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{{about||the semiaquatic animal|Hippopotamus|the band|The Hippos}}
{{short description|Archaeological site}} {{short description|Archaeological site}}
{{Infobox ancient site {{Infobox ancient site
|name = Hippos |name = Hippos
|alternate_name= Qal‘at el-Ḥuṣn / Sussita |alternate_name= Sussita/Sūsiya/Qal'at el-Ḥuṣn
|image = 29.9.17 סוסיתא מבט מהאויר1.jpg |image = 29.9.17 סוסיתא מבט מהאויר1.jpg
|alt= |alt=
|caption = Sussita, April 2017 |caption = Aerial view of Sussita (2017)
|map_type = Israel#Syria Golan |map_type =
|map_alt= |map_alt=
|map_size = 200 |map_size = 200
|location = ]
|location = ]<br>], ] ''(de facto)''
|region = ] |region = ]
|coordinates = {{coord|32.779|35.660|region:IL_type:landmark|display=inline,title}} |coordinates = {{coord|32.779|35.660|region:IL_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
|type = Settlement |type = Ancient city
|part_of= |part_of=Decapolis
|length= |length=
|width= |width=
Line 20: Line 19:
|height= |height=
|builder= |builder=
|material= |material=Basalt and nari
|built= |built=ca. 170 BCE
|abandoned = After 749 |abandoned = 749
|epochs = Hellenistic to Umayyad |epochs = Chalcolithic, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and Umayyad
|cultures= |cultures=
|dependency_of= |dependency_of=
|occupants= |occupants=
|event= |event=
|excavations= |excavations=https://www.dighippos.com
|archaeologists = Arthur Segal, Michael Eisenberg, Arleta Kowalewska |archaeologists = Arthur Segal, Michael Eisenberg, Arleta Kowalewska
|condition= |condition=In ruins, partly reconstructed
|ownership= |ownership=National Park
|public_access= |public_access=yes
|website= |website=https://www.dighippos.com
|notes= |notes=
}} }}


'''Hippos''' ({{langx|grc|Ἵππος||horse}})<ref>{{LSJ|i(/ppos|ἵππος|ref}}.</ref> or '''Sussita''' (], {{langx|he|סוסיתא}}) is an ancient city and ] located on a hill 2&nbsp;km east of the ], attached by a topographical saddle to the western slopes of the ].
'''Hippos''' ({{lang-grc|Ἵππος||horse}})<ref>{{LSJ|i(/ppos|ἵππος|ref}}.</ref> is an ] in the ], on a hill in the northern ] overlooking the ]. Between the 3rd century BCE and the 8th century CE, Hippos was the site of a Greco-Roman city,<ref>], '']'' (book 17, chapter 11, verse 4).</ref> which declined towards the end of the Byzantine period and the Ealy Muslim period, and was abandoned after an ]. Besides the fortified city itself, Hippos controlled two port facilities on the lake and an area of the surrounding countryside. Hippos was part of the ], or Ten Cities, a region in ] Jordan, Syria and Israel that were culturally tied more closely to ] and Rome than to the Semitic ethnoi around.


Hippos was a ] city in the northern ],<ref>], '']'' (book 17, chapter 11, verse 4).</ref> and a long-time member of the ], a group of ten cities more closely tied to the ] than to the local Semitic-speaking population. Later, Hippos became a predominantly ] city, which declined towards the end of the ] and throughout the ], and was abandoned after the ].
⚫ Founded as a polis by the name ''Antioch of Hippos'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀντιόχεια τοῦ Ἵππου}}) during the ]s, the city is named after the ] word for horse, ''Hippos'', and a common name of Seleucid monarchs, '']''. In the 3rd-century ], the site is known by its ] name, '''Sussita''' ({{lang-he|סוסיתא}}), a word meaning "horse" in the feminine gender, while the ] name, '''Qal‘at al-Ḥiṣn''' or '''Qal‘at al-Ḥuṣn''' ({{lang|ar|قلعة الحصن}}), has been used by the country's Arab inhabitants, meaning, "Fortress of the Horse/Stallion". Other names include the alternate spelling '''Hippus''' (] '''Hippum'''), a ]ized version of the Greek name. The precise reason why the city received this name is unknown.<ref name="hits">{{Cite journal |title= The Spade Hits Sussita |first1= Arthur |last1= Segal |first2= Michael |last2= Eisenberg |journal= Biblical Archaeology Review |date= May–June 2006 |volume= 32 |issue=3 |pages= 41–51, 78}}</ref>


==Location== ==Geography==
] ]
Hippos was built on a flat-topped foothill {{convert|2|km|mi}} east of and {{convert|350|m|ft}} above the Sea of Galilee, {{convert|144|m|ft}} above sea level, near modern ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Sussita-Hippos of the Decapolis: Town Planning and Architecture of a Roman-Byzantine City|first1=Arthur|last1=Segal|first2=Michael|last2=Eisenberg|journal=Near Eastern Archaeology|date=June 2007|pages=86–107|volume=70|issue=2|issn=1094-2076}}</ref> The site is just on the Israeli side of the 1949 UN-demarcated ceasefire line between ] and ]. Hippos was built on a flat-topped foothill {{convert|2|km|mi}} east of and {{convert|350|m|ft}} above the Sea of Galilee, {{convert|144|m|ft}} above sea level, near modern ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Segal|first1=Arthur|last2=Eisenberg|first2=Michael|date=June 2007|title=Sussita-Hippos of the Decapolis: Town Planning and Architecture of a Roman-Byzantine City|journal=Near Eastern Archaeology|volume=70|issue=2|pages=86–107|doi=10.1086/NEA25067700 |s2cid=163984218 |issn=1094-2076}}</ref>

Besides the fortified city itself, Hippos had two harbor on the Sea of Galilee and a large area of the surrounding hinterland ().

== Etymology ==
⚫ The city was founded in the mid-second century BCE as ''Antioch of Hippos'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀντιόχεια τοῦ Ἵππου}}) Hippos is ] for horse and a common name among Seleucid monarchs. In the 5th-7th century ], the site is identified by its ] name, '''Sussita''' ({{langx|he|סוסיתא}}) also meaning "horse". In ] it is '''Qal'at al-Ḥiṣn''' or '''Qal'at al-Ḥuṣn''' ({{lang|ar|قلعة الحصن}}) meaning "Fortress of the Horse/Stallion". Alternate spellings include '''Hippus''', a ]ized version of the Greek name.<ref name="hits">{{Cite journal |title= The Spade Hits Sussita |first1= Arthur |last1= Segal |first2= Michael |last2= Eisenberg |journal= Biblical Archaeology Review |date= May–June 2006 |volume= 32 |issue=3 |pages= 41–51, 78}}</ref>


