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{{Short description|Theatre form in India}}
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{{Infobox dance
| name = Yakshagana
| image = Yakshaganads.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Yakshagana performers in action
| origin = 11th century
}}
'''Yakshagana''' is a traditional theatre, developed in ], ], ], ] and western parts of ] districts, in the state of ] and in ] in ] that combines dance, music, dialogue, costume, make-up, and stage techniques with a unique style and form. It is believed to have evolved from pre-classical music and theatre during the period of the ] movement.<ref name="preclassical">Prof. Sridhara Uppura; 1998; ''Yakshagana and Nataka Diganta''; publications.</ref> It is sometimes simply called "Aata" or ''āṭa'' (meaning "the play").<ref name="enduring"/> This theatre style is mainly found in coastal regions of Karnataka in various forms. Towards the south from Dakshina Kannada to Kasaragod of ] region, the form of Yakshagana is called ''{{transliteration|kn|Thenku thittu}}'' and towards the north from Udupi up to Uttara Kannada it is called ''{{transliteration|kn|Badaga thittu}}''. Both of these forms are equally played all over the region. Yakshagana is traditionally presented from dusk to dawn. Its stories are drawn from ], ], ] and other epics from both ] and ] and other ancient Indic traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8edkLcxSUYAC&q=Yakshagana+jain&pg=PA27|title=Yakshagana|first=Martha Bush|last=Ashton|date=3 January 1976|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=9788170170471|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://kasargod.nic.in/profile/yakshagana.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229235235/http://kasargod.nic.in/profile/yakshagana.htm |archive-date=29 December 2007 |title=Kasargod – Yakshaganam}}
</ref>


==Etymology==
'''Yakshagana''' (]:ಯಕ್ಷಗಾನ, ]:यक्शगन) is a classical ] form of the state of ] in ] mostly popular in the districts of Uttara Kannada, Shimoga,], ] and ] of ]. This would be considered to be a form of ] in western eyes. Actors wear costumes and enact the various roles. Traditionally, Yakshaganas would go on all night. It is sometimes simply called as ''Aataā'' in both Kannada and Tulu (meaning play).
''Yakshagāna'' literally means the song (''gāna'') of the '']'' (nature spirits).<ref name=eb>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9077732/yaksha| title=yaksha|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica| access-date=6 September 2007}}</ref> Yakshagana is the scholastic name in ] (used for the last 200 years) for art forms formerly known as ''kēḷike, āṭa, ],'' and ''daśāvatāra''. The word Yakshagana previously referred to a form of literature primarily in Kannada (starting from the 16th century). Of late Yakshaganas in Tulu and even now in Telugu are available. Performance of this Yakshagana literature or the play is called āṭa. It is now no longer believed that the word Ekkalagaana refers to Yakshagana.


===Music genre===
A Yakshagana performance begins at the twilight hours with the beating of drums for up to a couple of hours before the 'actors' get on the stage. The actors wear resplendent costumes, head-dresses, and painted faces which they paint themselves. A performance usually depicts a story from the Hindu epics and puranas. It consists of a narrator who narrates the story in a song-like fashion, backed by musicians playing on traditional musical instruments as the actors dance to the tune, with actions that portray the story as it is being narrated. The actors have a limited dialog during the course of the performance.
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Yakshagana has a separate tradition of music, separate from ] and the Hindustani music of India. Yakshagana and Karnatak Sangeetha may have a common ancestor are not decedents of one another.<ref name="Shivarama">Dr. Shivarama Karantha; ''Yakshagana Bayalaata''; Harsha Publications; 1963; Puttur, South Canara, India.</ref>
==The Word and the World==
Yakshagana is a traditional theater form combining dance, music, spoken word, costume-makeup, and stage technique with a distinct style and form.
≠
Both the word Yakshagana and its world are interesting and intriguing. It is a theater form mainly prevalent in the coastal districts and adjacent areas, in Karnataka. It is closely connected with other forms prevailing in other parts of Karnataka, and its neighboring states of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamilnadu and Maharastra.


A typical Yakshagana performance consists of background music played by a group of musicians (known as a ''himmela''); and a dance and dialogue group (known as the ''mummela''), who together enact ] on stage. The himmela is made up of a lead singer (''bhagawatha'')—who also directs the production—and is referred to as the "first actor" (''modalane vesha''). Additional himmela members are players of traditional musical instruments, such as the '']'' (hand drum), the '']'' (pipe), the '']'' (organ), and the '']'' (loud drums). The music is based on '']'', which are characterised by rhythmic patterns called ''mattu'' and '']'' (or ] in Western music).
Yakshagana, like many other forms, defies neat classification into categories like folk, classical, rural. It can be included into each of these, or all of them together, depending upon our line of approach. Being a theater form, unlike a dance form, it is more plural and dynamic. And hence it exhibits many types and varieties inside itself. However, Yakshagana can be rightly called a traditional form. Primarily it is a name given to the one prevailing in Coastal and Malnad areas of Karnataka, though in fringe forms like Doddata are also called by the same name often, especially recently . The traditional theater form ''Mudalpaya'' of Southern Karnataka, the ''Doddata'' of Northern Karnataka, the ''Kelike'' in the borders of Andhra Pradesh, the ''Ghattadakore'' of Kollegal in Chamarajnagar district – are such forms . Among them, the ''Ghattadakore'' is a direct branch of Coastal Yakshagana, while ''Mudalapaya'' is the most closely connected form. There is a form called ''Yakshaganamu'' in Andhra Pradesh also which exhibits resemblance to the forms of Karnataka plateau region.


