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{{short description|Battle recounted in the Rigveda}}
The '''Battle of the Ten Kings''' (''{{IAST|dāśarājñá}}'') is a war bettwen the Indo-Iranians alluded to in ] of the ] (hymns 18, 33 and 83.4-8). It is a battle between Indo-Aryans who consider themselves as true ]s (an "internecine war", as the ] puts it), fighting the allied with other tribes of the Aryan tribes that are led by Sage ]{{fact}}, and are defeated in an epic battle through the inspired power of the priestly singer ], the composer of the hymns. K. F. Geldner in his 1951 translation of the Rigveda considers the hymns as "obviously based on an historical event", even though any details save for what is preserved in the hymns have been lost.
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of the Ten Kings
| date = {{circa}} 14th century BCE
| place = Near Parusni river (modern ]), ]
| result = ]-] victory
| territory = ]s settle in ]<br />Emergence of ]
| combatant1 = ]<br/>]
| combatant2 = First Phase:
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] (]?)
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] (])
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
Second Phase:
* Bhida's forces<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html |title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia |doi=10.1515/9783110816433-009 |access-date=12 April 2021 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812051405/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html |url-status=live |chapter=4. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parametres |date=2020 |last1=Witzel |first1=Michael |pages=85–125 |isbn=978-3-11-081643-3 }}</ref><ref name=":3" />
* Ajas
* Śighras
* ]
| commander1 = ]<br />]
| commander2 = First Phase:
* Ten Kings
* ]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witzel|first=Michael|date=1997|title=The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu|url=https://sites.harvard.edu/witzel/files/2022/05/canon.pdf|journal=Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora|volume=2|pages=264}}</ref>
Second Phase:
* Bhida<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html |title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia |doi=10.1515/9783110816433-009 |access-date=12 April 2021 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812051405/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html |url-status=live |chapter=4. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parametres |date=2020 |last1=Witzel |first1=Michael |pages=85–125 |isbn=978-3-11-081643-3 }}</ref><ref name=":3" />
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
}}


The '''Battle of the Ten Kings''' ({{langx|sa|दाशराज्ञ युद्ध}}, {{IAST3|Dāśarājñá yuddhá}}) was first alluded to in the ] of the ] (RV) and took place between a ] of the ] named ] versus a confederation of tribes. It resulted in a decisive victory for the Bharatas and subsequent formation of the ]. The Battle of the Ten Kings, mentioned in the ] may have "formed the 'nucleus' of story" of the ] in the ].<ref name="Murthy 2016 pp. 1–15" />
==Origin of the War==
The tribes in opposition to King Sudas were pre-dominantly devotees of ] while the ] were of ]. Furthermore, the Iranians advocated that the ] (offspring of ]) are the true gods (known to them as ]) but the Purus reguarded ] (offspring of ]) as the true gods (known to them as ].) The Asura-worshippers were led by Sage Vishwamitra.