==History== ==History==
Hippos traces from as early as 1 CE.<ref>{{Cite book|authors=Segal A., Młynarczyk J., Burdajewicz M., Schuler M., Eisenberg M.|year=2009|title=Hippos – Sussita Tenth Season of Excavations|publisher=Zinman Institute of Archaeology – University of Haifa|page=51}}</ref> The site was again inhabited in the third century BCE by the ], though whether it was an urban settlement or a military outpost is still unknown.<ref name="hits"/> During this time, ] served as the battleground between two dynasties descending from captains of ], the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. It is likely that Hippos, on a very defensible site along the border lines of the 3rd century BCE, was founded as a border fortress for the Ptolemies. The city of Hippos itself was established by Seleucid colonists, most likely in the middle of the second century BCE. Its full name, ''Antiochia Hippos'' ({{lang-la|Antiocheia ad Hippum}}), reflects a Seleucid founding. Archaeological evidence shows habitation at Hippos from the Early/Middle Chalcolithic period.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Segal A. |author2=Młynarczyk J. |author3=Burdajewicz M. |author4=Schuler M. |author5=Eisenberg M. |year=2009|title=Hippos – Sussita Tenth Season of Excavations|publisher=Zinman Institute of Archaeology – University of Haifa|page=51}}</ref>
===Hellenistic period===
]
The site was re-inhabited in the third century BCE by the ], though whether it was an urban settlement or a military outpost is still unknown.<ref name="hits"/> During this time, ] served as the battleground between two dynasties descending from captains of ], the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. It is likely that Hippos, on a very defensible site along the border lines of the 3rd century BCE, was founded as a border fortress for the Ptolemies. The city of Hippos itself was established by Seleucid colonists, most likely in the middle of the second century BCE. Its full name, ''Antiochia Hippos'' ({{langx|la|Antiocheia ad Hippum}}), reflects a Seleucid founding.


As the Seleucids took possession of all of Coele-Syria, Hippos grew into a full-fledged ], a ] with control over the surrounding countryside. Antiochia Hippos was improved with all the makings of a Greek polis: a temple, a central market area, and other public structures. The availability of water limited the size of Hellenistic Hippos. The citizens relied on rain-collecting ]s for all their water; this kept the city from supporting a very large population. As the Seleucids took possession of all of Coele-Syria, Hippos grew into a full-fledged ], a ] with control over the surrounding countryside. Antiochia Hippos was improved with all the makings of a Greek polis: a temple, a central market area, and other public structures. The availability of water limited the size of Hellenistic Hippos. The citizens relied on rain-collecting ]s for all their water; this kept the city from supporting a very large population.


In the first century BCE, the ] ruler ] conquered the city. According to the Roman Jewish historian ], the inhabitants were converted to Judaism.<ref name="haaretz.com">, ]</ref>
===Hasmonean period===
The ] resulted in an independent ]ish kingdom under the ] dynasty in 142 BCE. In c. 83–80 BCE, ] led a Hasmonean campaign to conquer lands east of the Jordan River.


===Roman period=== ===Roman period===
]
]
⚫ In 63 BCE the Roman general ] conquered ], including ], and ended Hasmonean independence. Hippos was known as one of the ] and was incorporated into the Roman '']''.<ref name="hits"/> Under Roman rule, Hippos was granted a certain degree of autonomy. The city minted its own coins, stamped with the image of a horse in honor of the city's name.]
]


Hippos was given to ] in 27 BCE,<ref>], ''De Bello Judaico'' (]) i.xx.§3</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Guy MacLean |title=For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE |date=2021 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24813-5 |location=New Haven |pages=248}}</ref> and returned to the Province of ] at his death in 4 BCE. According to Josephus, during this time Hippos, a ] city, was the "sworn enemy" of the new Jewish city across the lake, ]. Josephus recounts that during the ] of AD 66–70, following the destruction of the Jews in ], the Jews of Hippos suffered a massacre.<ref name=":6" /> Other Jews from Hippos joined the revolt in ].<ref name=":6" />
⚫ In 63 BCE the Roman general ] conquered ], including ], and ended Hasmonean independence. Pompey granted self-rule to roughly ten Greek cities on Coele-Syria's eastern frontier; this group, of which Hippos was one, came to be called the ] and was incorporated into the Roman '']''.<ref name="hits"/> Under Roman rule, Hippos was granted a certain degree of autonomy. The city minted its own coins, stamped with the image of a horse in honor of the city's name.


After the Romans put down the ], they created the province of ] in 135, of which Hippos was a part. In the early 2nd century CE Hippos reached its peak of prosperity and growth.
Hippos was given to ] in 37 BCE<ref>], ''De Bello Judaico'' (]) i.xx.§3</ref> and returned to the Province of ] at his death in 4 BCE. According to Josephus, during this time Hippos, a ] city, was the "sworn enemy" of the new Jewish city across the lake, ]. Jews had resided in Tiberias when it was still known by its previous name, Rakkat.<ref></ref> Rakkat was later given the name Tiberias some 25 years after Herod's death by his son, Herod Antipas, in honor of the Roman Emperor, Tiberius, in AD 20. Josephus reports that during the ] of AD 66–70, Hippos persecuted its Jewish population. Other Jews from Sussita participated in attacks on ] and elsewhere. Hippos itself fell under attack by rebels at least once.
⚫ The city was built along a grid pattern, centered around a colonnaded '']'' running east–west through the city as early as the mid-1st century CE. Other monuments included a '']'' (a ]), a ], an ], a ],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=1116|title=1,500-year-old treasure|access-date=September 21, 2010|publisher=University of Haifa|date=September 10, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721055635/http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=1116|archive-date=July 21, 2011}}</ref> and new city walls. The most important improvement, however, was the ], which led water into Hippos from the El-Al stream in the ], 24&nbsp;km long each aqueduct. The water, collected in a large, ] cistern, allowed a large population to live in the city.


During the Late Roman period, the imperial restructuring under ] placed Hippos in the province of ], encompassing ] and the ].
⚫ After the Romans put down the ], they created the province of Palaestina in 135, of which Hippos was a part. This was the beginning of Hippos' greatest period of prosperity and growth. It was rebuilt along a grid pattern, centered around a long '']'' running east–west through the city. The streets were lined with hundreds of red ] columns imported from ]. The great expense required to haul these columns to Palestine and up the hill is proof of the city's wealth. Other improvements included a '']'' (a ]), a ], an ], a ],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=1116|title=1,500-year-old treasure|access-date=September 21, 2010|publisher=University of Haifa|date=September 10, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721055635/http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=1116|archive-date=July 21, 2011}}</ref> and new city walls. The most important improvement, however, was the ], which led water into Hippos from springs in the ], 50&nbsp;km away. The water, collected in a large, ] cistern, allowed a large population to live in the city.


===Byzantine period=== ===Byzantine period===
⚫ When ] became ] in the ], giving rise to what is called by historians the ] period, ] became the target of imperial subsidies for churches and monasteries, and ] ] brought additional revenue.
{{main|Byzantine Empire}}
⚫ The imperial restructuring under the emperor ] placed Hippos in the province of ], encompassing ] and the ]. When ] became officially tolerated in the ], ] became the target of Imperial subsidies for churches and monasteries, and ] ] brought additional revenue. Industry expanded and more luxury goods became available to common people.


