-based psychologists (eg. Lilienfeld, Beyerstein) are generally concerned about the adoption of scientifically unvalidated techniques in the mental health profession (listing various forms of psychotherapies including NLP) and also the spread of misconceptions about how the mind works.

According to Eisner, NLP is based on some of Freud's most flawed thinking, and continues "There was great initial enthusiasm, but as time passed, it appears the so-called effective results have diminished or disappeared" Clinical psychologists have identified characteristics that help to separate unvalidated or scientifically unsupported approaches to psychotherapy from those based on the scientific method. Opining that proof of the validity of new practices falls on the proponents of these practices, evidence-based psychologist Lilienfield expresses concern that largely untested treatments, amongst which he includes NLP, comprise a major proportion—in some cases a majority—of the interventions delivered by mental health professionals. He raises concerns about the public's overconfidence in mental health professions and the lack of scientific foundation for these professions.

Elich et al (1985) tested the model that proposed a relationship between eye movements, spoken predicates, and internal imagery, and found no support for this model. He added "NLP has achieved something akin to cult status when it may be nothing more than a psychological fad" (p625)". Windy Dryden and Albert Ellis (2001) exponents of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy include NLP as an example behavior change technique of "dubious validity". .

Others raise concerned about the use of scientific-sounding language, exaggerated claims, a lack of peer-reviewed literature and an over-reliance on anecdotal evidence. Psychologist Margaret Singer states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else". She criticizes NLP for appealing to science to raise its profile, stating that "none of the NLP developers have done any research to prove their models correct"(p.172).

Research reviews

Main articles: NLP and science, List of studies on Neuro-linguistic programming

Peer-reviewed psychological and experimental literature in NLP has been sporadic.

Sharpley (1987), coming from the positivist psychological tradition, stated that the techniques and underlying theory of NLP, as a counseling tool, were both empirically unvalidated and unsupported. A literature review by Sharpley (1984) found "little research evidence supporting its usefulness as an effective counseling tool" and no reproducible support for preferred representational systems (PRS) and predicate matching. Sharpley (1987) states "there are conclusive data from the research on NLP, and the conclusion is that the principles and procedures of NLP have failed to be supported by those data".

Einspruch and Forman (1985) broadly agreed with Sharpley but disputed the conclusions identifying a failure to address methodological errors in the research reviewed. They argued NLP is a very complex model and it is difficult to test under the traditional counseling framework. Moreover the research lacked a necessary understanding of pattern recognition as part of advanced NLP training and furthermore, that there was inadequate control of context, an unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy, inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous logical mistakes in the research methodology.

Sharpley (1987) responded to Einspruch and Forman who suggested that "NLP is far more complex than presumed by researchers, and thus, the data are not true evaluations of NLP". Sharpley rebutting the criticisms and with more studies on the basic tenets of NLP stating "certainly research data do not support the rather extreme claims that proponents of NLP have made as to the validity of its principles or the novelty of its procedures." and also that NLP may be untestable stating "perhaps NLP principles are not amenable to research evaluation. This does not necessarily reduce NLP to worthlessness for counseling practice. Rather, it puts NLP in the same category as psychoanalysis, that is, with principles not easily demonstrated in laboratory settings but, nevertheless, strongly supported by clinicians in the field."

Druckman and Swets (1988) in a report from the United States National Research Council, found that "individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique". They also concluded influence techniques of NLP were unsupported (including matching representational systems to gain rapport). Moreover "instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors". They conceeded that the idea of modeling of expert performance "merits further consideration" but NLP itself was not included in a follow up study on modeling (amongst other matters) by Swets and Bjork (1991) except by way of acknowledgment for the idea which has been pursued through other disciplines.

Efran and Lukens (1990) stated that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy".

Barry Beyerstein (1990) asserts that "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies." With reference to all the 'neuromythologies' covered in his article, including NLP, he states "In the long run perhaps the heaviest cost extracted by neuromythologists is the one common to all pseudosciences—deterioration in the already low levels of scientific literacy and critical thinking in society. "

Von Bergen et al (1997) state NLP was dropped from the experimental psychology research stream. They stated that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error" and that "NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny" .