===The tribes=== == Battle ==
] of the Rig Veda states that the ] crossed ] and ], moving towards the (future) ] area where they came across a nascent (and temporary) inter-tribal alliance<ref name=":0" /> of both ] and ]. This alliance was confronted in a battle, which is described in the 18th hymn (verses 5-21) of Book 7. The exact motivations are unclear; ] argues that it might have been a product of intra-tribal resentment or intrigues of an ousted ],{{Efn|Book 3 was composed by ], the family priest of the Bharatas and makes no mention of the battle. Book 7 was composed by ], who replaced Vishwamitra. However, Jamison rejects that there exists any evidence of Vasistha-Vishwamitra feud in RV.<ref name=":3" />}} while Ranbir Chakravarti argues that the battle was probably fought for controlling the rivers, which were a lifeline for irrigation.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sinha|first=Kanad|date=2015|title=PROFESSOR V.K. THAKUR MEMORIAL PRIZED PAPER: WHEN THE BHŪPATI SOUGHT THE GOPATI'S WEALTH: LOCATING THE "MAHĀBHĀRATA ECONOMY|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156566|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=76|pages=67–68|jstor=44156566|issn=2249-1937|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412153012/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156566|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="schmidt1980" /><ref name=":3" /> The hymns also makes mention of the concurring tribes seeking to steal cows from the Bharatas.<ref name=":3" />
*Alinas: They were probably one of the tribes defeated by Sudas at the DasarajnaMacdonell and Keith, Vedic Index, 1912, I, 39, and it was suggested that they lived to the north-east of ], because the land was mentioned by the Chinese pilgrim Hiouen Thsang.Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index, 1912, I, 39
*]: They were said to be a dynasty that lived in Kashmir
*]: Said to be descended from Lord Varuna. They are also related to the composition of the ].
*]: One of the tribes that fought against Sudas in the Dasarajna battle. Some scholars have argued that the Bhalanas lived in East Kabulistan, and that the Bolan Pass derives its name from the Bhalanas.<ref>Macdonell, A.A. and Keith, A.B. 1912. The Vedic Index of Names and Subjects.</ref>
*Matsya
*]: According to some scholars, the Parsus are connected with the Persians. Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index, 1912 This view is disputed. Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index, 1912. The ancient Persians settled in Parsu, giving their name to a regin in Iran, thus they are they same tribe.
*Puru:<ref> The Indus Valley Civilization</ref> The tribe of King Sudas. The Bharatas were a clan among the Puru tribe.<ref> Update on the Aryan Invasion Theory</ref> Bharat is also the name of Rudra, Agni and one of the Aditiyas. The goddess Antariksa is also known by the name Bharati. The Prthas were also a clan from the Puru tribe because from the Gita we know that Arjuna's ] clan descends from the ] clan, which in turn descends from the Pauravas but Krishna also referred to Arjuna as Paartha (descendant of the Prtha clan.) This clan migrated to Iran and began the ].
*]
*], Dasyu (], Dahyu): A term labelled to all Iranic tribes that were in opposition to King Sudas. They Iranians acknowledge themselves as the Daha and Dahyu, while the ancient Greeks had also acknowledged them as 'Dahae.' In the Rig Veda, Danu like Dasyu refers to inimical people and is generally a term of denigration (RV I.32.9; III.30.8; V.30.4; V.32.1, 4, 7; X.120.6).<ref>Vedic Origins of the Europeans: The Danavas, Children of Danu, David Frawley</ref>
*]: From them came Ghandari. who gave his name to a region he settled in the ].
*]: Possibily the Vedic scholor who came to India to learn Sanskrit and added to the langauge, ] was a member of this tribe.


], whom Witzel deems to have produced the most "detailed, and ingenious reinterpretation" of the hymns, locates a unique poetic moment across the RV corpus, in their extraordinarily abundant usage of sarcastic allusions, similes and puns to mock the tribal alliance.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="schmidt1980" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Stuhrmann|first=Rainer|date=2016-10-11|title=Die Zehnkönigsschlacht am Ravifluß|url=https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/933|journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies|language=de|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–61|doi=10.11588/ejvs.2016.1.933|issn=1084-7561|access-date=15 April 2021|archive-date=22 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222135902/https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/933|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some of those allusions seem to be heavily context-specific and (still) remain unrecognized; there exist considerable disputes about interpretations of particular words, in light of the employed figures of speech and other poetic devices.<ref name="schmidt1980" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780199370184|editor-last=Brereton|editor-first=Joel P.|volume=I|pages=880, 902-905, 923-925, 1015-1016|editor-last2=Jamison|editor-first2=Stephanie W.}}</ref>
==During the War==
Hymns 7.18 and 7.83 are dedicated to ] and Indra paired with ], respectively, thanking the deity for helping Sudas defeat his enemies, while hymn 7.33 is addressed to Vasishtha himself, praising him for moving the gods to take Sudas' side by his prayers (Indra preferred Vasishtha's prayers over those of Pasadyumna, son of Vayata, 7.33.2) and addressing him as a son of ] and ] (7.33.11). However, the tribes in opposition to King Sudas were pre-dominantly devotees of Varuna while the Purus were of Indra. Furthermore, the Iranians advocated that the ] (offspring of ]) are the true gods but the Purus reguarded Adityas as the true gods.
The hymn makes sure to stress the importance of the priests (Vasistha is named along with Parasara and Satayatu) in winning Indra's favour, even though they were not present on the battlefield but invoked Indra "from at home" (''grhāt'', 7.18.21)