Christianity came slowly to Hippos. There is no evidence of any Christian presence before the 4th century. A Byzantine-era pagan tomb of a man named Hermes has been found just outside the city walls, attesting to the relatively late presence of paganism here. Gradually, however, the city was Christianized, becoming the seat of a ] by at least 359. One Bishop Peter of Hippos is listed in surviving records of church councils in 359 and 362. Christianity came slowly to Hippos. There is no evidence of any Christian presence before the 4th century. Gradually, the city was Christianized, becoming the seat of a ] by at least 359. One Bishop Peter of Hippos is listed in surviving records of ]s in 359 and 362.
Dedication inscriptions by two deaconess, one in ]<ref>Łajtar, A. Greek Inscriptions. In: ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 270–271, fig. 336</ref> and one in ] from nearby ‘Uyūn Umm el-‘Azam <ref>E. Dvorjetski, C. Müller-Kessler, M. Eisenberg, A. Pažout, and M. Osband, “Christian Palestinian Aramaic Inscription from the Rural Territory of Sussita-Antiochia Hippos”, ''ARAM'' 34.1 (2022), 138–151</ref> stand for Christian presence and their active worship by female clerics who officiated in these churches.


=== Rashidun and Umayyad periods === === Rashidun and Umayyad periods ===
The Muslim armies of the ] period invaded Palestine in the 7th century, completing their conquest by 641. Hippos' new Arab rulers allowed the citizens to continue practicing Christianity, a policy then continued by the ]. According to archaeologists, the Islamic regime did not pull down the churches but Christian imagery engraved on Byzantine brass bread stamps and chancel screens was covered over with a paste of tin and lead.<ref>, ]</ref> The Muslim armies of the ] period invaded Palestine in the 7th century, completing their conquest by 641. Hippos' new Arab rulers allowed the citizens to continue practicing Christianity, a policy then continued by the ]. According to archaeologists, the Islamic regime did not pull down the churches but Christian imagery engraved on Byzantine brass bread stamps and chancel screens was covered over with a paste of tin and lead.<ref>, ]</ref>


Hippos was abandoned after the ].<ref name="haaretz.com"/>
However, the population and economy continued to decline. The ] destroyed Hippos and it was abandoned permanently.


==Archaeology==
===Ottoman period===
===1880s surveys===
], Kafr Harib and Skufije.]] ], Kafr Harib and Skufije.]]
] ]
] visited the ruin in 1883–1885, giving a protracted account of Hippos (''Kŭlat el Husn'') in his work, ''The Jaulân'', although he had incorrectly surmised that the site may have been the ancient ] described by ].<ref>{{cite book|first1 =G.|last1=Schumacher |author-link1=Gottlieb Schumacher |title=The Jaulân: surveyed for the German Society for the Exploration of the Holy Land|url=https://archive.org/details/jaulnsurveyedfo00schugoog/page/n7/mode/2up|year=1888|location=London|publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |oclc=1142389290 |pages=–ff. }}</ref> ] visited the ruin in 1883–1885, giving a protracted account of Hippos (''Kŭlat el Husn'') in his work, ''The Jaulân'', although he had incorrectly surmised that the site may have been the ancient ] described by ].<ref>{{cite book|first1 =G.|last1=Schumacher |author-link1=Gottlieb Schumacher |title=The Jaulân: surveyed for the German Society for the Exploration of the Holy Land|url=https://archive.org/details/jaulnsurveyedfo00schugoog/page/n7/mode/2up|year=1888|location=London|publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |oclc=1142389290 |pages=–ff }}</ref>


===1950s excavations ===
==Excavations==
]
The first excavations were carried out by Israeli archaeologists ], ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/epstein-claire|access-date=October 11, 2014|title=Hess, Orna. "Claire Epstein." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009. |publisher=Jewish Women's Archive.}}</ref> ] and others from 1951 to 1955. They unearthed some domestic buildings, the main city gate at the east and a large Byzantine church that had probably been the seat of Hippos' bishop. After the excavations, the ] used Mount Sussita for the same purpose as the ancient Greeks—as a fortress. It was used as a border defense against ] until much of the Golan Heights were captured by Israel in the 1967 ]. The first excavations were carried out by Israeli archaeologists ], ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/epstein-claire|access-date=October 11, 2014|title=Hess, Orna. "Claire Epstein." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009. |publisher=Jewish Women's Archive.}}</ref> ] and others from 1951 to 1955. They unearthed some domestic buildings, the main city gate at the east and a large Byzantine church that had probably been the seat of Hippos' bishop. After the excavations, the ] used Mount Sussita for the same purpose as the ancient Greeks—as a fortress. It was used as a border defense against ] until much of the Golan Heights were captured by Israel in the 1967 ].


In 1964 Mt. Sussita was declared a National Park and in 2004 the area around it, including the site itself, were declared a National Reserve. Following an archaeological survey conducted in 1999, it was decided to embark on a large-scale scientific project of excavations. The site has been excavated annually since, with the 14th season of excavations slated to take place in the summer of 2013. In 1964 Mt. Sussita was declared a ] and in 2004 the area around it, including the site itself, were declared a national reserve.

===From 1999===
]


The research undertaken at Hippos-Sussita is an international project. The first eleven seasons (2000–2010) were an Israeli–Polish–American collaboration, co-directed by Professor Arthur Segal and Dr. Michael Eisenberg from the ], ]; Professor Jolanta Młynarczyk from the Research Centre for Mediterranean Archaeology, Polish Academy of Sciences; Dr. Mariusz Burdajewicz of the National Museum, Warsaw and Dr. Mark Schuler from ], St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. The main areas of excavation were the odeion, the basilica, the North-West Church, the North-East Church and its surrounding insulae, domestic quarters, the southern bathhouse, the defensive ditch and fortifications next to it and the necropoleis (burial grounds).<ref>], , Survey Permit # G-25</ref> As from 2012 the excavations are directed by Dr. Michael Eisenberg, focusing on the Roman basilica, the Roman-Byzantine southern bathhouse, the north-east insula, the living quarters and the Roman bastion. As from 2016 Dr. Arleta Kowalewska joined the directorship and the team focuses on the street network, saddle compound and saddle necropolis. Following an archaeological survey conducted in 1999, the site has been excavated annually. The research undertaken at Hippos-Sussita is an international project. The first eleven seasons (2000–2010) were an Israeli–Polish–American collaboration co-directed by Arthur Segal and Michael Eisenberg from the ], ]; Jolanta Młynarczyk from the Research Centre for Mediterranean Archaeology, ]; Mariusz Burdajewicz of the ]; and Mark Schuler from ], St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. The main areas of excavation were the odeon, the Roman basilica, the North-West Church, the North-East Church and its surrounding ], domestic quarters, the southern bathhouse, the eastern defensive ditch and fortifications next to it and the ] (burial grounds).<ref>], , Survey Permit # G-25</ref> From 2012 the excavations were directed by Eisenberg, focusing on the Roman basilica, the Roman-Byzantine southern bathhouse, the north-east insula, the living quarters and the Roman bastion. From 2016, Arleta Kowalewska joined the directorship and the team focuses on the street network, saddle compound and saddle necropolis.


