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{{Short description|Traditional system of Indian architecture as described in Hindu texts}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Hinduism}} {{Hinduism}}
⚫ '''Hindu architecture''' is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described in ].{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41">{{cite journal | last=Sinha | first=Amita | title=Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras | journal=Journal of Cultural Geography | publisher=Taylor & Francis | volume=17 | issue=2 | year=1998 | doi=10.1080/08873639809478319 | pages=27–41}}</ref> The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include the ]s, ], the ''Brihat Samhita'', architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the ] among others.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx, Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts}}{{sfn|Shukla|1993|p=}}


]
By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are ]s, with an architectural tradition that has left surviving examples in stone, brick, and ] dating back to the ].


⚫ '''Hindu architecture''' is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described in ].{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41">{{harvnb|Sinha|1998|pages=27–41}}</ref> The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include the ]s, ], the ''Brihat Samhita'', architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the ] among others.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx, Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts}}{{sfn|Shukla|1993|p=}}
There is far fewer surviving secular Hindu architecture such as palaces, homes and cities. Very little early palace architecture survives, and the great majority of surviving palaces show clear influence from ], especially ], later joined by European architecture.{{cn|date=January 2021}}

By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are ]s, with an ] that has left surviving examples in stone, brick, and ] dating back to the ]. These architectures had influence of Ancient Persian and ] architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Vincent Arthur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IPstAAAAMAAJ&q=%22The+Hellenistic+is+not+the+only+foreign+element+in+ancient+Indian+art+.+The+influence+of+Persia+is+apparent+,+and+the+columnar+architecture+of+the+Achaemenian+monarchy+supplied+the+models+for+Asoka's+monolithic+pillars+and+many%22|title=Research Articles in Epigraphy, Archaeology, and Numismatics of India|date=1977|publisher=Sheikh Mubarak Ali|language=en}}</ref> Far fewer secular Hindu architecture have survived into the modern era, such as palaces, homes and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in India.<ref name="Murthy1987">{{cite book|author=K. Krishna Murthy|title=Early Indian Secular Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gsNAQAAIAAJ|year=1987|isbn=978-81-85067-01-8|pages=5–16|publisher=Sundeep Prakashan }}</ref>

Studies on Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture particularly of the northern and western India given their relative abundance. In other regions of India, particularly the South, Hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th-century, such as those exemplified by the temples, ruined cities and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayakas.<ref name="Branfoot 2008 pp. 171–194">{{cite journal | last=Branfoot | first=Crispin | title=Imperial Frontiers: Building Sacred Space in Sixteenth-Century South India | journal=The Art Bulletin | publisher=Taylor & Francis| volume=90 | issue=2 | year=2008 | doi=10.1080/00043079.2008.10786389 | pages=171–194| s2cid=154135978 }}</ref><ref name=harle331>{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=330–331}}</ref> The secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in India, and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the Hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones. Further, states Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found.<ref name="Harle1994">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=43–47, 67–68, 467–480}}</ref>


== Texts == == Texts ==
] ]

Vaastu Shastras and Shilpa Shastras are listed as one of 64 divine arts in ancient Indian texts. They are design manuals covering the art and science of architecture, typically mixing form, function with Hindu symbolism.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41"/> The earliest, archaic and distilled version of Hindu architecture principles are found in the Vedic literature, traditionally considered as the ''Upavedas'' (lesser appendices to the Vedas), and called the ''Sthapatya Veda''.<ref name="Patra 2006 pp. 199–218">{{cite journal | last=Patra | first=Reena | title=A Comparative Study on Vaastu Shastra and Heidegger's 'Building, Dwelling and Thinking' | journal=Asian Philosophy | publisher=Taylor & Francis | volume=16 | issue=3 | year=2006 | doi=10.1080/09552360600979430 | pages=199–218| s2cid=144592593 }}</ref> Acharya's ''Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture'' lists hundreds of Sanskrit manuscripts with more details on Hindu architecture that have survived into the modern age.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}} They cover the architectural aspects of a wide range of subjects: ornaments, furniture, vehicles (wagons, carts), gateways, water tanks, drains, cities, streets, homes, palaces, temples and others.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41"/> The most studied texts in the contemporary era are Sanskrit manuscripts in different Indic scripts. These include the '']'' (chapters 53, 56–58 and 79), the '']'', the ''Mayamata Vastu Sastra'' with commentaries in Telugu and Tamil, the Puranas (for example, chapters 42–62 and 104–106 of ''Agni Purana'', chapter 7 of ''Brahmanda Purana'') and the Hindu Agamas.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx with Appendix 1}} Vaastu Shastras and Shilpa Shastras are listed as one of 64 divine arts in ancient Indian texts. They are design manuals covering the art and science of architecture, typically mixing form, function with Hindu symbolism.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41"/> The earliest, archaic and distilled version of Hindu architecture principles are found in the Vedic literature, traditionally considered as the ''Upavedas'' (lesser appendices to the Vedas), and called the ''Sthapatya Veda''.<ref name="Patra 2006 pp. 199–218">{{harvnb|Patra|2006}}</ref> Acharya's ''Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture'' lists hundreds of Sanskrit manuscripts with more details on Hindu architecture that have survived into the modern age.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}} They cover the architectural aspects of a wide range of subjects: ornaments, furniture, vehicles (wagons, carts), gateways, water tanks, drains, cities, streets, homes, palaces, temples and others.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41"/> The most studied texts in the contemporary era are Sanskrit manuscripts in different Indic scripts. These include the '']'' (chapters 53, 56–58 and 79), the '']'', the ''Mayamata Vastu Sastra'' with commentaries in Telugu and Tamil, the Puranas (for example, chapters 42–62 and 104–106 of ''Agni Purana'', chapter 7 of ''Brahmanda Purana'') and the Hindu Agamas.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx with Appendix 1}}