Carbonell and Figley at Florida State University, Traumatology have published an exploratory study on V/KD, a component of NLP, and three other novel treatments for trauma (Thought Field Therapy, Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and Traumatic Incident Reduction). The active ingredient for V/KD, was in deliberately creating a temporary state of dissociation from the traumatic event. However, this study was not designed as an outcome study, thus no conclusions can be drawn about the efficacy of these techniques from that study. With reference to Brief Treatments for the Traumatized (including NLP) John Wilson states that while it is "adequately descriptive of the clinical procedures, there is little, if any, empirically validated dated outcome studies to substantiate a theory driven and research informed brief treatment (p. 173–207)."

Michael Heap (1988), a researcher in hypnosis, asserted that "the effectiveness of NLP therapy undertaken in authentic clinical contexts of trained practitioners has not yet been properly investigated." and further that "there is not, and never has been, any substance to the conjecture that people represent their world internally in a preferred mode which may be inferred from their choice of predicates and from their eye movements."

Donald Eisner (2000) in The Death of Psychotherapy, states that "There is only one problem with the claims made by NLP and the IDEA Seminars: not one iota of clinical research supports any of the claims. Apparently, no peer-reviewed research has been published for over a decade. Moreover, there has been virtually no comparative research recently that assesses NLP's effectiveness. Word of mouth, reputation, charisma and neatly packaged seminars seem to constitute proof of NLP's favorable outcome. If such incredible results had truly been achieved, why haven't they been documented and presented to the scientific community and the general".

Lilienfield et al (2002), Evidence-based psychologists, describe NLP as "a scientifically unsubstantiated therapeutic method that purports to "program" brain functioning through a variety of techniques, including mirroring the postures and nonverbal behaviors of clients" and include it in their description "(Quick Fix + Pseudoscientific Gloss) x Credulous Public = High Income"..

Grant Devilly (2005) states that "at the time of its introduction, NLP was heralded as a breakthrough in therapy and advertisements for training workshops, videos and books began to appears in trade magazines. The workshops provided certification... However, controlled studies shed such a poor light on the practice, and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers began to question the wisdom of researching the area further and even suggested that NLP was an untestable theory"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets of the human resource community. The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains".

Human resources

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NLP has influenced some corporate executive coaches, who provide one-on-one training and collaborative relationships to executive interested in developement skills in career or business and may help resolve related personal issues.

Skinner and Stephens (2003) explored the use the model of representational systems in television marketing and communications.

Human resource professional Von Bergen considers NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training .

Popular Culture and Media

This section needs expansion. You can help by making an edit requestadding to it .

In 2003 English psychological illusionist Derren Brown performed a stunt on national TV where he played Russian Roulette with 5 other players. Having trained with NLP Co-Creator Richard Bandler among others, some suggested the stunt's success was due to Brown using NLP techniques in order manipulate the outcome.

In 2005, celebrity hypnotist and television personality Paul McKenna was shown applying neuro-linguistic programming and other techniques on his Sky One show, 'I Can Change Your Life' to assist people with phobias, such as agoraphobia and addictions to gambling and shopping. In 2006, another Sky One programme, 'I Can Make You Thin', featured Richard Bandler and used NLP among other techniques to help people lose weight.

Noting some proponents claim that NLP must work because it has lasted three decades, Journalist Satham Sanghera wrote in a 2005 in a Financial Times news column that "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions"

Manipulation and persuasion

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In his book 'Recovery from Cults' Michael Langone states "We know that NLP is also used by some very aggressive cults because the NLP method can be used by such groups to instill a reliance upon the cult, and provides a conditioning method to further induce compliance." Langone links NLP to est, Transcendental Meditation and Scientology in that "Each teaches that the perceived world is an illusion,...Each of these groups says that your mind is an enemy and each teaches techniques for escaping from the mind's grasp. With the exception of NLP, each espouses a mythology in which the groups leader is elevated to cosmic importance..." He describes NLP as "a tool for generating change for changes sake" .

Freelance writer Steve Salerno in his book SHAM states "NLP has shown up in many settings inside and outside SHAM" (his acronym for the Self-Help and Actualization Movement) but particularly aims his criticism at Anthony Robbins (Tony) who he claims "made NLP his own, refining it and personalizing it into what he christened "neuroassociative conditioning" (a claim with which other proponents of NLP would disagree; see history section). Salerno criticizes proponents of SHAM, including Tony Robbins stating it "actually fans the fires of discontent, making people feel impaired or somehow deficient as a prelude to (supposedly) curing them." He also claims that when working for SHAM publishers,"failure and stagnation, thus, were central to our ongoing business model".

