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After the death of ], Buddhism saw rapid expansion in its first century, especially in northern and central ]. <ref name="Merriam155"/> The ] Emperor ] (304-232 BCE) and later monarchs encouraged the expansion of Buddhism into Asia through religious ambassadors. Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries CE, such as ], ], ], Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist '']'', especially in the wake of the ] invasion. <ref name="Merriam155"/> A continuing decline occured after the fall of the ] dynasty in the 12th century CE, continuing with the later destruction of monasteries by Muslim conquerors. <ref name="Merriam155"/> After the death of ], Buddhism saw rapid expansion in its first century, especially in northern and central ]. <ref name="Merriam155"/> The ] Emperor ] (304-232 BCE) and later monarchs encouraged the expansion of Buddhism into Asia through religious ambassadors. Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries CE, such as ], ], ], Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist '']'', especially in the wake of the ] invasion. <ref name="Merriam155"/> A continuing decline occured after the fall of the ] dynasty in the 12th century CE, continuing with the later destruction of monasteries by Muslim conquerors. <ref name="Merriam155"/>


Buddhism was virtually extinct by the end of the 19th century. In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India due to the influence of ], ] and ]. In the mid 20th century Ambedkar pioneered a contemporary revival primarily through a movement of mass conversions of the untouchables (or ]), of the ].<ref name="Merriam155"/> Buddhism was virtually extinct by the end of the 19th century. In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India due to the influence of ], ] and ].


==Buddhism under various governments== ==Buddhism under various governments==
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The Sungas were patrons of Hinduism and their lack of royal patronage was also a setback to Buddhism, resulting in the splintering of Buddhism into many forces. Some of them were: the ''Saravastivadins'', ''Mahasargikas'', ''Sthaviravadha'', and ''Yogacara''. This resulted in a diversity of opinions and interpretations that led to a conflict between warring schools shortly after the fall of the Mauryans. <ref name="ashok"/> Later Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at ].<ref> Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, '''"A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana"''', Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 8120809556 pg 223</ref> The Sungas were patrons of Hinduism and their lack of royal patronage was also a setback to Buddhism, resulting in the splintering of Buddhism into many forces. Some of them were: the ''Saravastivadins'', ''Mahasargikas'', ''Sthaviravadha'', and ''Yogacara''. This resulted in a diversity of opinions and interpretations that led to a conflict between warring schools shortly after the fall of the Mauryans. <ref name="ashok"/> Later Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at ].<ref> Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, '''"A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana"''', Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 8120809556 pg 223</ref>


The period however, has been described as one of political and spiritual competition with Hinduism <ref name="ashok"/><ref name="Sarvastivada"/> in the ] and one in which Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings. <ref name="ashok"/> Hinduism traditionally does not ]. <ref> </ref> Hinduism competed in spiritual and political realm with Buddhism. <ref name="Sarvastivada"/> Buddhism also flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings. <ref> Ashok Kumar Anand, ''"Buddhism in India"'', 1996, Gyan Books, ISBN 8121205069 pg 91-93</ref>


===Guptas=== ===Guptas===
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===Harsha=== ===Harsha===
In the North and west the collapse of ]'s kingdom gave rise to many smaller kingdoms. This led to the rise of the martial ] clans across the ]s. It also marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans, along with a sharp decline in royal patronage. This carried on until a revival under the ] in the Bengal region. Subsequently, the replacement of Buddhist royal lines with Hindu royals, as well as the rise of martial Rajput dynasties, further pressured ]. In the North and west the collapse of ]'s kingdom gave rise to many smaller kingdoms. This led to the rise of the martial ] clans across the ]s. It also marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans, along with a sharp decline in royal patronage. This carryed on until a revival under the ] in the Bengal region. Subsequently, the replacement of Buddhist royal lines with Hindu royals, as well as the rise of martial Rajput dynasties, further pressured ].

==Buddhism in Southern India==

In the south of India while there was no overt persecution of ] at least two ] rulers Simhavarma and Trilochana are known to have destroyed ] stupas and have had Hindu temples built over them. Furthermore a vigorous ] revival of ] Hinduism in the region led to a sharp decline of Buddhism.