== First phase ==
The situation leading up to the battle is described in 7.18.6: The ] and ], together with the ] (punned upon by the rishi by comparing them to hungry fish ('']'') flocking together) appear and ally themselves with the ] and the ]. Their confederation was further increased by the ], the ], the ], the ] and the ] (7.18.7), while the Trtsus relied solely on the help of the "Arya's Comrade" (''aryasya sadhamad''), Indra.
The first phase of the battle took place on the banks of the ] (then Parusni) near ], west of ].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Rigveda: A Guide|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780190633363|editor-last=Brereton|editor-first=Joel P.|pages=34|editor-last2=Jamison|editor-first2=Stephanie W.}}</ref> The Bharata king and their priest are respectively mentioned as Sudas Paijavana and Vasistha, in the Rig Veda; however the names change in ] and ].<ref name=":0" /> The principal antagonist is doubtful,{{Efn|] deemed it to be Bheda, incorrectly. Witzel proposes Trasadasyu. Palihawadana proposes Purukutsa, Trasadasyu's father.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Palihawadana|first1=Mahinda|date=2017|title= The Indra Cult as Ideology A Clue to Power Struggle in an Ancient Society|journal= Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies|volume=24|issue=2|page=51|editor1-last=Mumm|editor1-first=Peter-Arnold|editor2-last=West|editor2-first=Tina}}</ref>}} and names of the participating tribes are difficult to retrieve, in light of the phonological deformations of their names.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="schmidt1980" /><ref name=":3" /> Plausible belligerents of the tribal union include (in order) ] (erstwhile master-tribe of Bharatas), ] (probably commanded by Turvasa), Yaksu (relatively unimportant or a pun for Yadu), ], ], ], ], ]s, ], Sivas, ], and ].<ref name=":0" /><ref name="schmidt1980" />


Though seemingly an unequal battle, going by the numbers (this aspect is highlighted multiple times in the hymns), Sudas decisively won against the tribal alliance by strategic breaching of a dyke on the river thereby drowning most (?) of the opponents.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> This sudden change in fortunes is attributed to the benevolence and strategizing of ], the patron-god of Bharatas, whose blessings were secured by Vasistha's poetics.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html|title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity|publisher=De Gruyter|year=1995|isbn=978-3-11-081643-3|editor-last=Erdosy|editor-first=George|series=Indian Philology and South Asian Studies|location=|language=en|chapter=4. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parametres|pages=85–125|doi=10.1515/9783110816433-009|s2cid=238465491|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812051405/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110816433-009/html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3" />
The "ten kings" are mentioned in both 7.33 (verses 3 and 5) and 7.83 (verses 6, 7 and 8), but not in the most extensive account of 7.18 so that it is not made explicit how this number was broken down:
Sudas himself is not to be included in the number (the Trtsus are ''surrounded by'' ten kings in 7.33.5), and if of the tribes mentioned in 7.18,
the Turvasas, Yaksus, Matsyas, Bhrgus, Druhyus, Pakthas, Bhalanas, Alinas, Shivas and Visanins are counted, the full number is reached, leaving the ] (7.18.14), the ] and ] (7.18.19) and the "21 men of both ] tribes" (7.18.11) without a king, and implying that ] (7.18.19, also mentioned 7.33.3 and 7.83.4, the main leader slain by Sudas),
Shimyu (7.18.5), and Kavasa (7.18.12) are the names of individual kings. The Bharatas are named among the enemies in 7.33 but not in 7.18. The Bharatas were actually a clan within the Puru tribe. Some were good and some were enemies.