A Yakshagana(ಯಕ್ಷಗಾನ) performance typically begins in the twilight hours, with an initial beating of the drums of several fixed compositions, called ''abbara'' or ''peetike''. This may last for up to an hour before the actors finally arrive on the stage. The actors wear resplendent costumes, head-dresses, and face paints.<ref>; accessed 2 November 2013</ref>
Thre are scholars who have studied Yakshagana as a subject and even got doctorate degree. Mr.Prabhakar M Joshi is one amongst them.


]
==The Genesis==
The origin of any art form is in a way difficult to fix and the time and process of formation conceived is often arbitrary. As art forms grow over a period, and they include various elements from time to time and undergo many changes until they appear as we see them today. Theater forms become solo performances (for example, Kathak) and may be vice versa.


A performance usually depicts a story from the "]" (epic poems) and the "]" (ancient ] texts). It consists of a story teller (the ''bhagawatha'') who narrates the story by singing (which includes prepared character dialogues) as the actors dance to the music, portraying elements of the story as it is being narrated. All components of Yakshagana—including the music, the dance, and the dialogue—are improvised. Depending on the ability and scholarship of the actors, there will be variations in dances as well as the amount of dialogue. It is not uncommon for actors to get into philosophical debates or arguments without falling out of character. The acting in Yakshagana can be best categorised as ].{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}} The performances have drawn comparison to the Western tradition of opera. Traditionally, Yakshagana will run through dusk to dawn.
==The Origin==


Yakshagana is popular in the districts of ], ], ], ], ] and western parts of ] .<ref>{{cite web |url= http://kasargod.nic.in/profile/yakshagana.htm| title= Yakshagana}}</ref> Yakshagana has become popular in ] in recent years, particularly in the rainy season, when there are few other forms of entertainment possible in the coastal districts.<ref name="enduring">{{cite news | url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/06/17/stories/2009061757640300.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621082806/http://www.hindu.com/2009/06/17/stories/2009061757640300.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=21 June 2009|title= The changing face of Yakshagana | access-date=6 September 2007| work=]| date=17 June 2009| location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
Basically Yakshagana is the product of the Vaishnava Bhakthi movement. Vaishnavism as a school of thought and religion is quite old. The Bhakthi movement proper, spread with vigor after the 10th Century. It took religion to the common man, to the lower strata of society, those classes to whom the highly formalized and Vedic religion was beyond reach. Hence Bhakthi movement was a social movement also.


{{Hinduism}}
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==History==
In order to propagate and spread the message of devotion, it adopted and adapted the existing folk as well as classical literary forms and performances. It created its own forms. Most of the traditional theater forms are the result of this phenomenon. Hence there are clear resemblance among the members of the 'Traditional Theater Family' like ''Ankhia Nata'' (Assam), ''Jathra'' (Bengal), ''Chau'' (Bihar, Bengal), ''Prahlada Nata'' (Orissa), ''Veedhinatakam'' & ''Chindu'' (Andhra), ''Terukoothu Bhagawathamela'' (Tamil Nadu), ''Kathakkali'' (Kerala). Yet there are major differences also. Yakshagana is a member of this group and so its origin is connected with a wider historical situation.
{{Main|List of Yakshagana plays in the Kannada language}}


===Origins===
Experts have placed the origin of Yakshagana from the 11th Century to the 16th Century. Earliest limit is fixed by a finding by Vidwan ] who says a legend goes to show that Sage Narahari Thirtha (c, 1300) started a Dasavathara Ata performance and a troupe in Udupi and later this spread to other places and grew into what we call Yakshagana today.
]
]
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Yakshagana can refer to a style of writing, as well as the written material itself. It was probably used for poems enacted in ] (or ''open theatre drama''), such as the ballads of ]. Yakshagana in its present form is believed to have been strongly influenced by the ]. Yakshagana was first introduced in Udupi by ]'s disciple ]. ] was the minister in the Kalinga Kingdom. He also was the founder of ].
Anyway, Yakshagana must have been an established form by the time of famous Yakshagana poet Parthisubba (1600) who wrote the Ramayana in Yakshagana. Because he is said to be a Bhagawatha (singer) himself and is believed to have founded a troupe, and probably he is the formulator of the Tenkuthittu (Southern style) of the art. Troupe centers like Koodlu and ] in ], and Amritheshwari, Kota near Kundapur claim having a troupe three to four centuries ago. So we can safely assume that this art form had taken shape by about 1500. However, what we see today as Yakshagana, must have been the result of a slow evolution, drawing its elements from ritual theater, temple arts, secular arts like Bahurupi, royal courts of the time and artists imaginations – all interwoven over period.