===Muhammad bin Qasim=== ===Muhammad bin Qasim===
] has been also linked with Islamic persecution of Buddhists.
In AD 711, ] conquered the ] bringing Indian societies into contact with Islam. He succeeded partly because ] was an unpopular Hindu king that ruled over a ] majority.<ref name="Gier"> Nicholas F. Gier, ''FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES'', Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006, Last accessed December 11 2006</ref><ref name="Chachnama"> The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979 </ref> ] and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist ].<ref name="Gier"/> The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated ] in alliance with the lower caste ]s and other Buddhist governors. His campaign's success is ascribed to the support of Buddhists and the lower caste ]s, ] and ] tribes.<ref name="Chachnama"/>
In CE 711, Muhammad bin Qasim attacked the southern shores of ]. Quasim destroyed a Buddhist holy site and built a mosque in it's place. <ref>Pakistan: ps:pakistan,cultural Guide(p+) By Marian Rengel</ref>


It has been stated<ref>e.g. by Veer Savarkar in his book "Hindutva"</ref> that Buddhists helped bin Qasim in conquering parts of India. Al-Baladhuri recorded that two "]" went to Qasim to negotiate for peace. However, he also recorded that it was the inhabitants of Nirum who sent the priests to Qasim. <ref>Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.121. Elst 2001</ref>
While the ] records a couple of instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at ], the destruction of temples<ref name="Schimmel"> Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel, Religionen - Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, January 1, 1980, ISBN 90-04-06117-7, pg. 4</ref> was forbidden under the adopted ] school of thought, 3% of the government revenue was allocated to the Brahmins<ref name="Gier"/> and as a whole, the non-Muslim populations of conquered territories were treated as ] and granted ], ] and ] religions the freedom to practice their faith in return for payment of the poll tax (]).<ref name="Gier"/> They were then excused from military service or payment of the tax paid by Muslim subjects - ].<ref name="Appleby292"> Appleby, R Scott & Martin E Marty, Fundamentalisms Comprehended, University of Chicago Press, May 1, 2004, ISBN 0-226-50888-9 pg 290-292</ref> The jizya enforced was a graded tax, being heaviest on the elite and lightest on the poor.<ref name="Appleby292"/>


Muhammad bin Qasim also demolished temples and monasteries. For example, he built at ] a mosque on the site of the temple of ].<ref>Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.158</ref>
While ] occurred, the social dynamics of Sind were no different from other Muslim regions such as ], where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries, and generally came from among the ranks of Buddhists.<ref name="Appleby292"/>


===Mahmud of Ghazni=== ===Mahmud of Ghazni===
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==Ideological and financial causes== ==Ideological and financial causes==

The period between the 400 BCE and 1000 CE saw gains by Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism. Some Hindu rulers resorted to military means in their an effort to suppress Buddhism. However it is seen that the evolution of Hindu ideology influenced by Buddhisms was more important factor for the growth of Hinduism.<ref name="BBC"> </ref>

Hinduism became a more "intelligible and satisfying road to faith for many oridinary worshippers" because it now included not only an appeal to a personal god, but had also seen the development of an emotional facet with the composition of devotional hymns.<ref name="BBC"/>


===Financial reasons=== ===Financial reasons===
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===Islam=== ===Islam===
Hinduism traditionally does not ]. <ref> </ref> Hinduism does not allow conversion of non believers to the faith; but rather tolerates the existence of other beliefs. <ref>Enforcement of Human Rights in Peace and War and the Future of Humanity By Nagendra Singh (page 35)</ref> When conquered, Islamic rulers have been known to implement a policy on their subjects to either accept conversion to Islam or flee the land under Islamic rule; otherwise punishable by ] or even execution. <ref>In the Path of God (Ppr): Islam and Political Power By Daniel Pipes (page 45)</ref>
When Islam arrived, it established itself and then flourished primarily in areas where Buddhism was in a process of slow decline - that is mainly around modern-day ], ] and ].<ref name="BBC"/>


Buddhism suffered immensely during the ] with muslim rulers such as ], ], ] and ] destroying temples and shrines, as well as seeking conversion of Buddhists to Islam.{{fact}} Buddhism suffered immensely during the ] with muslim rulers such as ], ], ] and ] destroying temples and shrines, as well as seeking conversion of Buddhists to Islam.