{{Clear}}


== Villages, towns and cities == == Villages, towns and cities ==
] ]
Hindu texts recommend architectural guidelines for homes, market places, gardens and town planning.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}{{sfn|Sinha|1998|pp=27–40}} The best site for human settlement, declares '']'', seeks the right terrain with thick soil that slopes to open skies eastward so that the residents can appreciate the sunrise.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}} It is near a river or significant water stream, and has enough ground water for wells – a second source of water.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}} The soil, states ''Manasara'', should be firm, rich for growing flowers, vegetables and fruit trees, and of agreeable odor. The text recommends that the town planners dig and check the soil quality for a stable foundation to homes and public buildings.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}} Once the location is accepted, the text describes forty plans for laying out the streets, the homes, markets, gardens and other infrastructure necessary for the settlement. Example architectural plans include Dandaka, Prastara, Chaturmukha, Padmaka, Karmuka, Swastika and others.{{sfn|Sinha|1998|pp=27–40}} The Hindu texts vary, with five shared principles:{{sfn|Patra|2006|pp=201–203}} Hindu texts recommend architectural guidelines for homes, market places, gardens and town planning.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}{{sfn|Sinha|1998|pp=27–40}} The best site for human settlement, declares '']'', seeks the right terrain with thick soil that slopes to open skies eastward so that the residents can appreciate the sunrise.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}} It is near a river or significant water stream, and has enough ground water for wells – a second source of water.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}} The soil, states ''Manasara'', should be firm, rich for growing flowers, vegetables and fruit trees, and of agreeable odor. The text recommends that the town planners dig and check the ] for a stable foundation to homes and public buildings.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}} Once the location is accepted, the text describes forty plans for laying out the streets, the homes, markets, gardens and other infrastructure necessary for the settlement. Example architectural plans include Dandaka, Prastara, Chaturmukha, Padmaka, Karmuka, Swastika and others.{{sfn|Sinha|1998|pp=27–40}} The Hindu texts vary, with five shared principles:{{sfn|Patra|2006|pp=201–203}}
*''Diknirnaya'': principles of orientation *''Diknirnaya'': principles of orientation
*''Padavinyasa'' : site planning *''Padavinyasa'' : site planning
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The guidelines combine principles of early Hindu understanding of science, spiritual beliefs, astrology and astronomy.{{sfn|Patra|2006|pp=201–203}} In practice, these guidelines favor symmetry set to the cardinal directions, with many plans favoring the streets to be aligned with seasonal winds direction, integrated with the terrain and the needs of the local weather.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}}{{sfn|Patra|2006|pp=201–203}} A temple or public assembly hall at the center of the town is recommended in ''Manasara''.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}} The guidelines combine principles of early Hindu understanding of science, spiritual beliefs, astrology and astronomy.{{sfn|Patra|2006|pp=201–203}} In practice, these guidelines favor symmetry set to the cardinal directions, with many plans favoring the streets to be aligned with seasonal winds direction, integrated with the terrain and the needs of the local weather.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}}{{sfn|Patra|2006|pp=201–203}} A temple or public assembly hall at the center of the town is recommended in ''Manasara''.{{sfn|Ernest Havell|1972|pp=7–17}}

==Hospitals, hospices==
The early Hindu texts on medicine and surgery mention dedicated buildings and halls to take care of sick people, and recommend that architects with ''Vastu Vidya'' (वास्तुविद्या) expertise should construct these. The '']'' dated between 100 BCE to 150 CE, for example, in book 1, verse 15.6 (''sutrasthana'') states:<ref name=Wujastyk1>Dominik Wujastyk (2003), The Roots of Āyurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings, 3rd edition, Penguin, pages 35–36, 10–12</ref><ref name=Kaviratna1>AV Kaviratna (1913), Charaka-samhita : translated into English, Part 1, {{oclc|67906513}}, pages 168–169</ref><ref name=sharma1>Priya V Sharma (1981), Charaka Samhita Volume 1: Sanskrit Text, with an English Translation, Chaukhamba Orientalia, {{ISBN|9788176370127}}, page 104</ref>{{refn|group=note|The verse 1.15.7 describes how this hospital building should be furnished with beds, chairs, bedsheets, pillows, spitoon, drug grinders, affectionate nurses, pharmacy, supplies, patient care equipment etc.<ref name=Wujastyk1/><ref name=sharma1/>}}

{{Quote|
{{lang|sa-Deva|
दृढं निवातं प्रवातैकदेशं सुखप्रविचारमनुपत्यकं धूमातपजलरजसामनभिगमनीयमनिष्ठानां च शब्दस्पर्शरसरूपगन्धानां सोदपानोदूखलमुसलवर्चःस्थानस्नानभूमिमहानसं '''वास्तुविद्याकुशलः''' प्रशस्तं गृहमेव तावत् पूर्वमुपकल्पयेत्<nowiki>।||६||</nowiki>}}<br>
– In the first place a mansion must be constructed under the supervision of an engineer well-conversant with the science of building mansions and houses. It should be spacious and roomy. The element of strength should not be wanting in it. Every part of it should not be exposed to strong winds or breezes. One portion at least should be open to the currents of wind. It should be such that one may move or walk through it with ease. It should not be exposed to smoke, or the sun, or dust, or injurious sound and taste and form and scent. It should be furnished with staircases, with pestles and mortars, privies, accommodation for belting, and cook-rooms.<br>– Translated by Avinash Kaviratna<ref name=Kaviratna1/><br>
– the one expert in architecture should, first of all, arrange for an auspicious house which should be strong, wind-free (isolated from wind), ventilated, having comfortable moving space, not situated in a valley, inaccessible to smoke (or) sun (or) water (or) taste (or) sight (or) smell, and provided with water reservoir, mortar pestle, lavatory, bathroom and kitchen.<br>– Translated by Priya Sharma<ref name=sharma1/><br>
– Thus, '''an expert in the science of building''' should first construct a worthy building. It should be strong, out of the wind, and part of it should be open to the air. It should be easy to get about in, and should not be in a depression. It should be out of the path of smoke, sunlight, water, or dust, as well as unwanted noise, feelings, tastes, sights and smells. It should have water supply, pestle and mortar, lavatory, bathing area, and a kitchen.<br>– Translated by Dominik Wujastyk (under subtitle: The ] Building)<ref name=Wujastyk1/>
|Caraka Samhita, 1.15.6}}