The objective of the expedition is to uncover the entire ancient city, the street network, the main secular and religious public buildings, as well as the domestic quarters. It also hopes to survey and excavate the two necropoleis located to the south and the south-east of the city. The relationship between the city and the surrounding countryside will also be examined in future seasons, especially the area stretching between the city and the lake. Furthermore, it plans to conduct a detailed survey of the lake's shore to establish the exact location of Hippos' port.<ref name="site">{{Cite web|url=http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/index.htm|publisher=University of Haifa|title=Hippos (Sussita) Excavation Project|access-date=September 19, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124062805/http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/index.htm|archive-date=November 24, 2010}}</ref> In 2010, the objective was to excavate the streets, public buildings and domestic quarters, as well as the two necropolis located to the south and the southeast of the city. The relationship between the city and the surrounding countryside would be the focus of subsequent digs, especially the area stretching between the city and the lake. A detailed survey of the lake shore to establish the exact location of Hippos' port was also planned.<ref name="site">{{Cite web|url=http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/index.htm|publisher=University of Haifa|title=Hippos (Sussita) Excavation Project|access-date=September 19, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124062805/http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/index.htm|archive-date=November 24, 2010}}</ref>


===2015 findings===
], unearthed in the site in 2015]]
In 2015 a large bronze mask, almost without equal for its dimensions and dated between the 1st&nbsp;century&nbsp;BCE and the 2nd&nbsp;century&nbsp;CE, depicting the Greek god ] was retrieved by archaeologists from the site.<ref>Itay Blumenthal, Ynet 16 March 2015.</ref> In 2015 a large bronze mask, almost without equal for its dimensions and dated between the 1st&nbsp;century&nbsp;BCE and the 2nd&nbsp;century&nbsp;CE, depicting the Greek god ] was retrieved by archaeologists from the site.<ref>Itay Blumenthal, Ynet 16 March 2015.</ref>


==Christian tradition== ==Christian tradition==
In the ], when ] mentions a "city set upon a hill" that "cannot be hidden" (one of the metaphors of ] in the ]), he may have been referring to Hippos. In addition, a miracle of Jesus recounted in ] 5 and ] 8 may also be related to Hippos ({{Bibleref2|Mark 5, Luke 8}}). See ] for a discussion of the location of this miracle. In the ], when ] mentions a "city set upon a hill" that "cannot be hidden" (one of the metaphors of ] in the ]), he may have been referring to Hippos, although there have been speculations that he referred to ]. In addition, a miracle of Jesus recounted in ] 5 and ] 8 may also be related to Hippos ({{bibleverse|Mark 5, Luke 8|multi=yes}}). See ] for a discussion of the location of this miracle.


Catholic mystic ] in her vision-based work "]" reported that ] visited and preached in Hippos. Catholic mystic ] in her vision-based work "]" asserted that ] visited and preached in Hippos.


==References== ==References==
{{Commons category|Hippos}} {{Commons category|Hippos, Israel|Hippos}}
{{Reflist|2}} {{Reflist|2}}


==External links== ==External links==
* *
*. * .
* Pan at Hippos, BAR, November–December 2015. * .
* "Antiochia Hippos: Revealing a lost city of the Roman Decapolis", Current World Archaeology 69, 2015. * .
* "The Spade Hits Sussita", Forty Groundbreaking Articles from Forty Years of Biblical Archaeology Review, November 2015. * .
* and set at Hippos by the expedition (2014). * and set at Hippos by the expedition (2014).
* *