According to Dr. B. R. ], "there can be no doubt that the fall of Buddhism was due to the invasions of the Muslims.”<ref>B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229 (Chapter “The decline and fall of Buddhism”).</ref> He wrote: <blockquote>''“ According to Dr. B. R. ], "there can be no doubt that the fall of Buddhism was due to the invasions of the Muslims.”<ref>B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229 (Chapter “The decline and fall of Buddhism”).</ref> He wrote: <blockquote>''“
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Thus the origin of the word indicates that in the Muslim mind idol worship had come to be identified with the religion of Buddha. To the Muslims they were one and the same thing. The mission to break idols thus became the mission to destroy Buddhism. Islam destroyed Buddhism not only in India but wherever it went. Bactria, Parthia, Afghanistan, Gandhara and Chinese Turkestan (…) in all these countries Islam destroyed Buddhism.”''<ref>B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229-230.</ref></blockquote> Thus the origin of the word indicates that in the Muslim mind idol worship had come to be identified with the religion of Buddha. To the Muslims they were one and the same thing. The mission to break idols thus became the mission to destroy Buddhism. Islam destroyed Buddhism not only in India but wherever it went. Bactria, Parthia, Afghanistan, Gandhara and Chinese Turkestan (…) in all these countries Islam destroyed Buddhism.”''<ref>B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229-230.</ref></blockquote>


The Arabic invaders described Indian Pagans as ], and idol-breakers as ]. The word "but" is derived from Buddhism, but the Arabs used it for "Indian paganism" in general.<ref>Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.119, 120. Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu. 2001</ref> Therefore in Arabic chronicles it is not always evident if Buddhists, Hindus or other Indian religions are meant.{{fact}} The Arabic invaders described Indian Pagans as ], and idol-breakers as ]. The word "but" is derived from Buddhism, but the Arabs used it for "Indian paganism" in general.<ref>Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.119, 120. Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu. 2001</ref> Therefore in Arabic chronicles it is not always evident if Buddhists, Hindus or other Indian religions are meant.


==Survival of Buddhism in India== ==Survival of Buddhism in India==

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The Decline of Buddhism in India, in the land of its birth occurred for a variety of reasons, and happened even as it continued to flourish beyond the frontiers of India. Buddhism was established in the area of ancient Magadha and Kosala by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE, in what is now modern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Buddhism, over the next Over 1500 years became the region's dominant belief system, spreading across the Indian sub-continent.

After the death of Gautama Buddha, Buddhism saw rapid expansion in its first century, especially in northern and central India. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (304-232 BCE) and later monarchs encouraged the expansion of Buddhism into Asia through religious ambassadors. Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries CE, such as Faxian, Xuanzang, I-ching, Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist sangha, especially in the wake of the White Hun invasion. A continuing decline occured after the fall of the Pala dynasty in the 12th century CE, continuing with the later destruction of monasteries by Muslim conquerors.

Buddhism was virtually extinct by the end of the 19th century. In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India due to the influence of Anagarika Dharmapala, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and Tenzin Gyatso.

Buddhism under various governments

The Sungas

Following the Mauryans, Pusyamitra Sunga is linked in legend with the persecution of Buddhists and a resurgence of a form of Hinduism that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria. . There is some doubt as to whether he did or did not persecute Buddhists actively.

A Buddhist tradition holds him as having taken taking steps to check the spread of Buddhism as "the number one enemy of the sons of the Sakya's and a most cruel persecutor of the religion". The Divyavadana ascribes to him the razing of stupas and viharas built by Ashoka, the placing of a bounty of 100 dinaras upon the heads of Buddhist monks (Shramanas) and describes him as one who wanted to undo the work of Ashoka. This account has however been described as "exaggerated". Historian Romila Thapar writes that the Asokavadana legend is, in all probability, a "Buddhist version of Pusyamitra's attack of the Mauryas", and reflects the fact that, with the declining influence of Buddhism in the Imperial court, Buddhist monuments and institutions would receive less attention.

Some historians have rejected the accuracy of the Buddhist texts that record Pushyamitra’s persecution of Buddhists. The first accounts appear two centuries after Pushyamitra's reign in Asokâvadâna and the Divyâvadâna. Koenraad Elst posits that historical facts confirm that Pushyamitra allowed and patronized the construction of monasteries and Buddhist universities in his domains, as well as the still-existent stupa of Sanchi. While Sir John Marshall states that it is possible that the original brick stupa built by Ashoka was destroyed by Pusyamitra and then restored by his successor Agnimitra. Arhaelogical evidence is scarce and uncertain.Following Ashoka’s sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Sungas but no evidence of active persecution has been noted. Etienne Lamotte observes: “To judge from the documents, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof.”