== Arts and civic buildings ==
The ''Narada Shilpasastra'' is another early Sanskrit treatise on architecture. It has 83 chapters, with chapters on plans for villages and cities, on architectural guidelines for palaces and houses, on public water tanks, on Hindu temples, as well as construction of public civic buildings.<ref name=Raghavan>V. Raghavan (1935), ''Two chapters on painting in the Narada Silpa Sastra'', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Editors: Stella Kramrisch, Volume III, Number 1, pp. 15–32</ref><ref name=Iyengar/> Chapters 60 through 66 of ''Narada Silpa'' discuss special ] for community services and enjoyment, with chapter 61 on ''Bhojan-sala'' (feeding house), chapter 65 on ''Nataka'' (performance arts), and chapter 66 discussing a building to display arts and paintings. Chapter 71 discusses how ''chitra'' (painting) should be used to enliven homes and civic buildings.<ref name=Raghavan/><ref name=Iyengar>RN Iyengar, KS Kannan and SY Wakankar (2018), ''Narada Silpasastra: Sanskrit Text on Architectural Civil Engineering'', Jain University Press, {{ISBN|978-9385327582}}, pp. 197–220, 233–238</ref>

''Chitra-sala'' and other "entertainment houses", states ''Narada Silpasastra'', should be located in the middle of a city, preferably the main street or where major roads of the city cross or near major temples or palace.<ref name=Raghavan/><ref>C. Sivaramamurti (1934), '''', Triveni, Volume 7, Number 2, pp. 180–185</ref> This building's ''mandapam'' (hall) must be spacious and ventilated. It should have pictures that "captivate our minds" and "give joy to the eyes", laid out by rules of proportion and rules of "pose-determining lines", according to a translation by Raghavan.<ref name=Raghavan/> Chapter 66 further recommends specific designs. For example, it describes a civic building for display of art that is circular (''mardala'', drum-like), with main entrance and smaller ones enclosing a court-like space, terraces, and halls to divide the building into sections. These halls should itself display some items of pleasure such as carvings, colorful patterns on the floor, and brightly colored Devas, Gandharvas and Kinnaras.<ref>V. Raghavan (1935), ''Two chapters on painting in the Narada Silpa Sastra'', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Editors: Stella Kramrisch, Volume III, Number 1, pp. 23–32</ref><ref name=Iyengar/>

Another group of civic buildings described in Hindu texts are the ''preksha-sala'' (building for drama/stage performance) and ''sangita-sala or natya-sala'' (dance performance).<ref name=Raghavan357>V. Raghavan (1934), ''Theatre Architecture in Ancient India'', Triveni, Volume 5, Number 4, pp. 357–363</ref> These are categorized in three: those in temples for religious arts, in city for general entertainment, or in a palace for the king and his guests. The ''Samarangana Sutradhara'' of Bhoja, for example, dedicates its chapter 34 to these buildings and adds that the walls of the performance hall should adorned pictures of damsels dancing or playing instruments.<ref name=Raghavan357/> The plan for ''Natya-mandapa'' with space for the dancers, space for the musicians that co-perform with the dancers, space where the dance-drama artists can change their dress for different acts (''Nepathya-dhama'') and for the ''prekshaka'' (audience) are discussed in chapter 39 of Kumara's ''Silpa Ratna''. The ''Narada Silpasastra'' uses the term "Nataka-salas", recommending that the performance stage should be raised on a platform so that the audience can get a better view, the audience hall should be decorated for the audience to admire before and after the performance.<ref name=Raghavan357/> These arts and architectural principles may have evolved out of more ancient Indian traditions for performance arts, states Varadpande, as is implied in the Buddhist text '']'' where the Buddha forbids his ''bhikshus'' (monks) from watching dances, music performances and similar public shows in ''Majjhima-sila''.<ref name="Varadpande1987">{{cite book|author=Manohar Laxman Varadpande|title=History of Indian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC|year=1987|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-221-5|pages=105–114}}; for another translation of the Buddhist canonical text, see: {{cite book|author=Martine Batchelor|title=The Spirit of the Buddha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fL3mykqlOJcC&pg=PT25 |year=2010|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=9780300175004|pages=25 (Majjhima Nikaya 27)}}</ref> The text '']'' recommends architectural guidelines for the ''Natya'' theatre, but without drawings and plans. The theatre mentioned in ''Natyasastra'' probably housed an audience of 200 to 500 patrons comfortably seated, states Farley Richmond – a scholar of Indian theatre.<ref name="Kale2019">{{cite book|author=Farley Richmond|editor=M. R. Kale|title=The Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka: With Introduction, Critical Essays and a Photo-Essay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dv_oDwAAQBAJ |year=2019|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-4010-2|pages=31–33}}</ref>


== Temples (mandirs) == == Temples (mandirs) ==
] ]
] ]
{{main|Hindu temple architecture}} {{main|Hindu temple architecture}}

] has many varieties of style whose historic role has been to provide "a focus for both the social and spiritual life" for the Hindu community it serves, states George Michell.{{sfn|Michell|1988|p=14}} Every ] ("mandir") is imbued with symbolism, yet the basic structure of each remains the same. Each temple has an inner sanctum or the sacred space, the '']'' or womb-chamber, where the primary '']'' or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell for ''darshana'' (view, meditative focus).{{sfn|Shilpa Sharma|Shireesh Deshpande|2017|pp=309-317}} Above the garbhagriha is a tower-like '']'', called the '']'' in south India. This sanctum is surrounded by a closed or open path for ''pradakshina'' (also called ''parikrama'', circumambulation) that is typically intricately carved with symbolic art depicting Hindu legends, themes of artha, dharma and kama as well as the statues of significant deities of three major Hindu traditions (Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti).{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=66–76, 86–126}} ] has many varieties of style whose historic role has been to provide "a focus for both the social and spiritual life" for the Hindu community it serves, states George Michell.{{sfn|Michell|1988|p=14}} Every ] ("mandir") is imbued with symbolism, yet the basic structure of each stays the same. Each temple has an inner sanctum or the sacred space, the '']'' or womb-chamber, where the primary '']'' or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell for ''darshana'' (view, meditative focus).{{sfn|Shilpa Sharma|Shireesh Deshpande|2017|pp=309-317}} Above the garbhagriha is a tower-like '']'', called the '']'' in south India. This sanctum is surrounded by a closed or open path for ''pradakshina'' (also called ''parikrama'', circumambulation) that is typically intricately carved with symbolic art depicting Hindu legends, themes of artha, dharma and kama as well as the statues of significant deities of three major Hindu traditions (Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti).{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=66–76, 86–126}}