The first written evidence regarding Yakshagana is found on an inscription at the ] in ], Somasamudra, ], and is dated 1556 CE. A copy is available at the University of Madras.<ref name=martha>{{cite book | title=Yakshagana, a Dance Drama of India| last=Martha Bush Ashton| first= Bruce Christie|year=1977| publisher=Abhinav Publications| location=New Delhi| page=21,22| access-date=8 August 2012| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ug3DNI-1xwUC&q=arasikere+history}}</ref> The inscription mentions land donated to the performers of the art, so as to enable people to enjoy ''tala maddale'' programs at the temple. Another important piece of evidence is available in the form of a poem authored by Ajapura Vishnu, the ''Virata Parva'', inscribed on a palm-leaf found at ] (present day Brahmavara).<ref name=martha/> Another historic palm-leaf manuscript, dated 1621 CE, describes ''Sabhalakshana''.<ref name=martha/>
==Growth and Changes==
With the socio-economic changes of the 19th Century, arts like Yakshagana also changed. The 19th Century produced a big number of compositions. Around 1800, a troupe from Dharmastala visited the court of the king of Mysore and established a troupe there. In the 1840s, a troupe from Uttara Kannada (North Kanara) visited Maharastra, and inspired the first modern age mythological drama by Vishudas Bhave. A number of troupes arose all over the Coastal Karnataka and probably in other parts of Karnataka too. By the early decades of this Century the structure of Yakshagana reached a definite shape and form.


Yakshagana bears some resemblance to other members of the 'traditional theatre family:' ''Ankhia Nata'' (found in ]); ''Jathra'' (in ]); ''Chau'' (], Bengal); ''Prahlada Nata'' (]); ''Veedhinatakam'' & ''Chindu'' (]); ''Terukoothu Bhagawathamela'' (]), and '']'' (Kerala). However, some researchers have argued that Yakshagana is markedly different from this group.{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}
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Experts have placed the origin of Yakshagana somewhere in the period of the 11th to 16th centuries CE.<ref name="origin">{{cite news | url=http://www.hindu.com/ms/2005/12/23/stories/2005122300250500.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217122710/http://www.hindu.com/ms/2005/12/23/stories/2005122300250500.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=17 December 2007| title=Focus on rural art| access-date=6 September 2007| location=Chennai, India| work=]| date=23 December 2005}}</ref> Yakshagana was an established performance art form by the time of the noted Yakshagana poet, Parthi Subba (c. 1600).<ref name="Shivarama"/> His father, Venkata, is attributed by some to be the author of the great Hindu epic, ], although historian ] counters these claims (made most notably by historians Muliya Thimmappa and Govinda Pai)<ref>Note: This due to what Karantha describes as procedural lapses in their research and conclusions. Karantha bases his claim on the fact that Venkata was reported to be a bhagawatha (singer) himself, and is believed to have founded his own troupe.</ref> and argues that it is Subba, who was in fact its author.<ref name="Shivarama"/> Venkata is the probable founder of the tenkuthittu (southern) style of the art.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}
1930s saw some changes in compositions, organizations and presentation. Dance and the spoken word was further developed and refined. But in costume, a type of degeneration started setting in due to the use of 'modern' clothing and stone jewelery, in place of hand loom clothing and wooden ornaments.


Troupe centers, such as ] and ] in the ], and ], Kota near ], claim to have had troupes three to four centuries ago, indicating that the art form almost certainly had begun to take shape by circa 1500.
The Year 1950 saw the birth of 'tent' troupes, giving performances to audience by tickets, with 'tent theaters' and furniture for seating. These troupes brought in commercialization of Yakshagana, with both merits and demerits. Yakshagana saw major changes in form and organisation, electrical lights replaced the 'gas lights' or 'petromax' lamps. Seating arrangements improved. Major changes came in the themes, with the inclusion of folk epics, Sanskrit dramas and created (imaginary) stories forming the thematic base. Popular entertainment became the criterion in place of 'classical' presentation. Tulu, the language of the Southern part of the D.K. district was introduced on the stage, where hitherto only Kannada was used. This gained great popularity. All these trends continued with added vigor after 1970s, with a new element of influence. Noted writer, Late Dr. Kota Shivaram Karanth experimented with the dance form by introducing Western musical instruments. He also reduced the time of a Yakshagana performance from 12 hours to two and half hours, for the convenience of city dwellers. Another trend that has emerged in modern Yakshagana is the incorporation of movie stories. The best example is the ''prasanga'' titled "Nagavalli" which has been inspired by the Kannada movie, "Aaptamitra." Though it has been derided the purists, these ''prasanga'' are quite popular among people.


The Yakshagana form of today is the result of a slow evolution, drawing its elements from ritual theatre, temple arts, secular arts (such as ]), royal courts of the past, and the artists' imaginations—all interwoven over a period of several hundred years.<ref name="origin"/>
The North Kanara style of Yakshagana hitherto not know outside, started making a big impact on other styles. This trend continues even today.