== Second phase ==
The battle itself took place on the banks of the ].
Thereafter, the battleground (probably) shifted to the banks of river ], wherein the local chieftain Bhida was defeated along with three other tribes — Ajas, Śighras, and the Yakṣus.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />
The warriors of Sudas are described as white-robed (''shvityanca''), wearing hair-knots on the right side of their heads (''daksinataskaparda''), and as pious (''dhiyamjinvasa''), flying banners (''krtádhvaj'') , while the ten kings are impious and do not worship (''áyajyava'').
It appears (7.18.5) that Sudas was forced to retreat, and managed to cross the Parusni safely, while his foes, trying to pursue, were scattered in the crossing and either drowned or slaughtered by Sudas' men, Sudas himself slaying ]:
:7.18.9 ''As to their goal they sped to their destruction: they sought Parusni; e'en the swift returned not.
:''Indra abandoned, to Sudas the manly, the swiftly flying foes, unmanly babblers.''
:7.18.9 ''They went like kine unherded from the pasture, each clinging to a friend as chance directed.''
: ''They who drive spotted steeds, sent down by Prsni, gave ear, the Warriors and the harnessed horses.'' (trans. Griffith)
] and the Druhyu were "overwhelmed by Indra" while still in the water (7.18.10).
the slain of the ] and the Druhyus are numbered 6,666 (7.18.14).


== Aftermath ==
In the aftermath of the battle, the enemies amongst the Bharatas came under the dominion of Sudas (7.33.6), the Ajas, the Sigrus and the Yaksus likewise pay tribute (7.18.20), and Indra destroyed the seven castles of the enemies, and gave the treasures of ]'s son (or "the foreign man") to Sudas (7.18.13). 7.18.17 stresses that this was a victory against all odds, compared to a goat defeating a lion.
The Battle of the Ten Kings led Bharatas to occupy the entire Puru territory of Western ] (then Panchanada) centered around ] and complete their east-ward migration.<ref name=":0" /> Sudas celebrated his victory with the ] ritual to commemorate the establishment of a realm, free of enemies from the north, east, and west. He still had enemies in the ] to the south, which was inhabited by the despised (unknown if Indo-Aryan or non-Indo-Aryan) ].<ref name=":0" />


A political realignment between Purus and Bharatas probably followed soon enough and might have included other factions of the tribal union as well; this is exhibited from how the core collection of RV prominently features clan-hymns of both the sides.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Witzel|first=Michael|date=1997|title=The development of the Vedic canon and its schools: the social and political milieu|url=http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/110/|access-date=2021-04-15|website=crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de|page=263, 267, 320|doi=10.11588/xarep.00000110|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812051418/http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/110/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
==After the War==
The war was won by the Deva-worshippers and the worshippers of the Asuras migrated to the Middle East and created their own nations. The Bharatas of course created ], the Parsus created Persia, the Pakthas became the Pashthuns and founded ] kingdoms the Druyus became Gandhari and perhaps many even migrated to Europe and became the preistly-caste of the Celts, the Druids.<ref></ref> Later from the traditions of the Iranians, the ] Brahmana ] founded ].


The territory would eventually become the first known political state in the ] under the Kuru tribe in post-RV span. It became the heart-land of Brahminical culture and purity, which eventually would influence and transform Indian culture, ] and developing into the ].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> The Purus went on to survive as a marginal power in Punjab; Witzel and some other scholars believe ] (c. early 300 BC) to be a king from the same tribe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />
==References==
*Karl Friedrich Geldner, ''Der Rig-Veda: Aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche übersetzt'' Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 33, 34, 35 (1951), reprint Harvard University Press (2003) ISBN 0-674-01226-7
*], ''Hymns of the Rig Veda'' (1896)


==Historicity==
]
Numerous translators since the 1800s including ] have considered the battle as a historical event, based on the narration-characteristics of the verses.<ref name="schmidt1980">{{cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=Hans-Peter|date=March 1980|title=Notes on Rgveda 7.18.5–10|journal=Indica|volume=17|pages=41–47|issn=0019-686X}}</ref> Witzel dates the battle between approximately 1450 and 1300 BCE; he deems the concerned hymns to be late interpolations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witzel|first=Michael|date=2000|title=The Languages of Harappa: Early Linguistic Data and the Indus civilization|url=http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/120/|journal=|pages=37|doi=10.11588/xarep.00000120|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111092747/http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/120/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ] warns against using it as a major source to reconstruct history since the description of the battle is "anything but clear."<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
]

Both Witzel and Jamison find the very next hymn (7.19, verse 3) to show a striking shift of allegiance with Indra helping Sudas as well the Purus, who won land.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