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
*Bagatti, Bellarmino. "Hippos-Susita, an Ancient Episcopal See." ''Ancient Christian Villages of Galilee.'' Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 2001. pp.&nbsp;59–66. *Bagatti, Bellarmino. "Hippos-Susita, an Ancient Episcopal See." ''Ancient Christian Villages of Galilee.'' Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 2001. pp.&nbsp;59–66.
*Burdajewicz, J. Wall Painting Decoration from the North-West Church in Hippos-Sussita of the Decapolis, ''Études et Travaux'' XXX (2017), 161-180. *Burdajewicz, J. Wall Painting Decoration from the North-West Church in Hippos-Sussita of the Decapolis, ''Études et Travaux'' XXX (2017), 161–180.
*Burdajewicz, M. Glass Finds in Archaeological Context. A Case Study of Hippos (Sussita), ''Études et Travaux'' XXIV (2011), 22-40. *Burdajewicz, M. Glass Finds in Archaeological Context. A Case Study of Hippos (Sussita), ''Études et Travaux'' XXIV (2011), 22–40.
*Burdajewicz, M. From Pagan Temple to Church in Late Antiquity Palestine A View from Hippos-Sussita", ''Études et Travaux'' XXX (2017), 29–71. *Burdajewicz, M. From Pagan Temple to Church in Late Antiquity Palestine A View from Hippos-Sussita", ''Études et Travaux'' XXX (2017), 29–71.
*Burdajewicz, M. The Glass Vessels of the Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods at Hippos: An Overview of the Main Types. In: M. Eisenberg, ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume II, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, 2018, 276-319. *Burdajewicz, M. The Glass Vessels of the Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods at Hippos: An Overview of the Main Types. In: M. Eisenberg, ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume II, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, 2018, 276–319.
*Burdajewicz, M. and Młynarczyk, J. Elements of the Liturgical Furniture in an 8th century Church (NWC) in Hippos (Susita), Israel” ''Series Byzantina'' IV, Warszawa 2006, 9-37. *Burdajewicz, M. and Młynarczyk, J. Elements of the Liturgical Furniture in an 8th-century Church (NWC) in Hippos (Susita), Israel" ''Series Byzantina'' IV, Warszawa 2006, 9-37.
*Burdajewicz, M. and Młynarczyk, J. Reading the record of the last Christians of Susita (Hippos). In: P. Ballet, S. Lemaître, I. Bertrand (eds), ''De la Gaule à l’ Orient méditerranéen. Fonctions et status des mobiliers archéologiques dans leur contexte'', Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Institut Français d'archéologie orientale, 2018, 139-144. *Burdajewicz, M. and Młynarczyk, J. Reading the record of the last Christians of Susita (Hippos). In: P. Ballet, S. Lemaître, I. Bertrand (eds), ''De la Gaule à l' Orient méditerranéen. Fonctions et status des mobiliers archéologiques dans leur contexte'', Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Institut Français d'archéologie orientale, 2018, 139–144.
*Chancey, Mark A. and Adam Porter. "The Archaeology of Roman Palestine." ''Near Eastern Archaeology,'' Vol. 64, No. 4. December 2001. pp.&nbsp;164–198. *Chancey, Mark A. and Adam Porter. "The Archaeology of Roman Palestine." ''Near Eastern Archaeology,'' Vol. 64, No. 4. December 2001. pp.&nbsp;164–198.
* Eisenberg, Michael. http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/images/Publications/BAR_ND15_Eisenberg_2S.pdf “Pan at Hippos”, ''Biblical Archaeology Review'', Vol. 41/6, November/December 2015, p.&nbsp;40–45, 72. * Eisenberg, Michael. http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/images/Publications/BAR_ND15_Eisenberg_2S.pdf "Pan at Hippos", ''Biblical Archaeology Review'', Vol. 41/6, November/December 2015, p.&nbsp;40–45, 72.
* Eisenberg, Michael. http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/summer-2015/article/new-discoveries-at-hippos “New Discoveries at Hippos”], ''Popular Archaeology'', 2015. * Eisenberg, Michael. http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/summer-2015/article/new-discoveries-at-hippos "New Discoveries at Hippos"], ''Popular Archaeology'', 2015.
* Eisenberg, Michael. http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/images/Publications/Eisenberg_Mivzarim.pdf “The Military Architecture of Antiochia Hippos (Sussita) during the Roman Period”] in: Aviam, M. (ed.), ''"From Watch Tower to Fortified city": Forts and Fortresses in Northern Israel from the Canaanites to the IDF'', p.&nbsp;113–129 (Hebrew), 2015. * Eisenberg, Michael. http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/images/Publications/Eisenberg_Mivzarim.pdf "The Military Architecture of Antiochia Hippos (Sussita) during the Roman Period"] in: Aviam, M. (ed.), ''"From Watch Tower to Fortified city": Forts and Fortresses in Northern Israel from the Canaanites to the IDF'', p.&nbsp;113–129 (Hebrew), 2015.
* Eisenberg, Michael. “Hippos-Sussita: From a Polis in the Decapolis to a Declining Town”, ''Qadmoniot'' 151, Jerusalem 2016, p.&nbsp;2-17 (Hebrew). * Eisenberg, Michael. "Hippos-Sussita: From a Polis in the Decapolis to a Declining Town", ''Qadmoniot'' 151, Jerusalem 2016, p.&nbsp;2-17 (Hebrew).
* Eisenberg, Michael (editor). Hippos of the Decapolis and its Region - 18 Years of Research, ''Michmanim'' 27, Haifa, December 2017. * Eisenberg, Michael (editor). Hippos of the Decapolis and its Region - 18 Years of Research, ''Michmanim'' 27, Haifa, December 2017.
* Eisenberg, Michael. ''Popular Archaeology,'' March 2012. * Eisenberg, Michael. ''Popular Archaeology,'' March 2012.
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*Epstein, Claire. "Hippos (Sussita)." ''The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land.'' Vol. 2. Ed. Ephraim Stern. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society & Carta, 1993. *Epstein, Claire. "Hippos (Sussita)." ''The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land.'' Vol. 2. Ed. Ephraim Stern. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society & Carta, 1993.
*Łajtar, A. Greek Inscriptions. In: ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 250-277. *Łajtar, A. Greek Inscriptions. In: ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 250–277.
*Łajtar, A. and Młynarczyk, J. A Faction Acclamation Incised on a Pithos Found Near the North-West Church at Hippos (Sussita), ''Études et Travaux'' XXX(2017), 289-302. *Łajtar, A. and Młynarczyk, J. A Faction Acclamation Incised on a Pithos Found Near the North-West Church at Hippos (Sussita), ''Études et Travaux'' XXX(2017), 289–302.
*Młynarczyk, J. Hippos (Sussita): Exploration of the North-west Church Complex (Areas NWC and OPB) in 2002, ''Światowit'' IV (XLV), Fasc. A, 2003, 73-78. *Młynarczyk, J. Hippos (Sussita): Exploration of the North-west Church Complex (Areas NWC and OPB) in 2002, ''Światowit'' IV (XLV), Fasc. A, 2003, 73–78.
*Młynarczyk, J. and Burdajewicz, M. North-West Church in Hippos (Sussita), Israel: Five Years of Archaeological Research (2000-2004), ''Eastern Christian Art'' 2 (2005), 39-58. *Młynarczyk, J. and Burdajewicz, M. North-West Church in Hippos (Sussita), Israel: Five Years of Archaeological Research (2000-2004), ''Eastern Christian Art'' 2 (2005), 39–58.
*Młynarczyk, J. Blessed Wine: a Newly Discovered Winery at the North-West Church in Hippos – Susita (Israel), ''Przez granice czasu. Księga Pamiątkowa Jerzego Gąssowskiego'', Pultusk 2008, 386-395. *Młynarczyk, J. Blessed Wine: a Newly Discovered Winery at the North-West Church in Hippos – Susita (Israel), ''Przez granice czasu. Księga Pamiątkowa Jerzego Gąssowskiego'', Pultusk 2008, 386–395.
*Młynarczyk, J. Architectural and Functional/Liturgical Development of the North-West Church in Hippos (Sussita), ''Etudes et Travaux'' XXII (2008), 147-170. *Młynarczyk, J. Architectural and Functional/Liturgical Development of the North-West Church in Hippos (Sussita), ''Etudes et Travaux'' XXII (2008), 147–170.
*Młynarczyk, J. The fading lights of a church. In: D. Frangié et Jean-François Salles éds., ''Lampes antiques du Bilad es Sham'', Paris 2011, 183-195. *Młynarczyk, J. The fading lights of a church. In: D. Frangié et Jean-François Salles éds., ''Lampes antiques du Bilad es Sham'', Paris 2011, 183–195.
*Młynarczyk, J. Umayyad-period Terracotta Lamps from Hippos (Susita), Jund al Urdunn. In: D. Frangié et Jean-François Salles éds., ''Lampes antiques du Bilad es Sham'', Paris 2011, 197-210 *Młynarczyk, J. Umayyad-period Terracotta Lamps from Hippos (Susita), Jund al Urdunn. In: D. Frangié et Jean-François Salles éds., ''Lampes antiques du Bilad es Sham'', Paris 2011, 197-210
*Młynarczyk, J. Hellenistic Pottery Deposits at Hippos of the Decapolis, ''Proceedings of the 7 Epistemonike Synantese gia ten Ellenistike Keramike, Aigio 4-8. 04. 2005'', Athena 2011. *Młynarczyk, J. Hellenistic Pottery Deposits at Hippos of the Decapolis, ''Proceedings of the 7 Epistemonike Synantese gia ten Ellenistike Keramike, Aigio 4-8. 04. 2005'', Athena 2011.
*Młynarczyk, J. Churches and the Society in Byzantine-period Hippos, ''Proceedings of the conference Decapolis, ARAM Society'', Oxford, 7–10 July 2008, 253-284. *Młynarczyk, J. Churches and the Society in Byzantine-period Hippos, ''Proceedings of the conference Decapolis, ARAM Society'', Oxford, 7–10 July 2008, 253–284.
*Młynarczyk, J. Wine for the Christians in Early Islamic Susita (Hippos of the Decapolis), ''Etudes et Travauv'' XXVI (2013), 473-485 *Młynarczyk, J. Wine for the Christians in Early Islamic Susita (Hippos of the Decapolis), ''Etudes et Travauv'' XXVI (2013), 473-485
*Młynarczyk, J. and Burdajewicz, M. The Northwest Church Complex. In: ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Mlynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 194-217. *Młynarczyk, J. and Burdajewicz, M. The Northwest Church Complex. In: ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Mlynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 194–217.
*Parker, S. Thomas. "The Byzantine Period: An Empire’s New Holy Land." ''Near Eastern Archaeology,'' Vol. 62, No. 3. September 1999. pp.&nbsp;134–171. *Parker, S. Thomas. "The Byzantine Period: An Empire's New Holy Land." ''Near Eastern Archaeology,'' Vol. 62, No. 3. September 1999. pp.&nbsp;134–171.
*Radziejowska, E. and Burdajewicz, J. Conservation. In: ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 302-311. *Radziejowska, E. and Burdajewicz, J. Conservation. In: ''Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011'', Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 302–311.
*Russell, Kenneth W. "The Earthquake Chronology of Palestine and Northwest Arabia from the 2nd through the Mid-8th Century A.D." ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research,'' No. 260. 1982. pp.&nbsp;37–53. *Russell, Kenneth W. "The Earthquake Chronology of Palestine and Northwest Arabia from the 2nd through the Mid-8th Century A.D." ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research,'' No. 260. 1982. pp.&nbsp;37–53.
*A. Segal, M. Eisenberg''',''' J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, ''Hippos (Sussita) of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations (2000–2011)'', Volume I, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa 2014. *A. Segal, M. Eisenberg''',''' J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, ''Hippos (Sussita) of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations (2000–2011)'', Volume I, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa 2014.
* Segal, Arthur and Eisenberg, Michael. ''Popular Archaeology,'' March 2012. * Segal, Arthur and Eisenberg, Michael. ''Popular Archaeology,'' March 2012.
*{{Cite web |last1=Segal |first1=Arthur |title=Hippos (Sussita) Excavation Project: First Season; July 2000 |work=The Bible and Interpretation |year=2000 |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos.htm |access-date=20 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610161206/http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 }} *{{Cite web |last1=Segal |first1=Arthur |title=Hippos (Sussita) Excavation Project: First Season; July 2000 |work=The Bible and Interpretation |year=2000 |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos.htm |access-date=20 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610161206/http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 }}
*{{Cite web |last1=Segal |first1=Arthur |title=Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Second Season; July 2001 |work=The Bible and Interpretation |year=2001 |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2001.htm |access-date=20 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610161229/http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2001.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 }} *{{Cite web |last1=Segal |first1=Arthur |title=Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Second Season; July 2001 |work=The Bible and Interpretation |year=2001 |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2001.htm |access-date=20 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610161229/http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2001.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 }}
*{{Cite web |last1=Segal |first1=Arthur |first2=Michael |last2=Eisenberg |title=Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Third Season |work=The Bible and Interpretation |year=2002 |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2002.htm |access-date=20 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610161240/http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2002.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 }} *{{Cite web |last1=Segal |first1=Arthur |first2=Michael |last2=Eisenberg |title=Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Third Season |work=The Bible and Interpretation |year=2002 |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2002.htm |access-date=20 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610161240/http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2002.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 }}
*{{Cite web |last1=Segal |first1=Arthur |first2=Michael |last2=Eisenberg |title=Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Fourth Season |work=The Bible and Interpretation |year=2003 |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2003.htm |access-date=20 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610161316/http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2003.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 }} *{{Cite web |last1=Segal |first1=Arthur |first2=Michael |last2=Eisenberg |title=Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Fourth Season |work=The Bible and Interpretation |year=2003 |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2003.htm |access-date=20 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610161316/http://www.bibleinterp.com/excavations/Hippos_2003.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 }}
*{{Cite journal |last=Tzaferis |first=Vassilios |author-link=Vassilios Tzaferis |title=Sussita Awaits the Spade |journal=Biblical Archaeology Review |volume=16 |issue=5 |date=Sep–Oct 1990}} *{{Cite journal |last=Tzaferis |first=Vassilios |author-link=Vassilios Tzaferis |title=Sussita Awaits the Spade |journal=Biblical Archaeology Review |volume=16 |issue=5 |date=Sep–Oct 1990}}