===Early poets===
Along with all these, the traditional type of troupes, giving free shows financed by devotees still continue and have a very good support.
Early Yakshagana poets included Ajapura Vishnu, ], Parthi Subba, and Nagire Subba. ] (1704–1714) authored 14 Yakshaganas in various languages in the Kannada script.<ref name=pranesh>{{cite book | last= Pranesh| first= Meera Rajaram |title= Musical Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (1638–1947 A.D.)|orig-year=2003|year= 2003|publisher= Vee Emm|location= Bangalore|pages=37, 38}}</ref>{{efn|This King of ] was deaf and dumb, but knew several languages.}} ] (1794–1868) also wrote several Yakshagana prasanga, including ''Sougandhika Parinaya''.<ref name=pranesh/>{{efn|Mysore kings often gave patronage to various forms of performance artists}} Noted poet, ], composed several Yakshagana prasanga's, including the very popular ''Rathnavathi Kalyana''.


==The Variations== ==Evolution==
In the 19th century, Yakshagana began to move away from the strict traditional forms. Practitioners of the day produced a number of new compositions. Also, a large number of troupes arose across ].
There are basically two variants of Yakshagana.


The early 20th century saw the birth of 'tent' troupes, giving performances to audiences made up of common people who were admitted by ticket. These troupes were responsible for the commercialisation of Yakshagana. The genre saw major changes in form and organisation. Electrical lights replaced the gas lights; seating arrangements improved; the inclusion of folk epics, Sanskrit dramas, and fictional stories formed the modern thematic base of the discipline. Popular entertainment became the criterion, replacing the historic classical presentations. Tulu, the language of the southern part of the ] and ] district's was introduced; increasing popularity with the common people.
=== Badagutittū ===
]
The ''Badagutittū'' style is prevalent in Northern parts of ], that is, from Padubidri to Byndoor.
=== Tenkutittū ===
]
The second variation, the ''Tenkutittū'' style, is prevalent in Southern areas of ], that is, from Mulki to Kasargod.


At this time, writer Kota Shivaram Karanth, experimented with the dance form by introducing Western musical instrumentation. He reduced the time of a Yakshagana performances from 12 hours to under three hours, incorporated movie plot lines, and added Shakespearean themes.<ref>Hapgood, Robert; 1983; ''Macbeth Distilled: A ''Yakshagana'' Production in Delhi'']; "];" Vol. 31; No. 3; Autumn, 1980; pp. 439–440.</ref> Today, female artists perform in Yakshagana shows.
==The Troupes==
Yakshagana is one of the most living art traditions in the World. There are about 30 full fledged professional troupes, and about 200 amateur troupes in Yakshagana. Professional troupes go on tour between November to May, giving about 180-200 shows that is, a full night show everyday!


===Parallel forms===
There are about one thousand professional artists and much bigger number of amateurs. Further there are off season shows during the wet season, the anniversary shows, school and college students Yakshagana and of course the Talamaddale performances. All put together, we safely say that Karnataka witnesses about 12,000 Yakshagana performances every year!
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Yakshagana is related to other performance art forms prevalent in other parts of Karnataka and the neighbouring states of ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/10/14/stories/2005101402510300.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060304052435/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/10/14/stories/2005101402510300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 March 2006 |title=Growing with Tradition |date=14 October 2005 |work=] |access-date= 3 November 2013}}</ref> Yakshagana defies simple classification into categories such as folk, classical, or rural. It can be included in each or all of these, depending upon the rules used for classification. It is more varied and dynamic than most dance forms. Yakshagana can, however, be classified as one of many traditional dance forms. While it prevails primarily in the coastal areas of Karnataka, other dance forms (such as Doddata) are today often called by the same name. Several forms of traditional theatre – ''Mudalpaya'' (of southern Karnataka); ''Doddata'' (of northern Karnataka); ''Kelike'' (on the border with ]);<ref>{{cite web |title=Indrajitu Kalaga |url=http://www.rangashankara.org/home/rangatest/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=32&favm=2010-11-1 |website=rangashankara.org |access-date=20 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028043102/http://www.rangashankara.org/home/rangatest/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=32&favm=2010-11-1 |archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> and ''Ghattadakore'' (of ]—in the ]), may be included in this category. Among them, the ''Ghattadakore'' is a direct branch of the coastal form of Yakshagana, while ''Mudalapaya'' is the most closely connected form.{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}
Yakshagana has not so far shown signs of quantity decline, in spite of very fast 'modernization' and 'urbanization'.


====Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh====
== Yakshagana Puppetry ==
There is a form called ''Yakshaganamu'' in ], which exhibits some resemblance to the Yakshagana forms of the Karnataka plateau region<ref name="yakshaganamu">{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bangalore/3-day-festival-to-celebrate-Karanths-birth-centenary/articleshow/31803735.cms| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104062239/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2002-12-20/bangalore/27294092_1_kota-shivarama-karanth-national-seminar-festival| url-status=live| archive-date=4 November 2012| title=3-day festival to celebrate Karanth's birth centenary| access-date=6 September 2007| work=]| date=20 December 2002}}</ref> and is less sophisticated as a visual art.<ref name="cambridge">{{cite book |editor1-first=James R. |editor1-last=Brandon |title=The Cambridge guide to Asian Theatre |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC&q=yakshagana&pg=PA116| edition=1997 (2nd reprint) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=9780521588225 |pages=115, 116 |date=28 January 1997 }}</ref>
Another interesting facet of Yakshagana is the its use in puppetry. Evidence shows that there were more than 30 string puppet troupes in the undivided ] district during the period 1910 – 1915 in places like Basrur, Barkur, Kokkarne, Mudabidri etc.
]
The puppetry in Yakshagana style is interesting as the presentation is highly stylized and adheres strictly to the norms and standards of ] The puppets used are generally 18 inches high and the costumes are similar to those worn by the characters from Yakshagana with the same elaborate make-up, colorful head gear and heavy jewelery. The person who infuses life into the puppet and makes it come alive, by dexterous manipulation is known as the ''Suthradhara.'' The content in the Yakshagana puppetry, is drawn heavily from the ancient epics.


==Variations and subgenres==
=== Background of Yakshagana Puppetry ===
Though Yakshagana puppetry had existed since a long time, it was moulded by Laxman, Narasimha and Manjappa Kamath, hailing from ] village in ] taluk. Devanna Padmanabha Kamath, the grand son of Laxman Kamath infused new life into it and performed shows all over India. Currently, his son Kogga Kamath is at the forefront, performing shows and training youngsters in Yakshagana puppetry.


Scholars have classified Yakshagana broadly into several types:
== Training and Research ==
*Moodalopaya Yakshagana; includes eastern areas of Karnataka (such as Channarayapattna and Arsikere Taluks of the Hassan District), Nagamangala Taluk of the Mandya District, Turuvekere Taluk of the ] District, Hiriyuru, Challakere of ] District and North Karnataka.<ref name=Achar>Dr. Achar, Palthady Ramakrishna; 2004; Janapada Parisara; Puttur; "Supriya Prakashana;" p.68</ref>
*Paduvlopaya Yakshagana comprises the western parts of extended Karnataka (including Kasaragod Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada).
* Tenkutittu (includes areas Kasaragod (Kerala), Mangalore District, Udupi, ], Sulliya, ], ]a, ], ], etc.)
* Badagutittu (Udupi to ]a area, ])
* Badabadagutittu/Uttara Kannadatittu (extreme north parts of Uttara Kannada)<ref name=Achar />


===Tenkutittu===
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]'' (left) and '']'' (right) at a performance in ], depicting ''Roudra Rasa'']]


One of the traditional variations, the ''tenkutittu'' style, is prevalent in Dakshina Kannada, ] District, western parts of ] (Sampaje), and few areas of Udupi district. The influence of Karnatic Music is apparent in tenkutittu, as evidenced by the type of maddale used and in bhaagavathike. Yakshagana is influenced more by folk art blended with classical dance aspects. In tenkutittu, three iconic set of colours are used: the ''Raajabanna'', the ''Kaatbanna'', and the ''Sthreebanna''.


The himmela in the tenkutittu style is more cohesive to the entire production. Rhythms of the chande and maddale coupled with the ''chakrataala'' and ''jaagate'' of the bhaagavatha create an excellent symphonic sound. The dance form in tenkutittu strikes the attention of the audience by 'Dheengina' or 'Guttu'. Performers often do ''dhiginas'' (jumping spins in the air) and will continuously spin (sometimes) hundreds of times. Tenkutittu is noted for its incredible dance steps; its high flying dance moves; and its extravagant ''rakshasas'' (demons).
Training schools for Yaskhagana are very few in Coastal Karnataka. As most troupes are associated with temples, the training has been confined to the temple premises. However, the Govinda Pai Research Institute, located at MGM College, Udupi, runs a ''Yakshagana Kalakendra'' in Udupi that trains youngsters in this ancient dance form. The Govinda Pai Research Institute does research work on language, rituals and dance art forms of Tulu Nadu.


Tenkutittu has remained a popular form and has its own audience outside the coastal areas. The Dharmasthala and Kateelu durgaparameshwari melas (the two most popular melas) have helped to popularise this form. Several creative tenkutittu plays have been composed by noted scholars, such as Amritha Someshwara.<ref name="Yakshagana">{{cite web |title=Tenkuthittu| url=http://worldtuluvasnetwork.com/yakshagana}}</ref>
==External links==
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* http://www.yakshaganapuppets.com/
* http://kondadakuli.tripod.com/
* http://www.yaksharanga.org/
* http://www.flickr.com/photos/yakshagana/


===Badagutittu===
{{Karnataka}}
The ''Badagutittu'' style is prevalent in ] (Uttara Kannada District) and the northern parts of Udupi district from Kundapura to Byndoor. The Badagutittu school of Yakshagana places more emphasis on facial expressions, ''matugarike'' (dialogues), and dances appropriate for the character depicted in the episode. It makes use of a typical Karnataka chande.<ref name="info">; Narthaki.com; accessed November 2013.</ref>


The Badagutittu style was popularised by ]'s, "Yakshagana Mandira," presented at Saligrama Village in ] as a shorter more modern form of Yakshagana.<ref name="info" />