Commercialization

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Described by Singer as a purely commercial enterprise. NLP is sometimes marketed as a science, such as in NLP book titles like NLP: The New Technology of Achievement by Steve Andreas and Charles Faulkner.

Pieter Drenth (1999) having put NLP firmly in the category of pseudo science states "Partly it is a shrewd commercial formula, and the marketing. Just take the name. Why not PQR or BYG (believe in your own goal) or something like that?" and goes on to say "but even for new theories and hypothetical frameworks, the requirement still holds that they should be scrutinized and tested on logical grounds and, in the case of empirical or experimental science, on the basis of empirical or experimental evidence".

Notes and references

1. ^ Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. 149(pp.15, 24, 30, 45, 52). 0911226192. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Bandler & Grinder 1979" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
2. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
3. ^ Dilts, R.B., Grinder, J., Bandler, R., DeLozier, J.A. (1980). Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I - The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Meta Publications. pp. 284(pp.3-4, 6, 14, 17). ISBN 0916990079.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
4. ^ Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory". Communication and Cognition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1: 103–107, 105.
5. ^ Druckman and Swets (eds) (l988) Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques, National Academy Press.
6. Cite web: 'NLP Knowledge Centre'
7. Cite web: 'NLP Schedule'
8. ^ Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich (1997). Crazy Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work?. Jossey Bass. 0787902780. {{cite book}}: Text "p.169" ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "Singer & Lalich 1997" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
9. Cite web: ANLP News: NLP Matters
10. ^ Platt, G. "NLP - No Longer Plausible?". Retrieved 2001. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) Cite error: The named reference "Platt 2001" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
11. Guidance Counselor's handbook, section 1.4.5: http://www.ncge.ie/resources_handbooks_guidance.htm section 1.4.5 (DOC)
12. Cite web: NTIS: Graduate Certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming
13. Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary". . Retrieved 2003. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
14. ^ Peter Schütz (Accessed 24th December 2006) A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training: A European perspective
15. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1983). Reframing: Neurolinguistic programming and the transformation of meaning. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. appendix II, p.171.
16. What is Neuro-Linguistic Programming.
17. Cite error: The named reference Bander & Grinder 1975a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Einspruch, Eric L., Forman, Bruce D. (1985). "Observations Concerning Research Literature on Neuro-Linguistic Programming". Journal of Counseling Psychology. 32(4): pp. 589-596. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
19. Jacobson, S. (1994) Info-line: practical guidelines for training and development professionals, American Society For Training and Development Alexandria, VA Adapted version available online
20. Norma Barretta. (2004) American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. Bloomingdale: Vol.46, Iss. 3; pg.261
21. Clabby, J. PhD; O’Connor, R. MD (2005) "Teaching Learners to Use Mirroring: Rapport" Journal of Family Medicine Vol.36, No.8 p.541
22. Hines, Terence (1987). Left Brain/Right Brain Mythology and Implications for Management and Training. The Academy of Management Review, 12:4, 600-606.
23. Felder, Richard, (1993) Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education." Journal College Science Teaching, 23(5), 286-290.
24. ^ Tosey, P. Jane Mathison (2003) Neuro-linguistic Programming and learning theory: a response The Curriculum Journal Vol.14 No.3 p.371-388 See also (available online): Neuro-linguistic programming: its potential for learning and teaching in formal education
25. Bandler, Richard (1985). . Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. pp. -. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
26. ^ Masters, B Rawlins, M, Rawlins, L, Weidner, J. (1991) "The NLP swish pattern: An innovative visualizing technique. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. Vol 13(1) Jan 1991, 79-90. "
27. Krugman, Martin, et al., (1985): "Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth?." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Aug, Vol. 53(4) pp. 526-530.
28. Alice Mills (1999) Pollyanna and the not so glad game. Children's Literature. Storrs: 1999. Vol.27 pg. 87, 18 pgs
29. Terry Soo-Hoo (1999) Brief strategic family therapy with Chinese Americans The American Journal of Family Therapy. New York: Vol.27(2); p.163,17 pages
30. Cite error: The named reference Bander & Grinder 1979 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
31. ^ Craft, A. (2001) Neuro-linguistic Programming and learning theory The Curriculum Journal. Vol.12(1) pp.125-136 Cite error: The named reference "Craft 2001" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
32. ^ Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. p. pp.xx, xxi, xix,62,197. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
33. ^ Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001.). Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises. pp. 127, 171, 222, ch.3, Appendix. -. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
34. Vaihinger, H. "The Philosophy of "As If." (originally published, 1924)". Routledge, Kegan and Paul Ltd, London, England. -. Retrieved -. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
35. ^ Dilts, Robert B (2000). Encyclopedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding. NLP University Press. ISBN 0970154003. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Dilts & Delozier 2000" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
36. ^ Drenth, P. (1999) Prometheus chained: Social and ethical constraints on psychology. Vol. 4.4 pp.233-239 European psychologist
37. Willem Levelt (1996) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguïstisch Programmeren! Skepter Vol.9(3)
38. Pieter J.D. Drenth (2003) Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science in ALLEA Annual Report pp.60-72'