The sanctums of significant temples have a '']'' congregation hall, and sometimes an '']'' antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. Major temples that attract pilgrims from far typically have mandapas or other buildings that service the pilgrims. These may be connected or detached from the temple. The main temple may exist with other smaller temples or shrines in the temple compound. The streets around the temple are markets and hubs of economic activity.{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=66–76, 86–126}} There are examples of special dance pavilions (''Nata Mandir''), like in the ]. The pool, temple tank (''Kunda'') is also part of large temples, and they traditionally have served as a place for a bath dip and ablutions for pilgrims.{{sfn|Acharya|2010|p=74}} The same essential architectural principles are found in the historic Hindu temples of southeast Asia.{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=159–182}} The sanctums of significant temples have a '']'' congregation hall, and sometimes an '']'' antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. Major temples that attract pilgrims from far typically have mandapas or other buildings that service the pilgrims. These may be connected or detached from the temple. The main temple may exist with other smaller temples or shrines in the temple compound. The streets around the temple are markets and hubs of economic activity.{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=66–76, 86–126}} There are examples of special dance pavilions (''Nata Mandir''), like in the ]. The pool, temple tank (''Kunda'') is also part of large temples, and they traditionally have served as a place for a bath dip and ablutions for pilgrims.{{sfn|Acharya|2010|p=74}} The same essential architectural principles are found in the historic Hindu temples of southeast Asia.{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=159–182}}
⚫ ]


=== Gopurams === === Gopurams ===
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== Monasteries (mathas) == == Monasteries (mathas) ==
{{see also|Matha|Ashram|Bhajana Kutir}} {{see also|Matha|Ashram|Bhajana Kutir}}
Hindu monasteries such as ]s and hermitages (]s) are complexes of buildings include temples, monastic cells or the communal house and ancillary facilities.{{sfn|Sears|2014|pp=4—9}} In some currents of Hinduism, places of pilgrimage have become ], viz., meditation huts of the saints. Hindu monasteries such as ]s and hermitages (]s) are complexes of buildings include temples, monastic cells or the communal house and ancillary facilities.{{sfn|Sears|2014|pp=4—9}}


== Rathas == == Rathas ==
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== Toranas (archways) == == Toranas (archways) ==
{{main|Torana}} {{main|Torana}}
] is a free-standing archway for ceremonial purposes seen in the Hindu, ] and ] architecture in front of the temples, monasteries and other objects, sometimes as single building.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631|title=Toraṇa |work= Grove Art|year=2003 |doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T085631|access-date=2018-08-08|last1=Hardy |first1=Adam }}</ref>{{sfn|Dhar|2010|p=}} ] is a free-standing archway for ceremonial purposes seen in the Hindu, ] and ] architecture in front of the temples, monasteries and other objects, sometimes as single building.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631|title=Toraṇa |work= Grove Art|year=2003 |doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T085631|access-date=2018-08-08|last1=Hardy |first1=Adam |isbn=978-1-884446-05-4 }}</ref>{{sfn|Dhar|2010|p=}}


== Stambhas (columns) == == Stambhas (columns) ==
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] denotes a pillar or column, and is also known as ''jangha'', ''stali'', ''angrika'', ''sthanu'', ''arani'', ''bharaka'' or ''dharana''.{{sfn|Acharya|2010|p=533}} It is described in ''Manasara'' to consist of a pedestal, base, column and a capital. It can be made from wood or stone, be independent or be a pilaster joined to one of the walls. The text describes different proportions for different materials of construction.{{sfn|Acharya|2010|p=533}} The length of column is divided into''matras'' (portions), and these may be decorated with artwork. The ''Manasara'' suggests rules for tapering the top portions of the ''stambha''.{{sfn|Acharya|2010|p=533}} Illustrative stambhas include the ] (Tower of victory) at ], ]. It is dedicated to ]. ] denotes a pillar or column, and is also known as ''jangha'', ''stali'', ''angrika'', ''sthanu'', ''arani'', ''bharaka'' or ''dharana''.{{sfn|Acharya|2010|p=533}} It is described in ''Manasara'' to consist of a pedestal, base, column and a capital. It can be made from wood or stone, be independent or be a pilaster joined to one of the walls. The text describes different proportions for different materials of construction.{{sfn|Acharya|2010|p=533}} The length of column is divided into''matras'' (portions), and these may be decorated with artwork. The ''Manasara'' suggests rules for tapering the top portions of the ''stambha''.{{sfn|Acharya|2010|p=533}} Illustrative stambhas include the ] (Tower of victory) at ], ]. It is dedicated to ].


«]» are founding at the entrance of temples as flagstaffs, often with the image of ] and sacred animals. The ] are found at the entrance of temples as flagstaffs, often with the image of ] and sacred animals.


== Chhatris == == Chhatris ==
{{main|Chhatri}} {{main|Chhatri}}
]s are elevated, dome-shaped pavilions used as an element in ], originating in ]. They are widely used in palaces, in forts, or to demarcate funerary sites, etc.{{cn|date=January 2021}} ]s are elevated, dome-shaped pavilions used as an element in ], originating in ]. They are widely used in palaces, in forts, or to demarcate funerary sites, etc.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zajadacz-Hastenrath|first=Salome|date=1997|title=A Note on Babur's Lost Funerary Enclosure at Kabul|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1523241|journal=Muqarnas|volume=14|pages=135–142|doi=10.2307/1523241|jstor=1523241 |issn=0732-2992}}</ref>


== Gallery == == Gallery ==
;Some folios from surviving manuscripts on Hindu architecture ;Some folios from surviving manuscripts on Hindu architecture
<gallery> <gallery>
File:A folio from Vastu sastra hiti dayeka manuscript, water tank and fountains, Sanskrit language, Newari script - 3.jpg|Drawing and notes on water tank fountain File:A folio from Vastu sastra hiti dayeka manuscript, water spout design, Sanskrit language, Newari script - 3.jpg|Drawing and notes on Hiti, a public water spout
File:A folio from Vastu sastra hiti dayeka manuscript, water tank and fountains, Sanskrit language, Newari script - 1.jpg|Drawing and notes on water tank fountain, part 2 File:A folio from Vastu sastra hiti dayeka manuscript, water spout design, Sanskrit language, Newari script - 1.jpg|Drawing and notes on Hiti, a public water spout, part 2
File:A folio from Vastu sastra hiti dayeka manuscript, mandala, Sanskrit language, Newari script - 2.jpg|A mandala in ''Vastu Sastra Hiti Dayeka'' File:A folio from Vastu sastra hiti dayeka manuscript, mandala, Sanskrit language, Newari script - 2.jpg|A mandala in ''Vastu Sastra Hiti Dayeka''
File:A folio with Harihara Shiva-Vishnu sketch from Samkrantiyajnavidhi manuscript, Sanskrit language, Nepali script.jpg|Two leaves in ''Samkrantiyajnavidhi'' illustrating proportions for ] – half Shiva, half Vishnu. File:A folio with Harihara Shiva-Vishnu sketch from Samkrantiyajnavidhi manuscript, Sanskrit language, Nepali script.jpg|Two leaves in ''Samkrantiyajnavidhi'' illustrating proportions for ] – half Shiva, half Vishnu
File:A folio from minor Vastu sastra manuscript, home design and decoration, Sanskrit language, Devanagari script.jpg|A Vastu sastra page on home design, first line mentions ''vastu sastra'' File:A folio from minor Vastu sastra manuscript, home design and decoration, Sanskrit language, Devanagari script.jpg|A Vastu sastra page on home design, first line mentions ''vastu sastra''
</gallery> </gallery>