], the founder of the Yakshagana troupe, Idagunji Mahaganapati Yakshagana Mandali, is an exponent of the Badagutittu style of Yakshagana. He is also the first Yakshagana artist to receive the ] from the ]. He hails from the ] taluk of ] (North Canara) District.
== See Also ==


===Puppetry variant===
]
There were more than 30 string-puppet troupes in the undivided ] district during the period 1910–1915 in places such as Basrur, Barkur, Kokkarne, ].<ref name="Pre historic art in Karnataka">{{Cite news|url=http://legacykarnataka.com/art_craft_in_karnataka.htm| author=Dr. A Sundara| title=Pre historic art in Karnataka}}</ref>
]
The presentation of the puppetry in Yakshagana style is highly stylised and adheres strictly to the norms and standards of Yakshagana. The puppets (generally 18 inches high) wear costumes similar to those worn by live actors of Yakshagana, and have the same elaborate make-up, colourful headgear, and heavy jewellery.<ref name=puppet>{{cite book | last=Gosh, Banerjee| first=Sampa, Utpal Kumar| title=Indian puppets| year=2006| publisher=Abhinav publications| location=New Delhi| isbn=9788170174356|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iy6_TtXCZjMC&q=kogga+devanna+kamath+times+of+india&pg=PA78|author2=Banerjee, Utpal K.| page=78| access-date=16 August 2012}}</ref> The puppeteer is known as the ''Suthradhara.'' The content in the Yakshagana puppetry, is also mainly drawn from the ancient epics.<ref name="Pre historic art in Karnataka" /><ref name=puppet/>
]

]
====Background of puppetry====
Yakshagana puppetry has existed for centuries. The modern form of the art, however, was largely moulded by the brothers Laxman, Narasimha, and Manjappa Kamath; who hailed from ] village, ] taluk. Devanna Padmanabha Kamath, the grandson of Laxman Kamath infused new life into the art and performed shows all over India. Later, ] improved this subgenre even further, being recognised with the ] and ]s. His son, Bhaskar Kogga Kamath, is currently performing shows while training others in the art of Yakshagana puppetry.<ref name="kogga">{{cite news | url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/03/07/stories/2006030700020300.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001064817/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/03/07/stories/2006030700020300.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=1 October 2007| title=Award for achievement|access-date=6 September 2007| location=Chennai, India| work=]| date=7 March 2006}}</ref> ] is a leading puppeteer from Kasaragod. He leads the Yakshagana puppet troupe Shri Gopalakrishna Yakshagana Gombeyata Sangha.{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}

===Ballet variant===
The second half of the 20th century saw experiments and adoptions of this art into other venues. One notable effort was that of ], who produced and exhibited ''Yakshagana ]'', using and training local artists.<ref name="yaksha">{{cite web | first=Upadhyaya |last= K.S. |title=Sri Naranappa Uppooru |url= http://www.yakshagana.com/pro-may01.HTM| publisher=Yakshagana.com |location=Udupi |date= 12 May 2001| access-date=21 August 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Karanth1997">{{cite book | author=Kota Shivarama Karanth| title=Yakṣagāna| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ufB3lN9Jyr0C| access-date=29 July 2013| date=1 January 1997| publisher=Abhinav Publications| isbn=978-81-7017-357-1}}</ref> Some of the changes brought about by Karanth, however, attracted criticism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ignca.nic.in/nl002302.htm|title=Seminar on Karanth}}</ref> One legal decision even banned any public performance of his experimental ballets being billed as "Yakshagana."{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}

==Important components==
The artists pray to lord ] before their performance.<ref>{{cite book |title=History of Indian Theatre, Volume 2 |author= Manohar Laxman Varadpande|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZrjC24PuDQC&q=yakshagana++starts+and+ends+with++prayer+to+Lord+Ganesha.&pg=PA314|isbn= 9788170172789|year= 1987}}</ref> Yakshagana also ends with a prayer to Ganesha<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.keralatourism.org/bekal/yakshaganam.php |title = Yakshaganam, Kasaragod, Kerala, India &#124; Kerala Tourism}}</ref>

===Raga===
{{Main|Yakshagana Raga}}
Yakshagana Rāga refers to melodic framework used in Yakshagana. It is based on pre-classical melodic forms that comprise a series of five or more ] upon which a ] is founded. Ragas in Yakshagana are closely associated with a set of melodic forms called mattu. In the Yakshagana tradition, rāgas are associated with different times of the night throughout which the Yakshagana is performed.