The Sungas were patrons of Hinduism and their lack of royal patronage was also a setback to Buddhism, resulting in the splintering of Buddhism into many forces. Some of them were: the Saravastivadins, Mahasargikas, Sthaviravadha, and Yogacara. This resulted in a diversity of opinions and interpretations that led to a conflict between warring schools shortly after the fall of the Mauryans. Later Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.

Hinduism traditionally does not evangelize. Hinduism competed in spiritual and political realm with Buddhism. Buddhism also flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings.

Guptas

Buddhism and saw a brief revival under the Guptas. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even as it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. It continued to prosper in Gandhara under the Shahi kingdom.

White Huns

Central Asian and North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasion, who followed their own religions such as Tengri, Nestorian Christianity, and Manichean. Their King, Mihirakula (who ruled from 515 BCE), suppressed Buddhism as well. He did this by destroying monasteries as far away as modern-day Allahabad, before his son reversed the policy.

Harsha

In the North and west the collapse of Harshavardana's kingdom gave rise to many smaller kingdoms. This led to the rise of the martial Rajputs clans across the gangetic plains. It also marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans, along with a sharp decline in royal patronage. This carryed on until a revival under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region. Subsequently, the replacement of Buddhist royal lines with Hindu royals, as well as the rise of martial Rajput dynasties, further pressured Buddhism.

Muhammad bin Qasim

Muhammad bin Qasim has been also linked with Islamic persecution of Buddhists. In CE 711, Muhammad bin Qasim attacked the southern shores of Sindh. Quasim destroyed a Buddhist holy site and built a mosque in it's place.

It has been stated that Buddhists helped bin Qasim in conquering parts of India. Al-Baladhuri recorded that two "Samanis" went to Qasim to negotiate for peace. However, he also recorded that it was the inhabitants of Nirum who sent the priests to Qasim.

Muhammad bin Qasim also demolished temples and monasteries. For example, he built at Nirun a mosque on the site of the temple of Budh.

Mahmud of Ghazni

By the 10th century Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the Hindu-Shahis, effectively removing Hindu influence and ending Buddhist self-governance across Central Asia, as well as the Punjab region. He demolished both stupas and temples during his numerous campaigns across North-Western India, but left those within his domains and Afghanistan alone, even as al-Biruni recorded Buddha as the prophet "Burxan".

Mahmud of Ghazni is said to have been an iconoclast. Hindu and Buddhist statues, shrines and temples were looted and destroyed, and many Buddhists had to take refuge in Tibet.

Palas

In the East under the Palas in Bengal, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim. The Palas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. Mahayana Buddhism flourished under the Palas between the 8th and the 12th century, before it collapsed at the hands of the attacking Sena dynasty.

Muhammad of Ghor

Muhammad attacked the North-Western regions of the Indian subcontinent many times. Gujarat later fell to Muhammad of Ghor's armies in 1197. Muhammad of Ghor's armies destroyed many Buddhist structures, including the great Buddhist university of Nalanda.

In 1200 Muhammad Khilji, one of Qutb-ud-Din's generals destroyed monasteries fortified by the Sena armies, such as the one at Vikramshila. Many monuments of ancient Indian civilization were destroyed by the invading armies, including Buddhist sanctuaries near Benares. Buddhist monks who escaped the massacre fled to Nepal, Tibet and South India.

The Mongols

In 1215, Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan and devastated the Muslim world. In 1227, after his death, his conquest was divided. Chagatai then established the Chagatai Khanate, where his son Arghun made Buddhism the state religion. At the same time, he came down harshly on Islam and demolished mosques to build many stupas. He was succeeded by his brother, and then his son Ghazan who converted to Islam and in 1295 changed the state religion. After his reign, and the splitting of the Chagatai Khanate, little mention of Buddhism or the stupas built by the Mongols can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia.

Timur (Tamarlane)

Timur was a 14th-century warlord of Turco-Mongol descent , conqueror of much of Western and central Asia, and founder of the Timurid Empire.

Timur destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which Buddhism had flourished.

Mughals

Mughal rule also contributed to the decline of Buddhism. They are reported to have destroyed many Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines alike or converted many sacred Hindu places into Muslim shrines and mosques. Mughal rulers like Aurangzeb destroyed Buddhist temples and monasteries and replaced them with Islamic mosques.