;Some temples and public stepwell ;Some temples and public stepwells
<gallery> <gallery>
File:Lingaraj Temple Complex.jpg | ] (], Odisha) File:Lingaraj Temple Complex.jpg | ] (], Odisha)
Line 74: Line 100:
File:Rani ki vav - Gujarat - 07.jpg|Rani ka vav Gujarat, a historic public water tank with Hindu arts File:Rani ki vav - Gujarat - 07.jpg|Rani ka vav Gujarat, a historic public water tank with Hindu arts
File:Sringeritemple.jpg | ] Monastery (], Karnataka) File:Sringeritemple.jpg | ] Monastery (], Karnataka)
File:Rathas-Mahabalipuram.jpg | ] (], Tamil Nadu) File:Mahabalipuram, Pancha Rathas, Tamil Nadu, India.jpg | ] (], Tamil Nadu)
File:Nagda(Rajasthan)Torana.jpg | ] Torana (]) File:Nagda(Rajasthan)Torana.jpg | ] Torana (])
File:Mukteshwar torana.jpg | Torana of ] (Orisha) File:Mukteshwar torana.jpg | Torana of ] (Orisha)
⚫ File:Arunachaleshvara Temple Tiruvannamalai.JPG|A gopuram at the Arunachaleshvara Temple, Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu)
</gallery> </gallery>


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* ] * ]
* ] * ]

== Note ==
{{reflist|group=note}}


== References == == References ==
Line 90: Line 120:


== Bibliography == == Bibliography ==
* {{cite book|first=P. K.|last=Acharya|year=2010|title=An encyclopaedia of Hindu architecture | url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press (Republished by Motilal Banarsidass)|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-85990-03-3|ref=Acharya}} * {{cite book|first=P. K.|last=Acharya|year=2010|title=An encyclopaedia of Hindu architecture | url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press (Republished by Motilal Banarsidass)|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-85990-03-3}}
* {{cite book|first=P. K.|last=Acharya|year=1927|title=Indian Architecture according to the Manasara Shilpa Shastra|url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press (Republished by Motilal Banarsidass)|location=London|isbn=0300062176|ref=Acharya}} * {{cite book|first=P. K.|last=Acharya|year=1927|title=Indian Architecture according to the Manasara Shilpa Shastra|url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press (Republished by Motilal Banarsidass)|location=London|isbn=0300062176}}
* {{cite book|first=P. D.|last=Dhar|year=2010|title=The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture|publisher=D K Printworld|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8124605349|ref=Dhar}} * {{cite book|first=P. D.|last=Dhar|year=2010|title=The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture|publisher=D K Printworld|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8124605349}}
* {{cite book|first=I.|last=Glushkova|year=2014|title=Objects of Worship in South Asian Religions: Forms, Practices and Meanings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oqReBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-67595-2|ref=Glushkova}} * {{cite book|first=I.|last=Glushkova|year=2014|title=Objects of Worship in South Asian Religions: Forms, Practices and Meanings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oqReBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-67595-2}}
* {{cite book|first=S. R.|last=Goel|year=1991|title=]|publisher=Voice of India|location=New Delhi|volume=2|isbn=81-85990-03-4|ref=Goel}} * {{cite book|first=S. R.|last=Goel|year=1991|title=]|publisher=Voice of India|location=New Delhi|volume=2|isbn=81-85990-03-4}}
* {{cite book|first=J. C.|last=Harle|year=1994|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl|edition=2nd|publisher=Yale University Press Pelican History of Art|isbn=0300062176|ref=Harle|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book|first=J. C.|last=Harle|year=1994|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl|edition=2nd|publisher=Yale University Press Pelican History of Art|isbn=0300062176|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|author=Ernest Havell|title=The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHM-7CaV5zYC|year=1972|publisher=John Murray, London (Reprinted S. Chand)}} *{{cite book|author=Ernest Havell|title=The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHM-7CaV5zYC|year=1972|publisher=John Murray, London (Reprinted S. Chand)}}
* {{cite book|first=M.|last=Juneja|year=2001|title=Architecture in Medieval India: Forms, Contexts, Histories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7N7VAAAAMAAJ |edition=2nd|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-8178242286|ref=Juneja}} * {{cite book|first=M.|last=Juneja|year=2001|title=Architecture in Medieval India: Forms, Contexts, Histories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7N7VAAAAMAAJ |edition=2nd|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-8178242286}}
* {{cite book|first=G.|last=Michell|year=1988|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA61 |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago/London|isbn=0-226-53230-5|ref=Michell}} * {{cite book|first=G.|last=Michell|year=1988|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA61 |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago/London|isbn=0-226-53230-5}}
*{{cite journal | harv| last=Patra | first=Reena | title=A Comparative Study on Vaastu Shastra and Heidegger's 'Building, Dwelling and Thinking' | journal=Asian Philosophy | publisher=Taylor & Francis | volume=16 | issue=3 | year=2006 | doi=10.1080/09552360600979430 | pages=199–218| s2cid=144592593 }} *{{cite journal | last=Patra | first=Reena | title=A Comparative Study on Vaastu Shastra and Heidegger's 'Building, Dwelling and Thinking' | journal=Asian Philosophy | publisher=Taylor & Francis | volume=16 | issue=3 | year=2006 | doi=10.1080/09552360600979430 | pages=199–218| s2cid=144592593 }}
*{{cite book|author=Ram Raz|title=Essay on the Architecture of the Hindús|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSg5AQAAMAAJ|year=1834 |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland}} *{{cite book|author=Ram Raz|title=Essay on the Architecture of the Hindús|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSg5AQAAMAAJ|year=1834 |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland}}
*{{cite journal|author1=Shilpa Sharma|author2=Shireesh Deshpande|title=Architectural Strategies Used in Hindu Temples to Emphasize Sacredness| journal = Journal of Architectural and Planning Research| volume= 34| number= 4 | year= 2017| pages= 309–319|jstor=44987239}} *{{cite journal|author1=Shilpa Sharma|author2=Shireesh Deshpande|title=Architectural Strategies Used in Hindu Temples to Emphasize Sacredness| journal = Journal of Architectural and Planning Research| volume= 34| number= 4 | year= 2017| pages= 309–319|jstor=44987239}}
*{{cite journal | harv| last=Sinha | first=Amita | title=Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras | journal=Journal of Cultural Geography | publisher=Taylor & Francis | volume=17 | issue=2 | year=1998 | doi=10.1080/08873639809478319 | pages=27–41}} *{{cite journal | last=Sinha | first=Amita | title=Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras | journal=Journal of Cultural Geography | publisher=Taylor & Francis | volume=17 | issue=2 | year=1998 | doi=10.1080/08873639809478319 | pages=27–41}}
* {{cite book|first=D. N.|last=Shukla|year=1993|title=Vastu-Sastra: Hindu Science of Architecture|publisher=Munshiram Manoharial Publishers|isbn=978-81-215-0611-3|ref=Shukla}} * {{cite book|first=D. N.|last=Shukla|year=1993|title=Vastu-Sastra: Hindu Science of Architecture|publisher=Munshiram Manoharial Publishers|isbn=978-81-215-0611-3}}
* {{cite book|first=T.|last=Sears|year=2014|title=Worldly Gurus and Spiritual Kings: Architecture and Asceticism in Medieval India|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19844-7|ref=Sears}} * {{cite book|first=T.|last=Sears|year=2014|title=Worldly Gurus and Spiritual Kings: Architecture and Asceticism in Medieval India|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19844-7}}
* {{cite book|first=B.|last=Thapar|year=2004|title=Introduction to Indian Architecture|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Singapore|isbn=0-7946-0011-5|ref=Thapar}} * {{cite book|first=B.|last=Thapar|year=2004|title=Introduction to Indian Architecture|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Singapore|isbn=0-7946-0011-5|ref=Thapar}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Commonscat|Hindu architecture}} {{Commons category|Hindu architecture}}
* *
* (Temple Architecture) on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia * (Temple Architecture) on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia

Latest revision as of 19:04, 9 January 2025

Traditional system of Indian architecture as described in Hindu texts

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The architecture of a Hindu temple in Sunak, Gujarat

Hindu architecture is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described in Hindu texts. The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include the Vastu shastras, Shilpa Shastras, the Brihat Samhita, architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the Manasara among others.

By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are Hindu temples, with an architectural tradition that has left surviving examples in stone, brick, and rock-cut architecture dating back to the Gupta Empire. These architectures had influence of Ancient Persian and Hellenistic architecture. Far fewer secular Hindu architecture have survived into the modern era, such as palaces, homes and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in India.

Studies on Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture particularly of the northern and western India given their relative abundance. In other regions of India, particularly the South, Hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th-century, such as those exemplified by the temples, ruined cities and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayakas. The secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in India, and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the Hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones. Further, states Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found.

Texts

A folio of Visvakarmaprakasa, a minor Hindu architecture text discovered in Kathmandu valley, Nepal (Sanskrit Devanagari)

Vaastu Shastras and Shilpa Shastras are listed as one of 64 divine arts in ancient Indian texts. They are design manuals covering the art and science of architecture, typically mixing form, function with Hindu symbolism. The earliest, archaic and distilled version of Hindu architecture principles are found in the Vedic literature, traditionally considered as the Upavedas (lesser appendices to the Vedas), and called the Sthapatya Veda. Acharya's Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture lists hundreds of Sanskrit manuscripts with more details on Hindu architecture that have survived into the modern age. They cover the architectural aspects of a wide range of subjects: ornaments, furniture, vehicles (wagons, carts), gateways, water tanks, drains, cities, streets, homes, palaces, temples and others. The most studied texts in the contemporary era are Sanskrit manuscripts in different Indic scripts. These include the Brihat Samhita (chapters 53, 56–58 and 79), the Manasara Shilpa Sastra, the Mayamata Vastu Sastra with commentaries in Telugu and Tamil, the Puranas (for example, chapters 42–62 and 104–106 of Agni Purana, chapter 7 of Brahmanda Purana) and the Hindu Agamas.

Villages, towns and cities

Some town plans recommended in the 700 CE Manasara Sanskrit text on Hindu architecture.

Hindu texts recommend architectural guidelines for homes, market places, gardens and town planning. The best site for human settlement, declares Manasara, seeks the right terrain with thick soil that slopes to open skies eastward so that the residents can appreciate the sunrise. It is near a river or significant water stream, and has enough ground water for wells – a second source of water. The soil, states Manasara, should be firm, rich for growing flowers, vegetables and fruit trees, and of agreeable odor. The text recommends that the town planners dig and check the soil quality for a stable foundation to homes and public buildings. Once the location is accepted, the text describes forty plans for laying out the streets, the homes, markets, gardens and other infrastructure necessary for the settlement. Example architectural plans include Dandaka, Prastara, Chaturmukha, Padmaka, Karmuka, Swastika and others. The Hindu texts vary, with five shared principles:

  • Diknirnaya: principles of orientation
  • Padavinyasa : site planning
  • Hastalakshana : proportionate measurement ratios of sections
  • Ayadi : six canonical principles of architecture
  • Patakadi : aesthetics or character of each building or part of the overall plan

The guidelines combine principles of early Hindu understanding of science, spiritual beliefs, astrology and astronomy. In practice, these guidelines favor symmetry set to the cardinal directions, with many plans favoring the streets to be aligned with seasonal winds direction, integrated with the terrain and the needs of the local weather. A temple or public assembly hall at the center of the town is recommended in Manasara.