] notes it to be the most famous historical conflict in RV—in that, it secured the dominance of Bharatas over Vedic tribes—as does Witzel.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" />

==Possible prototype for the Kurukshetra War==
{{Main|Kurukshetra War}}
{{See also|Historicity of the Mahabharata#The Battle of the Ten Kings}}
Witzel notes this battle to be the probable archetype/prototype of the ], narrated in the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|title=Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien / The State, the Law, and Administration in Classical India|publisher=Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag|year=1997|isbn=978-3-486-59435-5|editor-last=Kölver|editor-first=Bernhard|chapter=Early Sanskritization Origins and Development of the Kuru State|series=Schriften des Historischen Kollegs|doi=10.1524/9783486594355|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/9783486594355-005/html|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412151704/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/9783486594355-005/html|url-status=live}}</ref> John Brockington takes a similar approach.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf|title=Rethinking the Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to the Education of the Dharma King|date=2001-10-30|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-34054-8|pages=2|language=en|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> S. S. N. Murthy goes to the extent of proposing the battle as the very "nucleus" of the ]; ] adopts a similar stance.<ref name="Murthy 2016 pp. 1–15">{{cite journal |last=Murthy |first=S. S. N. |date=8 September 2016 |title=The Questionable Historicity of the Mahabharata |url=https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/782 |url-status=dead |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.11588/ejvs.2003.5.782 |issn=1084-7561 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126164815/https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/782 |archive-date=26 January 2019 |access-date=26 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruben|first=Walter|date=1977|title=KṚṢṆA, PARIS, AND SEVEN SIMILAR HEROES|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41691699|journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute|volume=58/59|pages=299|jstor=41691699|issn=0378-1143|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412154424/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41691699|url-status=live}}</ref> However, Witzel maintains the nucleus text of the Mahabharata to be in description of some event in the Late Vedic spans; it was since reshaped (and expanded) over centuries of transmission and recreation to (probably) reflect the Battle of the Ten Kings.<ref name=":0" /> ] rejects Witzel's and Brockington's arguments as "baffling fancy" and notes a complete lack of means to connect the battle with the "fratricidal struggle" of the Mahabharata.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf|date=2000-06-01|title=John Brockington, The Sanskrit Epics|url=|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal|language=en|volume=43|issue=2|pages=162|doi=10.1163/000000000124993958|s2cid=189772160|issn=1572-8536}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

==See also==
* ]
* ]
*]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}


]
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Latest revision as of 20:38, 18 December 2024

Battle recounted in the Rigveda

Battle of the Ten Kings
Datec. 14th century BCE
LocationNear Parusni river (modern Ravi), Punjab
Result Trtsu-Bharata victory
Territorial
changes
Bharatas settle in Kurukshetra
Emergence of Kuru kingdom
Belligerents
Bharata
Trtsu

First Phase:

Second Phase:

Commanders and leaders
Sudas Paijavana
Vashishta

First Phase:

Second Phase:

  • Bhida

The Battle of the Ten Kings (Sanskrit: दाशराज्ञ युद्ध, IAST: Dāśarājñá yuddhá) was first alluded to in the 7th Mandala of the Rigveda (RV) and took place between a king of the Bharatas named King Sudas versus a confederation of tribes. It resulted in a decisive victory for the Bharatas and subsequent formation of the Kuru polity. The Battle of the Ten Kings, mentioned in the Rigveda may have "formed the 'nucleus' of story" of the Kurukshetra War in the Mahabharata.

Battle

Book 3 of the Rig Veda states that the Bharata tribe crossed Beas river and Sutlej river, moving towards the (future) Kurukshetra area where they came across a nascent (and temporary) inter-tribal alliance of both Indo-Aryans and non-Indo-Aryans. This alliance was confronted in a battle, which is described in the 18th hymn (verses 5-21) of Book 7. The exact motivations are unclear; Michael Witzel argues that it might have been a product of intra-tribal resentment or intrigues of an ousted family priest, while Ranbir Chakravarti argues that the battle was probably fought for controlling the rivers, which were a lifeline for irrigation. The hymns also makes mention of the concurring tribes seeking to steal cows from the Bharatas.