{{Decapolis cities}} {{Decapolis cities}}
{{National parks of Israel}} {{National parks in the Israeli-occupied territories}}
{{authority control}} {{authority control}}


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Latest revision as of 15:48, 29 October 2024

Archaeological site
Hippos
Aerial view of Sussita (2017)
Alternative nameSussita/Sūsiya/Qal'at el-Ḥuṣn
LocationJordan Valley
RegionJordan Valley
Coordinates32°46′44″N 35°39′36″E / 32.779°N 35.660°E / 32.779; 35.660
TypeAncient city
Part ofDecapolis
History
MaterialBasalt and nari
Foundedca. 170 BCE
Abandoned749
PeriodsChalcolithic, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and Umayyad
Site notes
Excavation dateshttps://www.dighippos.com
ArchaeologistsArthur Segal, Michael Eisenberg, Arleta Kowalewska
ConditionIn ruins, partly reconstructed
OwnershipNational Park
Public accessyes
Websitehttps://www.dighippos.com

Hippos (Ancient Greek: Ἵππος, lit. 'horse') or Sussita (Aramaic, Hebrew: סוסיתא) is an ancient city and archaeological site located on a hill 2 km east of the Sea of Galilee, attached by a topographical saddle to the western slopes of the Golan Heights.

Hippos was a Hellenistic city in the northern Jordan Valley, and a long-time member of the Decapolis, a group of ten cities more closely tied to the Greco-Roman culture than to the local Semitic-speaking population. Later, Hippos became a predominantly Christian city, which declined towards the end of the Byzantine period and throughout the Early Muslim period, and was abandoned after the 749 earthquake.

Geography

Aerial view of Sussita

Hippos was built on a flat-topped foothill 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of and 350 metres (1,150 ft) above the Sea of Galilee, 144 metres (472 ft) above sea level, near modern Kibbutz Ein Gev.

Besides the fortified city itself, Hippos had two harbor on the Sea of Galilee and a large area of the surrounding hinterland (Hippos' Territorium).

Etymology

The city was founded in the mid-second century BCE as Antioch of Hippos (Ἀντιόχεια τοῦ Ἵππου) Hippos is Greek for horse and a common name among Seleucid monarchs. In the 5th-7th century Mosaic of Rehob, the site is identified by its Aramaic name, Sussita (Hebrew: סוסיתא) also meaning "horse". In Arabic it is Qal'at al-Ḥiṣn or Qal'at al-Ḥuṣn (قلعة الحصن) meaning "Fortress of the Horse/Stallion". Alternate spellings include Hippus, a Latinized version of the Greek name.

History

Archaeological evidence shows habitation at Hippos from the Early/Middle Chalcolithic period.

Hellenistic period

The site was re-inhabited in the third century BCE by the Ptolemies, though whether it was an urban settlement or a military outpost is still unknown. During this time, Coele-Syria served as the battleground between two dynasties descending from captains of Alexander the Great, the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. It is likely that Hippos, on a very defensible site along the border lines of the 3rd century BCE, was founded as a border fortress for the Ptolemies. The city of Hippos itself was established by Seleucid colonists, most likely in the middle of the second century BCE. Its full name, Antiochia Hippos (Latin: Antiocheia ad Hippum), reflects a Seleucid founding.

As the Seleucids took possession of all of Coele-Syria, Hippos grew into a full-fledged polis, a city-state with control over the surrounding countryside. Antiochia Hippos was improved with all the makings of a Greek polis: a temple, a central market area, and other public structures. The availability of water limited the size of Hellenistic Hippos. The citizens relied on rain-collecting cisterns for all their water; this kept the city from supporting a very large population.

In the first century BCE, the Hasmonean ruler Alexander Yanai conquered the city. According to the Roman Jewish historian Josephus, the inhabitants were converted to Judaism.

Roman period

In 63 BCE the Roman general Pompey conquered Coele-Syria, including Judea, and ended Hasmonean independence. Hippos was known as one of the Decapolis and was incorporated into the Roman Provincia Syria. Under Roman rule, Hippos was granted a certain degree of autonomy. The city minted its own coins, stamped with the image of a horse in honor of the city's name.

The Decapolis, showing the location of Hippos ("Hippus")
Hippos forum

Hippos was given to Herod the Great in 27 BCE, and returned to the Province of Syria at his death in 4 BCE. According to Josephus, during this time Hippos, a pagan city, was the "sworn enemy" of the new Jewish city across the lake, Tiberias. Josephus recounts that during the First Jewish–Roman War of AD 66–70, following the destruction of the Jews in Scythopolis, the Jews of Hippos suffered a massacre. Other Jews from Hippos joined the revolt in Tarichaea.