Hospitals, hospices

The early Hindu texts on medicine and surgery mention dedicated buildings and halls to take care of sick people, and recommend that architects with Vastu Vidya (वास्तुविद्या) expertise should construct these. The Charaka Samhita dated between 100 BCE to 150 CE, for example, in book 1, verse 15.6 (sutrasthana) states:

दृढं निवातं प्रवातैकदेशं सुखप्रविचारमनुपत्यकं धूमातपजलरजसामनभिगमनीयमनिष्ठानां च शब्दस्पर्शरसरूपगन्धानां सोदपानोदूखलमुसलवर्चःस्थानस्नानभूमिमहानसं वास्तुविद्याकुशलः प्रशस्तं गृहमेव तावत् पूर्वमुपकल्पयेत्।||६||
– In the first place a mansion must be constructed under the supervision of an engineer well-conversant with the science of building mansions and houses. It should be spacious and roomy. The element of strength should not be wanting in it. Every part of it should not be exposed to strong winds or breezes. One portion at least should be open to the currents of wind. It should be such that one may move or walk through it with ease. It should not be exposed to smoke, or the sun, or dust, or injurious sound and taste and form and scent. It should be furnished with staircases, with pestles and mortars, privies, accommodation for belting, and cook-rooms.
– Translated by Avinash Kaviratna
– the one expert in architecture should, first of all, arrange for an auspicious house which should be strong, wind-free (isolated from wind), ventilated, having comfortable moving space, not situated in a valley, inaccessible to smoke (or) sun (or) water (or) taste (or) sight (or) smell, and provided with water reservoir, mortar pestle, lavatory, bathroom and kitchen.
– Translated by Priya Sharma
– Thus, an expert in the science of building should first construct a worthy building. It should be strong, out of the wind, and part of it should be open to the air. It should be easy to get about in, and should not be in a depression. It should be out of the path of smoke, sunlight, water, or dust, as well as unwanted noise, feelings, tastes, sights and smells. It should have water supply, pestle and mortar, lavatory, bathing area, and a kitchen.
– Translated by Dominik Wujastyk (under subtitle: The Hospital Building)

— Caraka Samhita, 1.15.6

Arts and civic buildings

The Narada Shilpasastra is another early Sanskrit treatise on architecture. It has 83 chapters, with chapters on plans for villages and cities, on architectural guidelines for palaces and houses, on public water tanks, on Hindu temples, as well as construction of public civic buildings. Chapters 60 through 66 of Narada Silpa discuss special Śālā for community services and enjoyment, with chapter 61 on Bhojan-sala (feeding house), chapter 65 on Nataka (performance arts), and chapter 66 discussing a building to display arts and paintings. Chapter 71 discusses how chitra (painting) should be used to enliven homes and civic buildings.

Chitra-sala and other "entertainment houses", states Narada Silpasastra, should be located in the middle of a city, preferably the main street or where major roads of the city cross or near major temples or palace. This building's mandapam (hall) must be spacious and ventilated. It should have pictures that "captivate our minds" and "give joy to the eyes", laid out by rules of proportion and rules of "pose-determining lines", according to a translation by Raghavan. Chapter 66 further recommends specific designs. For example, it describes a civic building for display of art that is circular (mardala, drum-like), with main entrance and smaller ones enclosing a court-like space, terraces, and halls to divide the building into sections. These halls should itself display some items of pleasure such as carvings, colorful patterns on the floor, and brightly colored Devas, Gandharvas and Kinnaras.

Another group of civic buildings described in Hindu texts are the preksha-sala (building for drama/stage performance) and sangita-sala or natya-sala (dance performance). These are categorized in three: those in temples for religious arts, in city for general entertainment, or in a palace for the king and his guests. The Samarangana Sutradhara of Bhoja, for example, dedicates its chapter 34 to these buildings and adds that the walls of the performance hall should adorned pictures of damsels dancing or playing instruments. The plan for Natya-mandapa with space for the dancers, space for the musicians that co-perform with the dancers, space where the dance-drama artists can change their dress for different acts (Nepathya-dhama) and for the prekshaka (audience) are discussed in chapter 39 of Kumara's Silpa Ratna. The Narada Silpasastra uses the term "Nataka-salas", recommending that the performance stage should be raised on a platform so that the audience can get a better view, the audience hall should be decorated for the audience to admire before and after the performance. These arts and architectural principles may have evolved out of more ancient Indian traditions for performance arts, states Varadpande, as is implied in the Buddhist text Brahmajāla Sutta where the Buddha forbids his bhikshus (monks) from watching dances, music performances and similar public shows in Majjhima-sila. The text Natyasastra recommends architectural guidelines for the Natya theatre, but without drawings and plans. The theatre mentioned in Natyasastra probably housed an audience of 200 to 500 patrons comfortably seated, states Farley Richmond – a scholar of Indian theatre.

Temples (mandirs)

Elements of a North Indian temple (Madhya Pradesh)
The architectural plan of the Gondeshwar temple near Nashik (Maharashtra)
Main article: Hindu temple architecture

Hindu temple architecture has many varieties of style whose historic role has been to provide "a focus for both the social and spiritual life" for the Hindu community it serves, states George Michell. Every Hindu temple ("mandir") is imbued with symbolism, yet the basic structure of each stays the same. Each temple has an inner sanctum or the sacred space, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary murti or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell for darshana (view, meditative focus). Above the garbhagriha is a tower-like shikhara, called the vimana in south India. This sanctum is surrounded by a closed or open path for pradakshina (also called parikrama, circumambulation) that is typically intricately carved with symbolic art depicting Hindu legends, themes of artha, dharma and kama as well as the statues of significant deities of three major Hindu traditions (Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti).

The sanctums of significant temples have a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. Major temples that attract pilgrims from far typically have mandapas or other buildings that service the pilgrims. These may be connected or detached from the temple. The main temple may exist with other smaller temples or shrines in the temple compound. The streets around the temple are markets and hubs of economic activity. There are examples of special dance pavilions (Nata Mandir), like in the Konark Sun Temple. The pool, temple tank (Kunda) is also part of large temples, and they traditionally have served as a place for a bath dip and ablutions for pilgrims. The same essential architectural principles are found in the historic Hindu temples of southeast Asia.

Gopurams

Essentially independent architectural structure is an element of the temple complex as gopuram, viz., gatehouse towers, usually ornate, othen with colossal size, at the entrance of a Hindu temple of Southern India.