Hanns-Peter Schmidt, whom Witzel deems to have produced the most "detailed, and ingenious reinterpretation" of the hymns, locates a unique poetic moment across the RV corpus, in their extraordinarily abundant usage of sarcastic allusions, similes and puns to mock the tribal alliance. Some of those allusions seem to be heavily context-specific and (still) remain unrecognized; there exist considerable disputes about interpretations of particular words, in light of the employed figures of speech and other poetic devices.

First phase

The first phase of the battle took place on the banks of the Ravi river (then Parusni) near Manusa village, west of Kurukshetra. The Bharata king and their priest are respectively mentioned as Sudas Paijavana and Vasistha, in the Rig Veda; however the names change in Samaveda and Yajurveda Samhitas. The principal antagonist is doubtful, and names of the participating tribes are difficult to retrieve, in light of the phonological deformations of their names. Plausible belligerents of the tribal union include (in order) Purus (erstwhile master-tribe of Bharatas), Yadu (probably commanded by Turvasa), Yaksu (relatively unimportant or a pun for Yadu), Matsyas, Druhyus, Pakthas, Bhalanas, Alinas, Vishanins, Sivas, Vaikarna, and Anu.

Though seemingly an unequal battle, going by the numbers (this aspect is highlighted multiple times in the hymns), Sudas decisively won against the tribal alliance by strategic breaching of a dyke on the river thereby drowning most (?) of the opponents. This sudden change in fortunes is attributed to the benevolence and strategizing of Indra, the patron-god of Bharatas, whose blessings were secured by Vasistha's poetics.

Second phase

Thereafter, the battleground (probably) shifted to the banks of river Yamuna, wherein the local chieftain Bhida was defeated along with three other tribes — Ajas, Śighras, and the Yakṣus.

Aftermath

The Battle of the Ten Kings led Bharatas to occupy the entire Puru territory of Western Punjab (then Panchanada) centered around Sarasvati River and complete their east-ward migration. Sudas celebrated his victory with the Ashvamedha ritual to commemorate the establishment of a realm, free of enemies from the north, east, and west. He still had enemies in the Khāṇḍava Forest to the south, which was inhabited by the despised (unknown if Indo-Aryan or non-Indo-Aryan) Kikatas.

A political realignment between Purus and Bharatas probably followed soon enough and might have included other factions of the tribal union as well; this is exhibited from how the core collection of RV prominently features clan-hymns of both the sides.

The territory would eventually become the first known political state in the Indian subcontinent under the Kuru tribe in post-RV span. It became the heart-land of Brahminical culture and purity, which eventually would influence and transform Indian culture, merging with local traditions and developing into the Historical Vedic religion. The Purus went on to survive as a marginal power in Punjab; Witzel and some other scholars believe Porus (c. early 300 BC) to be a king from the same tribe.

Historicity

Numerous translators since the 1800s including K. F. Geldner have considered the battle as a historical event, based on the narration-characteristics of the verses. Witzel dates the battle between approximately 1450 and 1300 BCE; he deems the concerned hymns to be late interpolations. Stephanie W. Jamison warns against using it as a major source to reconstruct history since the description of the battle is "anything but clear."

Both Witzel and Jamison find the very next hymn (7.19, verse 3) to show a striking shift of allegiance with Indra helping Sudas as well the Purus, who won land.

Stephanie W. Jamison notes it to be the most famous historical conflict in RV—in that, it secured the dominance of Bharatas over Vedic tribes—as does Witzel.

Possible prototype for the Kurukshetra War

Main article: Kurukshetra War See also: Historicity of the Mahabharata § The Battle of the Ten Kings

Witzel notes this battle to be the probable archetype/prototype of the Kurukshetra War, narrated in the Mahabharata. John Brockington takes a similar approach. S. S. N. Murthy goes to the extent of proposing the battle as the very "nucleus" of the Kurukshetra War; Walter Ruben adopts a similar stance. However, Witzel maintains the nucleus text of the Mahabharata to be in description of some event in the Late Vedic spans; it was since reshaped (and expanded) over centuries of transmission and recreation to (probably) reflect the Battle of the Ten Kings. Alf Hiltebeitel rejects Witzel's and Brockington's arguments as "baffling fancy" and notes a complete lack of means to connect the battle with the "fratricidal struggle" of the Mahabharata.