After the Romans put down the Bar Kokhba's revolt, they created the province of Syria Palaestina in 135, of which Hippos was a part. In the early 2nd century CE Hippos reached its peak of prosperity and growth. The city was built along a grid pattern, centered around a colonnaded decumanus maximus running east–west through the city as early as the mid-1st century CE. Other monuments included a Kalybe (a shrine to the Emperor), a theatre, an odeon, a basilica, and new city walls. The most important improvement, however, was the aqueduct, which led water into Hippos from the El-Al stream in the Golan Heights, 24 km long each aqueduct. The water, collected in a large, vaulted cistern, allowed a large population to live in the city.

During the Late Roman period, the imperial restructuring under Diocletian placed Hippos in the province of Palaestina Secunda, encompassing Galilee and the Golan.

Byzantine period

When Christianity became officially tolerated in the Roman Empire, giving rise to what is called by historians the Byzantine period, Palestine became the target of imperial subsidies for churches and monasteries, and Christian pilgrims brought additional revenue.

Christianity came slowly to Hippos. There is no evidence of any Christian presence before the 4th century. Gradually, the city was Christianized, becoming the seat of a bishop by at least 359. One Bishop Peter of Hippos is listed in surviving records of church councils in 359 and 362. Dedication inscriptions by two deaconess, one in Greek and one in Christian Palestinian Aramaic from nearby ‘Uyūn Umm el-‘Azam stand for Christian presence and their active worship by female clerics who officiated in these churches.

Rashidun and Umayyad periods

The Muslim armies of the Rashidun period invaded Palestine in the 7th century, completing their conquest by 641. Hippos' new Arab rulers allowed the citizens to continue practicing Christianity, a policy then continued by the Umayyad Caliphate. According to archaeologists, the Islamic regime did not pull down the churches but Christian imagery engraved on Byzantine brass bread stamps and chancel screens was covered over with a paste of tin and lead.

Hippos was abandoned after the 749 Galilee earthquake.

Archaeology

1880s surveys

Hippos (Kalat al Husn) in the Schumacher Ostjordanlandes map, surrounded by the Syrian villages of Fiq, Kafr Harib and Skufije.
Plan of Sussita by Gottlieb Schumacher 1885

G. Schumacher visited the ruin in 1883–1885, giving a protracted account of Hippos (Kŭlat el Husn) in his work, The Jaulân, although he had incorrectly surmised that the site may have been the ancient Gamala described by Josephus.

1950s excavations

The first excavations were carried out by Israeli archaeologists Emmanuel Anati, Claire Epstein, Michael Avi-Yona and others from 1951 to 1955. They unearthed some domestic buildings, the main city gate at the east and a large Byzantine church that had probably been the seat of Hippos' bishop. After the excavations, the Israel Defense Forces used Mount Sussita for the same purpose as the ancient Greeks—as a fortress. It was used as a border defense against Syria until much of the Golan Heights were captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War.

In 1964 Mt. Sussita was declared a national park and in 2004 the area around it, including the site itself, were declared a national reserve.

From 1999

Hippos necropolis on the hillside, detail

Following an archaeological survey conducted in 1999, the site has been excavated annually. The research undertaken at Hippos-Sussita is an international project. The first eleven seasons (2000–2010) were an Israeli–Polish–American collaboration co-directed by Arthur Segal and Michael Eisenberg from the Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa; Jolanta Młynarczyk from the Research Centre for Mediterranean Archaeology, Polish Academy of Sciences; Mariusz Burdajewicz of the National Museum, Warsaw; and Mark Schuler from Concordia University, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. The main areas of excavation were the odeon, the Roman basilica, the North-West Church, the North-East Church and its surrounding insulae, domestic quarters, the southern bathhouse, the eastern defensive ditch and fortifications next to it and the necropoleis (burial grounds). From 2012 the excavations were directed by Eisenberg, focusing on the Roman basilica, the Roman-Byzantine southern bathhouse, the north-east insula, the living quarters and the Roman bastion. From 2016, Arleta Kowalewska joined the directorship and the team focuses on the street network, saddle compound and saddle necropolis.

In 2010, the objective was to excavate the streets, public buildings and domestic quarters, as well as the two necropolis located to the south and the southeast of the city. The relationship between the city and the surrounding countryside would be the focus of subsequent digs, especially the area stretching between the city and the lake. A detailed survey of the lake shore to establish the exact location of Hippos' port was also planned.

2015 findings

Over life size mask of the Greek god Pan, unearthed in the site in 2015

In 2015 a large bronze mask, almost without equal for its dimensions and dated between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE, depicting the Greek god Pan was retrieved by archaeologists from the site.

Christian tradition

In the New Testament, when Jesus mentions a "city set upon a hill" that "cannot be hidden" (one of the metaphors of Salt and Light in the Sermon on the Mount), he may have been referring to Hippos, although there have been speculations that he referred to Safed. In addition, a miracle of Jesus recounted in Mark 5 and Luke 8 may also be related to Hippos (Mark 5, Luke 8). See Gergesa for a discussion of the location of this miracle.

Catholic mystic Maria Valtorta in her vision-based work "Poem of the Man God" asserted that Jesus Christ visited and preached in Hippos.

References

  1. ἵππος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  2. Josephus, Antiquities (book 17, chapter 11, verse 4).
  3. Segal, Arthur; Eisenberg, Michael (June 2007). "Sussita-Hippos of the Decapolis: Town Planning and Architecture of a Roman-Byzantine City". Near Eastern Archaeology. 70 (2): 86–107. doi:10.1086/NEA25067700. ISSN 1094-2076. S2CID 163984218.
  4. ^ Segal, Arthur; Eisenberg, Michael (May–June 2006). "The Spade Hits Sussita". Biblical Archaeology Review. 32 (3): 41–51, 78.
  5. Segal A.; Młynarczyk J.; Burdajewicz M.; Schuler M.; Eisenberg M. (2009). Hippos – Sussita Tenth Season of Excavations. Zinman Institute of Archaeology – University of Haifa. p. 51.
  6. ^ Archaeologists Reconstruct Huge Early Christian Cathedral in Northern Israel, Haaretz
  7. Josephus, De Bello Judaico (Wars of the Jews) i.xx.§3
  8. ^ Rogers, Guy MacLean (2021). For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-300-24813-5.
  9. "1,500-year-old treasure". University of Haifa. September 10, 2009. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2010.
  10. Łajtar, A. Greek Inscriptions. In: Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011, Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 270–271, fig. 336
  11. E. Dvorjetski, C. Müller-Kessler, M. Eisenberg, A. Pažout, and M. Osband, “Christian Palestinian Aramaic Inscription from the Rural Territory of Sussita-Antiochia Hippos”, ARAM 34.1 (2022), 138–151
  12. Masked Byzantine weight found in Hippos indicates religious tensions, Haaretz
  13. Schumacher, G. (1888). The Jaulân: surveyed for the German Society for the Exploration of the Holy Land. London: Richard Bentley & Son. pp. 194–ff. OCLC 1142389290.
  14. "Hess, Orna. "Claire Epstein." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009". Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved October 11, 2014.
  15. Israel Antiquities Authority, Excavators and Excavations Permit for Year 2008, Survey Permit # G-25
  16. "Hippos (Sussita) Excavation Project". University of Haifa. Archived from the original on November 24, 2010. Retrieved September 19, 2010.
  17. Itay Blumenthal, '2,000-year-old bronze mask of ancient Greek god found in northern Israel,' Ynet 16 March 2015.