Monasteries (mathas)

See also: Matha, Ashram, and Bhajana Kutir

Hindu monasteries such as mathas and hermitages (ashrams) are complexes of buildings include temples, monastic cells or the communal house and ancillary facilities.

Rathas

Main article: Ratha

In some Hindu sites, there are shrines or buildings named rathas because they have the shape of a huge chariot.

Toranas (archways)

Main article: Torana

Torana is a free-standing archway for ceremonial purposes seen in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture in front of the temples, monasteries and other objects, sometimes as single building.

Stambhas (columns)

Main articles: Stambha and Dhvaja

Stambha denotes a pillar or column, and is also known as jangha, stali, angrika, sthanu, arani, bharaka or dharana. It is described in Manasara to consist of a pedestal, base, column and a capital. It can be made from wood or stone, be independent or be a pilaster joined to one of the walls. The text describes different proportions for different materials of construction. The length of column is divided intomatras (portions), and these may be decorated with artwork. The Manasara suggests rules for tapering the top portions of the stambha. Illustrative stambhas include the Vijay Stambha (Tower of victory) at Chittorgarh fort, Rajasthan. It is dedicated to Vishnu.

The Dhvaja-stambhas are found at the entrance of temples as flagstaffs, often with the image of lingam and sacred animals.

Chhatris

Main article: Chhatri

Chhatris are elevated, dome-shaped pavilions used as an element in Indian architecture, originating in Rajasthani architecture. They are widely used in palaces, in forts, or to demarcate funerary sites, etc.

Gallery

Some folios from surviving manuscripts on Hindu architecture
  • Drawing and notes on Hiti, a public water spout Drawing and notes on Hiti, a public water spout
  • Drawing and notes on Hiti, a public water spout, part 2 Drawing and notes on Hiti, a public water spout, part 2
  • A mandala in Vastu Sastra Hiti Dayeka A mandala in Vastu Sastra Hiti Dayeka
  • Two leaves in Samkrantiyajnavidhi illustrating proportions for Harihara – half Shiva, half Vishnu Two leaves in Samkrantiyajnavidhi illustrating proportions for Harihara – half Shiva, half Vishnu
  • A Vastu sastra page on home design, first line mentions vastu sastra A Vastu sastra page on home design, first line mentions vastu sastra
Some temples and public stepwells

See also

Note

  1. The verse 1.15.7 describes how this hospital building should be furnished with beds, chairs, bedsheets, pillows, spitoon, drug grinders, affectionate nurses, pharmacy, supplies, patient care equipment etc.

References

  1. ^ Acharya 1927, p. xviii-xx.
  2. ^ Sinha 1998, pp. 27–41
  3. Acharya 1927, p. xviii-xx, Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts.
  4. Shukla 1993.
  5. Smith, Vincent Arthur (1977). Research Articles in Epigraphy, Archaeology, and Numismatics of India. Sheikh Mubarak Ali.
  6. K. Krishna Murthy (1987). Early Indian Secular Architecture. Sundeep Prakashan. pp. 5–16. ISBN 978-81-85067-01-8.
  7. Branfoot, Crispin (2008). "Imperial Frontiers: Building Sacred Space in Sixteenth-Century South India". The Art Bulletin. 90 (2). Taylor & Francis: 171–194. doi:10.1080/00043079.2008.10786389. S2CID 154135978.
  8. James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. pp. 330–331. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
  9. James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. pp. 43–47, 67–68, 467–480. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
  10. Patra 2006
  11. Acharya 1927, p. xviii-xx with Appendix 1.
  12. ^ Sinha 1998, pp. 27–40.
  13. Ram Raz 1834.
  14. ^ Ernest Havell 1972, pp. 7–17.
  15. ^ Patra 2006, pp. 201–203.
  16. ^ Dominik Wujastyk (2003), The Roots of Āyurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings, 3rd edition, Penguin, pages 35–36, 10–12
  17. ^ AV Kaviratna (1913), Charaka-samhita : translated into English, Part 1, OCLC 67906513, pages 168–169
  18. ^ Priya V Sharma (1981), Charaka Samhita Volume 1: Sanskrit Text, with an English Translation, Chaukhamba Orientalia, ISBN 9788176370127, page 104
  19. ^ V. Raghavan (1935), Two chapters on painting in the Narada Silpa Sastra, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Editors: Stella Kramrisch, Volume III, Number 1, pp. 15–32
  20. ^ RN Iyengar, KS Kannan and SY Wakankar (2018), Narada Silpasastra: Sanskrit Text on Architectural Civil Engineering, Jain University Press, ISBN 978-9385327582, pp. 197–220, 233–238
  21. C. Sivaramamurti (1934), Chitrasalas, Triveni, Volume 7, Number 2, pp. 180–185
  22. V. Raghavan (1935), Two chapters on painting in the Narada Silpa Sastra, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Editors: Stella Kramrisch, Volume III, Number 1, pp. 23–32
  23. ^ V. Raghavan (1934), Theatre Architecture in Ancient India, Triveni, Volume 5, Number 4, pp. 357–363
  24. Manohar Laxman Varadpande (1987). History of Indian Theatre. Abhinav Publications. pp. 105–114. ISBN 978-81-7017-221-5.; for another translation of the Buddhist canonical text, see: Martine Batchelor (2010). The Spirit of the Buddha. Yale University Press. pp. 25 (Majjhima Nikaya 27). ISBN 9780300175004.
  25. Farley Richmond (2019). M. R. Kale (ed.). The Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka: With Introduction, Critical Essays and a Photo-Essay. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 31–33. ISBN 978-81-208-4010-2.
  26. Michell 1988, p. 14.
  27. Shilpa Sharma & Shireesh Deshpande 2017, pp. 309–317.
  28. ^ Michell 1988, pp. 66–76, 86–126.
  29. Acharya 2010, p. 74.
  30. Michell 1988, pp. 159–182.
  31. "Gopura". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 20 January 2008.
  32. Sears 2014, pp. 4–9.
  33. Harle 1994, p. 153.
  34. Hardy, Adam (2003). "Toraṇa". Grove Art. doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T085631. ISBN 978-1-884446-05-4. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
  35. Dhar 2010.
  36. ^ Acharya 2010, p. 533.
  37. Zajadacz-Hastenrath, Salome (1997). "A Note on Babur's Lost Funerary Enclosure at Kabul". Muqarnas. 14: 135–142. doi:10.2307/1523241. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 1523241.

Bibliography

External links

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