39. Corballis, M. in Sala (ed) (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain Author: Sergio Della Sala Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons ISBN 0-471-98303-9 p.41
40. David Bloomberg, "Faults and Paranormal Favoritism in Flawed Encyclopedia" (Nov 2000) Skeptical Inquirer
41. Williams, W F. general editor. (2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience: From alien abductions to Zone Therapy, Publisher: Facts On File, New York.
42. Joseph O'Connor, John Seymour (2002 (first published 1990)). Introducing NLP. London: HarperCollins. 1855383446. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
43. Hollander, J. Ph.D. (1999, November) NLP and Science-Six recommendations for a better relationship Part 1, Part 2, first published in NLP journal/magazine: "NLP World" Nov. 1999 Vol 6(3)
44. Peter Labouchere (2004) Using participatory story telling, forum theatre and NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming) concepts and techniques to create powerful learning experiences around issues of HIV prevention, support and positive living paper presented at at EE4 - Fourth International Entertainment Education Conference
45. Hunt, Stephen J. (2003) Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction ISBN 0-7546-3410-8
46. ^ Beyerstein. B.L (1990). "Brainscams: Neuromythologies of the New Age" (PDF). International Journal of Mental Health. 19(3): 27–36, 27.
47. ^ David V. Barrett (2001) The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions Available online from Google Books. pp.434,26
48. NLP is used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies:
    • National Phobics Society of Great Britain
    • National Phobics Society of Great Britain: List of treatments and help
    • Mental Health Promotions: How to Assert Yourself
    • USU The Student Health and Wellness Center: What are Eating Disorders?
    • Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism
    • Advocates of Child Abuse Survivors: Counselling and therapy
49. Labouchere P, Tweedie I, Fiagbey E, Ocquaye M. (2002) Narrow Bridges to your Future: Creating a metaphorical experience of staying safe from HIV and realising the future you want presented at the International AIDS Conference 2002 Jul 7-12; 14 pages
50. Miller, F. Clayton. (Nov 1997) The NLP loss pattern: Imagery and experience in grief and mourning. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. Vol 58(5-B) pp. 2691.
51. Schütz, P. "A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training". . Retrieved December 2006. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
52. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2002). "Our Raisson D'etre". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 1(1): 20.
53. ^ Eisner, D. (2000) The Death of Psychotherapy: From Freud to Alien Abductions
54. Elich, M., Thompson, R. W., & Miller, L. (1985). Mental imagery as revealed by eye movements and spoken predicates: A test of neurolinguistic programming. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(4), 622-625. note: "psychological fad"p.625
55. Windy Dryden and Albert Ellis (2001) Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy in Dobson, Keith (Ed.) The Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies, Second Edition p.331
56. Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.
57. John E Thompson, Lisa Courtney, D Dickson. (2002) The effect of neurolinguistic programming on organizational and individual performance: A case study Journal of European Industrial Training. Bradford. Vol. 26, Iss. 6/7; p. 292 (7 pages)
58. Buckner, Meara, Reese, and Reese (1987) Journal of Counselling Psychology , Vol. 34(3), pp.283-287
59. Sharpley, C. F. (1984). Predicate matching in NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 238-248.
60. John A. Swets and Robert A. Bjork (1991) Enhancing human performance: An Evaluation of "New Age" Techniques Considered by the U.S
61. Efran, J S. Lukens M.D. (1990) Language, structure, and change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy, Published by W.W. Norton, New York. p.122
62. ^ Von Bergen, C W, Barlow Soper, Gary T Rosenthal, Lamar V Wilkinson (1997). "Selected alternative training techniques in HRD". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 8(4): 281–294.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Von Bergen et al 1997" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
63. Charles Figley (December 1997). The active ingredients of the Power Therapies. Conference for the Integrative and Innovative Use of EMDR, TFT, EFT, Advanced NLP, and TIR, Lakewood, CO.
64. Bertoli (2003) The Use of Neuro-linguistic Programming and Emotionally focused therapy with Divorcing Couples in Crisis in in Charles R. Figley (Ed) Brief Treatments for the Traumatized: A Project of the Green Cross Foundation
65. Joyce L. Carbonell, Charles Figley (1999). "Promising PTSD treatment approaches: Systematic Clinical Demonstration of Promising PTSD Treatment Approaches". TRAUMATOLOGYe. 5:1, Article 4: -.
66. Wilson, John P. (August 2004) Review of Brief Treatments for Trauma and PTSD. PsycCRITIQUES. 49(4):472-474
67. Heap, M. (1988). Neuro-linguistic programming, In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices (PDF). London: Croom Helm.
68. Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, Jeffrey M. Lohr (eds) (2004) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology
69. Grant J. Devilly (2005) Power Therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry Vol.39 p.437
70. Peter Bluckert (2004) The state of play in corporate coaching: current and future trends. Industrial and Commercial Training. Guilsborough Vol.36(2) p.53
71. Skinner, H. and Stephens, P. (2003). "Speaking the Same Language: Exploring the relevance of Neuro-Linguistic Programming to Marketing Communications". Journal of Marketing Communications. Volume 9, Number 3 / September: 177–192. {{cite journal}}: |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
72. Also appearing in the issue: Karen E Watkins (1997) Invited reaction: Selected alternative training techniques in HRD Human Resource Development Quarterly. vol. 8(4)
73. Was Derren Brown really playing Russian roulette - or was it just a trick? by Alok Jha, October 9, 2003, The Guardian
74. Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be a loser, Financial Times (London, First addition p.9), Sanghera, Satham.
75. Michael D Langone (Ed). Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse. New York, NY: W W Norton & Company.
76. Steve Salerno (2005) Sham: How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless, ISBN 1-4000-5409-5
77. Singer, Margaret (1995). Cults in Our Midst : The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace. New York, NY: Jossey Bass. ISBN 0-7879-6741-6.