===Tala===
{{Main|Yakshagana Tala}}
Yakshagana Tala (] tāla) are frameworks for rhythms in Yakshagana that are determined by a poetry style called ''Yakshagana Padya''. Tala also decide how a composition is to be enacted by the dancers. It is similar to tala in other forms of Indian music, but differs from them structurally. Each composition is set to one or more talas, rendered by the himmela percussion artists play.<ref name="preclassical"/><ref name="Yakshagana"/>

===Prasanga and literature===
{{Main|Yakshagana poetry}}
Yakshagana poetry (Yakshagana Padya or Yakshagana Prasanga) is a collection of poems written to form a music drama. The poems are composed in well known Kannada metres, using a frame work of ] and ]. Yakshagana also has its own metre (or '']''). The collection of Yakshagana poems forming a musical drama is called a ''Prasanga''. The oldest surviving parasanga books are believed to have been composed in the 15th century.<ref>Prof Sridhara Uppura; ''Diganta Sahitya'' publications; Managalore; 1998.</ref> But many compositions have been lost to time. There is evidence showing that oral compositions were in use before the 15th century. The narratives of the surviving historic Yakshagana Prasangas are now often printed in paperback.<ref name="cambridge"/>

] is used as an abstract depiction of a weapon]]
]

===Costumes and ornaments===
Yakshagna costumes are rich in colour. The costumes (or ''vesha'') in ] depend on characters depicted in the play (prasanga). It also depends on the Yakshagana style (''{{transliteration|kn|tittu}}'').

Traditionally, Badagutittu Yakshagana ornaments are made out of light wood, pieces of mirror, and coloured stones.<ref>; "The Craft and Artisans"; accessed November 2013</ref> Lighter materials, such as thermocol, are sometimes used today, although ornaments are still predominantly made of woodwork.

Yakshagana costumes consist of headgear (Kirita or Pagade), Kavacha that decorates the chest, Buja Keerthi (armlets) that decorate the shoulders, and belts (Dabu)—all made up of light wood and covered with golden foil. Mirror work on these ornaments helps to reflect light during shows and add more color to the costumes. Armaments are worn on a vest and cover the upper half of the body. The lower half is covered with ], which come in unique combinations of red, yellow, and orange checks. Bulky pads are used under the kachche, making the actors' proportions different in size from normal.

The character, Bannada Vesha, is used to depict monsters. This often involves detailed facial makeup taking three to four hours to complete. Males play the female roles in traditional Yakshagana. However, more recently, yakshagana has seen female artists, who perform in both male and female roles.

The character of Stree Vesha makes use of sari and other decorative ornaments.

==Instruments==

===Maddale===
{{Main|Maddale}}
The maddale is a ] and, along with the chande, is the primary rhythmic accompaniment in the Yakshagana ensemble. It is played in a similar fashion as Mridangam.

===Taala (Bells)===
] or cymbals, are a pair of finger bells made of a special alloy (traditionally five metal). They are made to fit the tone of the bhagawatha's voice. Singers carry more than one set, as finger bells are available in different keys, thus enabling them to sing in different pitches. They help create and guide the background music in Yakshagana.

===Chande===
{{Main|Chande}}
The Chande is a ] and, along with the maddale, is an important rhythmic accompaniment in the Yakshagana ensemble.

==Artists==
Over the centuries, hundreds of artists performed Yakshagana and some of them have gained star value, like ], Kuriya Vithala Shastry, Keremane Shambhu Hegde,<ref>{{cite news |title=Yakshagana exponent Shambhu Hegde no more |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2009/Feb/04/yakshagana-exponent-shambhu-hegde-no-more-23090.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=16 May 2012 |access-date=24 December 2024}}</ref> Soorikumeru Govinda Bhat, Keremane Mahabala Hegde,<ref>{{cite news |title=Keremane Mahabala Hegde passes away |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Mangalore/Keremane-Mahabala-Hegde-passes-away/article16889267.ece |work=The Hindu |date=29 October 2009 |access-date=24 December 2024}}</ref> ], ], Balipa Narayana Bhagawat, Karki Krishna Hasyagara and ].

==Training and research==
As most troupes are associated with temples, training in the art has been confined to temple premises. The Govinda Pai Research Institute, located at MGM College, runs a ''Yakshagana Kalakendra'' in ] trains youngsters in this ancient dance form. It also does research work on language, rituals, and dance art forms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/archive/|title=Archive News|website=The Hindu}}</ref> Srimaya Yakshagana Kalakendra, Gunavante which was founded by Shri Keremane Shambhu Hegde, is another notable Yakshagana ] that trains Yakshagana students .

==Outside India==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2019}}
]'' played at California in 2011]]

Yakshagana is finding new popularity outside India. Amateur troupes have emerged in ], USA and ], Canada. ''Yakshamitra in Canada'', ''Yakshagana Kalavrinda'', ''Yaksharanga in the U.S.'' "Yakshaloka Boston" are a few examples of these international troupes.

''Yakshamitra'' founded in 2008 in ], Canada, is the first full pledged Yakshagana mela outside India. It is the first to use local live music himmela for their performances. The other troupes usually use a recorded background himmela for their shows.