External links

Further reading

  • Bagatti, Bellarmino. "Hippos-Susita, an Ancient Episcopal See." Ancient Christian Villages of Galilee. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 2001. pp. 59–66.
  • Burdajewicz, J. Wall Painting Decoration from the North-West Church in Hippos-Sussita of the Decapolis, Études et Travaux XXX (2017), 161–180.
  • Burdajewicz, M. Glass Finds in Archaeological Context. A Case Study of Hippos (Sussita), Études et Travaux XXIV (2011), 22–40.
  • Burdajewicz, M. From Pagan Temple to Church in Late Antiquity Palestine A View from Hippos-Sussita", Études et Travaux XXX (2017), 29–71.
  • Burdajewicz, M. The Glass Vessels of the Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods at Hippos: An Overview of the Main Types. In: M. Eisenberg, Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011, Volume II, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, 2018, 276–319.
  • Burdajewicz, M. and Młynarczyk, J. Elements of the Liturgical Furniture in an 8th-century Church (NWC) in Hippos (Susita), Israel" Series Byzantina IV, Warszawa 2006, 9-37.
  • Burdajewicz, M. and Młynarczyk, J. Reading the record of the last Christians of Susita (Hippos). In: P. Ballet, S. Lemaître, I. Bertrand (eds), De la Gaule à l' Orient méditerranéen. Fonctions et status des mobiliers archéologiques dans leur contexte, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Institut Français d'archéologie orientale, 2018, 139–144.
  • Chancey, Mark A. and Adam Porter. "The Archaeology of Roman Palestine." Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 64, No. 4. December 2001. pp. 164–198.
  • Eisenberg, Michael. http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/images/Publications/BAR_ND15_Eisenberg_2S.pdf "Pan at Hippos", Biblical Archaeology Review, Vol. 41/6, November/December 2015, p. 40–45, 72.
  • Eisenberg, Michael. http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/summer-2015/article/new-discoveries-at-hippos "New Discoveries at Hippos"], Popular Archaeology, 2015.
  • Eisenberg, Michael. http://hippos.haifa.ac.il/images/Publications/Eisenberg_Mivzarim.pdf "The Military Architecture of Antiochia Hippos (Sussita) during the Roman Period"] in: Aviam, M. (ed.), "From Watch Tower to Fortified city": Forts and Fortresses in Northern Israel from the Canaanites to the IDF, p. 113–129 (Hebrew), 2015.
  • Eisenberg, Michael. "Hippos-Sussita: From a Polis in the Decapolis to a Declining Town", Qadmoniot 151, Jerusalem 2016, p. 2-17 (Hebrew).
  • Eisenberg, Michael (editor). Hippos of the Decapolis and its Region - 18 Years of Research, Michmanim 27, Haifa, December 2017.
  • Eisenberg, Michael. "Antiochia Hippos: Revealing a lost city of the Roman Decapolis" Popular Archaeology, March 2012.
  • Eisenberg, M. Hippos (Sussita) of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations (2000–2011), Volume II, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa 2018.
  • Eisenberg, M. A VISITOR'S GUIDE TO ANCIENT HIPPOS Above the Sea of Galilee, Israel 2021.
  • Epstein, Claire. "Hippos (Sussita)." The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. Vol. 2. Ed. Ephraim Stern. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society & Carta, 1993.
  • Łajtar, A. Greek Inscriptions. In: Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011, Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 250–277.
  • Łajtar, A. and Młynarczyk, J. A Faction Acclamation Incised on a Pithos Found Near the North-West Church at Hippos (Sussita), Études et Travaux XXX(2017), 289–302.
  • Młynarczyk, J. Hippos (Sussita): Exploration of the North-west Church Complex (Areas NWC and OPB) in 2002, Światowit IV (XLV), Fasc. A, 2003, 73–78.
  • Młynarczyk, J. and Burdajewicz, M. North-West Church in Hippos (Sussita), Israel: Five Years of Archaeological Research (2000-2004), Eastern Christian Art 2 (2005), 39–58.
  • Młynarczyk, J. Blessed Wine: a Newly Discovered Winery at the North-West Church in Hippos – Susita (Israel), Przez granice czasu. Księga Pamiątkowa Jerzego Gąssowskiego, Pultusk 2008, 386–395.
  • Młynarczyk, J. Architectural and Functional/Liturgical Development of the North-West Church in Hippos (Sussita), Etudes et Travaux XXII (2008), 147–170.
  • Młynarczyk, J. The fading lights of a church. In: D. Frangié et Jean-François Salles éds., Lampes antiques du Bilad es Sham, Paris 2011, 183–195.
  • Młynarczyk, J. Umayyad-period Terracotta Lamps from Hippos (Susita), Jund al Urdunn. In: D. Frangié et Jean-François Salles éds., Lampes antiques du Bilad es Sham, Paris 2011, 197-210
  • Młynarczyk, J. Hellenistic Pottery Deposits at Hippos of the Decapolis, Proceedings of the 7 Epistemonike Synantese gia ten Ellenistike Keramike, Aigio 4-8. 04. 2005, Athena 2011.
  • Młynarczyk, J. Churches and the Society in Byzantine-period Hippos, Proceedings of the conference Decapolis, ARAM Society, Oxford, 7–10 July 2008, 253–284.
  • Młynarczyk, J. Wine for the Christians in Early Islamic Susita (Hippos of the Decapolis), Etudes et Travauv XXVI (2013), 473-485
  • Młynarczyk, J. and Burdajewicz, M. The Northwest Church Complex. In: Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011, Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Mlynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 194–217.
  • Parker, S. Thomas. "The Byzantine Period: An Empire's New Holy Land." Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3. September 1999. pp. 134–171.
  • Radziejowska, E. and Burdajewicz, J. Conservation. In: Hippos - Sussita of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations 2000-2011, Volume I, A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2013, 302–311.
  • Russell, Kenneth W. "The Earthquake Chronology of Palestine and Northwest Arabia from the 2nd through the Mid-8th Century A.D." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 260. 1982. pp. 37–53.
  • A. Segal, M. Eisenberg, J. Młynarczyk, M. Burdajewicz, M. Schuler, Hippos (Sussita) of the Decapolis: The First Twelve Seasons of Excavations (2000–2011), Volume I, The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa 2014.
  • Segal, Arthur and Eisenberg, Michael. "Unearthing Sussita"Popular Archaeology, March 2012.
  • Segal, Arthur (2000). "Hippos (Sussita) Excavation Project: First Season; July 2000". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
  • Segal, Arthur (2001). "Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Second Season; July 2001". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
  • Segal, Arthur; Eisenberg, Michael (2002). "Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Third Season". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
  • Segal, Arthur; Eisenberg, Michael (2003). "Hippos-Sussita Excavation Project: The Fourth Season". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
  • Tzaferis, Vassilios (Sep–Oct 1990). "Sussita Awaits the Spade". Biblical Archaeology Review. 16 (5).
Decapolis cities (in bold), with surrounding regions mentioned by Pliny t. E.
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