Ideological and financial causes

Financial reasons

Buddhist monasteries were well-funded and life within was relatively easy. To avoid unwanted members, many monasteries became selective about whom they admitted, in some cases based on social class. This further cut off the sangha from Indian society.

Xuanzang's Report

Xuanzang reports in his travels across India during the 7th century that Buddhism was popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida, which today roughly correspond to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. He also reports numerous ruined and deserted stupas in the conquered Buddhist regions such as by the regions around modern day Nepal, as well as the persecution of Buddhists by Ssanka in the Kingdom of Gouda. Xuanzang compliments the patronage of Harshavardana during this same period, while noting in his travels that in various regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism.

Philosophical divergence with Adi Shankara

In 9th century BCE, the Buddhist philosophers started to lose ground with the Hindu Saint Adi Shankara. Shankaracharya debated with Buddhist monks and raised issues with Buddhist philosophy. The rejection of the notion of Atman, and yet the endorsement of rebirth, could not be explained by the Buddhists. The resurgence of Hinduism with the ideas of Shankaracharya led to a reduction of royal patronage of the Buddhist monks. As political patronage failed, it came under increasing pressure by Hinduism and the revival movements of Adi Shankara. Shakyamuni Buddha eventually came to be venerated as a manifestation of the Hindu god Vishnu.

Sufis and the Bhakti movement

When Islam arrived in India, it sought conversion from, not assimilation to or integration with, the already present religions. Under Sufi influence, the pressures of caste, and with no political support structure left in place to resist social mores, many converted to Islam in the Bengal region.

After the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards India and around the environs of Bengal. In Bengal, their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with converting Buddhists, a lack of Buddhist political power, Hinduism's resurgence through movements such as the Advaita and the bhakti movement, all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs that relegated Buddhism in India to the peripheries.

Islam

Hinduism traditionally does not evangelize. Hinduism does not allow conversion of non believers to the faith; but rather tolerates the existence of other beliefs. When conquered, Islamic rulers have been known to implement a policy on their subjects to either accept conversion to Islam or flee the land under Islamic rule; otherwise punishable by enslavement or even execution.

Buddhism suffered immensely during the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent with muslim rulers such as Muhammad bin Qasim, Muhammad of Ghor, Qutb-ud-Din and Aurangzeb destroying temples and shrines, as well as seeking conversion of Buddhists to Islam.

According to Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, "there can be no doubt that the fall of Buddhism was due to the invasions of the Muslims.” He wrote:

“ Thus the origin of the word indicates that in the Muslim mind idol worship had come to be identified with the religion of Buddha. To the Muslims they were one and the same thing. The mission to break idols thus became the mission to destroy Buddhism. Islam destroyed Buddhism not only in India but wherever it went. Bactria, Parthia, Afghanistan, Gandhara and Chinese Turkestan (…) in all these countries Islam destroyed Buddhism.”

The Arabic invaders described Indian Pagans as But-parast, and idol-breakers as but-shikan. The word "but" is derived from Buddhism, but the Arabs used it for "Indian paganism" in general. Therefore in Arabic chronicles it is not always evident if Buddhists, Hindus or other Indian religions are meant.

Survival of Buddhism in India

At the beginning of the modern era, Buddhism was very nearly extinct in mainstream Indian society. Some tribal peoples living in the territory of modern India did continue to practice Buddhism.

In Bengal, the Bauls still practice a syncretic form of Hinduism that was strongly influenced by Buddhism. There is also evidence of small communities of Indian Theravada Buddhists existing continuously in Bengal in the area of Chittagong up to the present.

Buddhist institutions flourished in eastern India right until the Islamic invasion. Buddhism still survives among the Barua, a community of Bengali/Magadh descent that migrated to Chittagong region. Indian Buddhism also survives among Newars of Nepal.

In Orissa, Mahima Dharma, a derivative of Buddhism, survived until 18th century.

The Hindu Kayasthas, a community of scribes in North India, had been a supporter of Buddhism since the early period. They continued to support Buddhism until about 12th-13th century in some regions.

Buddhism survived in Kashmir valley until 13-14th century, perhaps slightly longer in the nearby Swat Valley. In Ladakh region, adjacent to Kashmir valley, Tibetan Buddhism survives. Tibetan Buddhism must have been popular in Kashmir at one time, as we learn from Rajatarangini of Kalhana.