See also

Notes

  1. Book 3 was composed by Vishwamitra, the family priest of the Bharatas and makes no mention of the battle. Book 7 was composed by Vasistha, who replaced Vishwamitra. However, Jamison rejects that there exists any evidence of Vasistha-Vishwamitra feud in RV.
  2. Karl Friedrich Geldner deemed it to be Bheda, incorrectly. Witzel proposes Trasadasyu. Palihawadana proposes Purukutsa, Trasadasyu's father.

References

  1. Witzel, Michael (2020). "4. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parametres". The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. pp. 85–125. doi:10.1515/9783110816433-009. ISBN 978-3-11-081643-3. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  2. ^ Brereton, Joel P.; Jamison, Stephanie W., eds. (2014). The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Vol. I. Oxford University Press. pp. 880, 902–905, 923–925, 1015–1016. ISBN 9780199370184.
  3. Witzel, Michael (1997). "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu" (PDF). Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora. 2: 264.
  4. Witzel, Michael (2020). "4. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parametres". The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. pp. 85–125. doi:10.1515/9783110816433-009. ISBN 978-3-11-081643-3. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  5. ^ Murthy, S. S. N. (8 September 2016). "The Questionable Historicity of the Mahabharata". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 10 (5): 1–15. doi:10.11588/ejvs.2003.5.782. ISSN 1084-7561. Archived from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
  6. ^ Witzel, Michael (1995). "4. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parametres". In Erdosy, George (ed.). The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity. Indian Philology and South Asian Studies. De Gruyter. pp. 85–125. doi:10.1515/9783110816433-009. ISBN 978-3-11-081643-3. S2CID 238465491. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  7. Sinha, Kanad (2015). "PROFESSOR V.K. THAKUR MEMORIAL PRIZED PAPER: WHEN THE BHŪPATI SOUGHT THE GOPATI'S WEALTH: LOCATING THE "MAHĀBHĀRATA ECONOMY". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 76: 67–68. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44156566. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  8. ^ Schmidt, Hans-Peter (March 1980). "Notes on Rgveda 7.18.5–10". Indica. 17: 41–47. ISSN 0019-686X.
  9. ^ Stuhrmann, Rainer (11 October 2016). "Die Zehnkönigsschlacht am Ravifluß". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (in German). 23 (1): 1–61. doi:10.11588/ejvs.2016.1.933. ISSN 1084-7561. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
  10. ^ Brereton, Joel P.; Jamison, Stephanie W., eds. (2020). The Rigveda: A Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 9780190633363.
  11. Palihawadana, Mahinda (2017). Mumm, Peter-Arnold; West, Tina (eds.). "The Indra Cult as Ideology A Clue to Power Struggle in an Ancient Society". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 24 (2): 51.
  12. ^ Witzel, Michael (1997). "The development of the Vedic canon and its schools: the social and political milieu". crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de: 263, 267, 320. doi:10.11588/xarep.00000110. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
  13. Witzel, Michael (2000). "The Languages of Harappa: Early Linguistic Data and the Indus civilization": 37. doi:10.11588/xarep.00000120. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2021. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  14. Witzel, Michael (1997). "Early Sanskritization Origins and Development of the Kuru State". In Kölver, Bernhard (ed.). Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien / The State, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. Schriften des Historischen Kollegs. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. doi:10.1524/9783486594355. ISBN 978-3-486-59435-5. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  15. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (30 October 2001). "Introduction". Rethinking the Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to the Education of the Dharma King. University of Chicago Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-226-34054-8.
  16. Ruben, Walter (1977). "KṚṢṆA, PARIS, AND SEVEN SIMILAR HEROES". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 58/59: 299. ISSN 0378-1143. JSTOR 41691699. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  17. Hiltebeitel, Alf (1 June 2000). "John Brockington, The Sanskrit Epics". Indo-Iranian Journal. 43 (2): 162. doi:10.1163/000000000124993958. ISSN 1572-8536. S2CID 189772160.
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