Further reading

• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979) Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Real People Press. 149 pages. ISBN 0911226192
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1975) The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy Science and Behavior Books. 198 pages. ISBN 0831400447
• O'Connor, J., Seymour, J. Dilts, R. (foreword), Grinder, J. (preface) (1995) Introducing Neuro-linguistic Programming: The New Psychology of Personal Excellence Aquarian Press. 224 pages. ISBN 1852740736
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1981) Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning Real People Press. ISBN 0911226257
• Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson
• Dilts, R. (1990) Changing belief systems with NLP Meta Publications. ISBN 0916990249
• Bandler, R., Andreas, S. (ed) and Andreas, C. (ed) (1985) Using Your Brain-for a Change
• Grinder, M. (1991) Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt
• Laborde, G. (1987) Influencing with Integrity: Management Skills for Communication and Negotiation
• Dilts, R., Hallbom, T., Smith, S. (1990) Beliefs: Pathways to Health & Well-being
• Satir, V., Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Changing with Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 083140051X

External links

Associations

• Neuro linguistic psychotherapy & counselling Association (NLPtCA) - Member of UKCP
• European Association for Neuro-Linguistic Psychotherapy (EANLPt) - European accrediting organisation for NLPt
• Professional Guild of NLP
• The Society of NLP
• Global Organisation of NLP
• List of German associations
• International Association for NLP (IANLP)

Research

• Article addressing the scientific criticism on NLP research
• Database and review of academic research
• NLP Glossary
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP

Skeptics

• Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary".

See also

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• Gestalt therapy
• Hypnotherapy
• Family systems therapy
• The map is not the territory
• Provocative therapy
• Cognitive science
• Persuasion
• Large Group Awareness Training

• Articles lacking reliable references from December 2006
• Human communication
• Mind-body interventions
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming concepts and methods
• Pseudoscience
• Psychotherapy