In Tamilnadu and Kerala, Buddhism survived until 15-16th century. At Nagapattinam, in Tamil Nadu, Buddhist idols were cast and inscribed until this time, and the ruins of the Chudamani Vihara stood until they were destroyed by the Jesuits in 1867. In the South in some pockets, it may have survived even longer.

Revival

Further information: Buddhism in India

The Buddhist revival began in India in 1891, when the Sri Lankan Buddhist leader Anagarika Dharmapala founded the Maha Bodhi Society. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar converted to Buddhism on October 14, 1956. His Holiness Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama transitioned from Tibet to India in 1959 and set up the government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamsala, India, which is often referred to as "Little Lhasa."

Notes

  1. Promsak, pg.14
  2. ^ Merriam-Webster, pg. 155-157
  3. ^ Sarvastivada pg 38-39
  4. Gautama Buddha was held to be from the tribe of the Sakya's (Alt terms: Saka/Shakya) and his title Sakyamuni means "sage of the Sakas".
  5. ^ Ashoka, pg 91-93
  6. Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200
  7. Sir John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN-10: 8185204322, pg.38
  8. Article on Deokothar Stupas possibly being targeted by Pushyamitra
  9. Ashoka and Pushyamitra, iconoclasts? by Koenraad Elst
  10. Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, "A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana", Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 8120809556 pg 223
  11. BBC on Hinduism
  12. Ashok Kumar Anand, "Buddhism in India", 1996, Gyan Books, ISBN 8121205069 pg 91-93
  13. Pakistan: ps:pakistan,cultural Guide(p+) By Marian Rengel
  14. e.g. by Veer Savarkar in his book "Hindutva"
  15. Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.121. Elst 2001
  16. Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.158
  17. The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire, Part III: The Spread of Islam among and by the Turkic Peoples (840 - 1206 CE)
  18. Notes on the Religious, Moral, and Political State of India Before the Mohammedan Invasion:... By Faxian, Sykes (William Henry) pg.??
  19. How to Prepare for the Sat II: World History By Marilynn Hitchens, Heidi Roupp, pg. ??
  20. Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions By C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren page 381
  21. Islam at War: A History By Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda (page 226)
  22. The Ilkhanate
  23. B.F. Manz, "Tīmūr Lang", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition, 2006
  24. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, "Timur", 6th ed., Columbia University Press: "... Timur (timoor') or Tamerlane (tăm'urlān), c.1336–1405, Mongol conqueror, b. Kesh, near Samarkand. ...", (LINK)
  25. "Timur", in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "... was a member of the Turkic Barlas clan of Mongols..."
  26. "Baber", in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "... Baber first tried to recover Samarkand, the former capital of the empire founded by his Mongol ancestor Timur Lenk ..."
  27. Sir Aurel Stein: Archaeological Explorer By Jeannette Mirsky
  28. Ethnicity & Family Therapy edited by Nydia Garcia-Preto, Joe Giordano, Monica McGoldrick
  29. War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Tibet By Eric S. Margolis page 165
  30. India By Sarina Singh
  32. ^ Buddhism in Andhra
  33. F. R. Hemingway, Godavari district gazetteer, 2000, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 8120614615, pg 20
  34. BBC on Hinduism
  35. Enforcement of Human Rights in Peace and War and the Future of Humanity By Nagendra Singh (page 35)
  36. In the Path of God (Ppr): Islam and Political Power By Daniel Pipes (page 45)
  37. B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229 (Chapter “The decline and fall of Buddhism”).
  38. B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229-230.
  39. Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.119, 120. Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu. 2001
  42. Ahir, D.C. (1991). Buddhism in Modern India. Satguru. ISBN 81-7030-254-4.
  43. Pritchett, Frances (2006-08-02). "Columbia University" (PHP). Retrieved 2006-08-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. The Dalai Lama: A Policy of Kindness By Sidney Piburn (page 12)

References

  • "The Decline of Buddhism in India". Washington State University. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
  • Dhammika, S. (1993). The Edicts of King Ashoka. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0104-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Promsak Jermsawatdi, "Thai Art with Indian influence", 2003, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170170907
  • Doniger, Wendy (2000). Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions. Encyclopedia Britanica. p. 1378. ISBN 0877790442. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Charles (EDT) Willemen, Bart Dessein, Collett Cox, "Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholastism", 1998, Brill Academic Publishers
  • Ashok Kumar Anand, "Buddhism in India", 1996, Gyan Books, ISBN 8121205069

See also

External links

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