"Yakshaloka USA" was founded in New England by Raghuram Shetty in 1995 and used recorded audio for shows. Being the first build a local Yakshagana troupe ("Yakshaloka Boston") in North America and introduce {{transliteration|kn|tenku tittu}} (Southern style) Yakshagana to this continent, he trained thousands of local Americans and inspired 5 Yakshagana troupes (Massachusetts, Washington, Florida, Northern and Southern California). Including shows like Sindh World Conference 2000, AKKA 2002, Saint Peters-burg Folk Festival 2005, Irvine Global Village 2014 etc. Yakshaloka USA has showcased hundreds of multi-lingual shows in major theatres across USA in both styles of Yakshagana. Yakshaloka promotes vibrant ancient Indian art by creating unique shows of its own, presentations in schools and Universities including worlds leading acting schools in Hollywood, training kids and adults from all over the world, joining hands with visiting artists (E.g.: Northern style legend Chittani Ramachandra Hegde troupe 2006), and sponsoring/facilitating leading artists (E.g.: Southern style legend Dr Puttur Shridhara Bhandary 2013).

Yakshagana Kalavrinda performs on the east coast of the U.S.
"Yakshaloka Boston" troupe has mainly the artists from Boston area and visiting artists from various parts of USA and India. The troupe has given many shows in the east coast, Midwest, southern USA.

Yaksharanga in the USA started after the visit of Yakshagana artist, Sri ]. His performance at the age of 74 was so inspiring that art lovers decided to continue his art thousands of miles away from its home. Sri Kidayuru Ganesh, who accompanied Sri Chittani, stayed back for a couple of months to train a new generation of Yakshagana artists. The initial result was a performance of Yakshagana "Sudanvarjuna Kalaga". Hegde won the ] in 2012 for his lifetime contribution to the art. Yaksharanga has since performed many shows around California.

Yakshagana Troupe, "]," headed by Shri Keremane Shambhu Hegde and Shri Keremane Shivanand Hegde, toured the U.S., and performed more than 22 programs throughout North America. The troupe visited 12 countries. This troupe was one of the first few troupes that took Yakshagana (in its traditional form) outside India (referring to their performance at Hilton Hotel, Bahrain in 1983).

==Mela or troupes==
There are about 30 full-fledged professional troupes, and about 200 amateur troupes in Yakshagana. Professional troupes go on tour between November and May, giving about 180–200 shows. There are about one thousand professional artists and many more amateurs. Further there are off season shows during the wet season, the anniversary shows, school and college students Yakshagana and of course the Talamaddale performances. Yakshagana commercial shows witness 12,000 performances per year in Karnataka generating a turnover of Rs. Six crore.<ref name="shows">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/09/stories/2007070959120300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001050212/http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/09/stories/2007070959120300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 October 2007|title= Open study-chairs for research on Yakshagana|access-date=6 September 2007|location=Chennai, India|work=]|date=9 July 2007}}</ref><ref name="performance">{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1061121/asp/calcutta/story_7028358.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930042946/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1061121/asp/calcutta/story_7028358.asp |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 September 2007 |title=Traditional touch in theatre |work=] |location=Kolkata |access-date=6 September 2007}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" width="95%"
|-
! Town/Village
! Date Started
! Date of closure (if any)
! Main sponsor
! Thenkuthittu (T) or Badaguthittu (B)
! Free or Ticket
|-
|]
|19th century{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}
|
|
|T
|Donation
|-
|Karki Hasyagara Mela
|1850s<ref name=martha/>
|
|
|Badabadagutittu
|
|-
|Soukooru Mela
|
|
|
|B
|
|-
|Kamalashile Mela<ref name=martha/>
|
|still performing
|Sri Braahmi Durgaparameshwari Temple
|B
|Donation
|-
|]
|1980s
|Still performing
|Halady temple
|B
|Free/donation
|-
|Saligrama
|1980s
|Still performing
|
|B
|Ticket
|-
|Amrutheswari
|Early 20th century{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}
|Still performing
|Amrutheswari temple
|B
|Ticket
|-
|Makkala Mela<ref name=martha/>
|1973
|Saligrama
|
|
|
|-
|Dharmasthala Mela
|19th century {{citation needed|date=August 2012}}
|still performing
|Sri Kshetra Dharmasthala
|T
|Devotees' donation
|-
|Kudlu Kutyala Mela
|
|
|
|T
|
|-
|] Mela
|
|
|
|T
|
|-
|Ranjadakate mela
|
|
|
|B
|From Shimoga Dist.
|-
|Goli Garadi<ref name=martha/>
|
|
|Koti Chennaya Garadi
|B
|Sasthana
|-
|Kateel Mela
|1867<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.kinnigoli.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3066&catid=13:english-fiction&Itemid=37 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224103942/http://portal.kinnigoli.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3066&catid=13:english-fiction&Itemid=37 |archive-date=24 December 2013 |title=About Kateel Yakshagana troup (Mela)}}</ref>
|still performing
|Kateel Shri Durgaparameshwari Temple
|T
|
|-
|Idugunji Mela<ref name=martha/>
|1934
|still performing
|
|B
|Donation/Tickets
|-
|Hosanagara Mela
|
|still performing
|
|T
|
|-
|Perduru Mela<ref name=martha/>
|1983–1984
|still performing
|Sri Anathapadhmanaabha Temple
|B
|Ticket
|-
|Kondadakuli Mela
|
|
|
|B
|Ticket
|-
|Maranakatte mela<ref name=martha/>
|
|still performing
|Sri Brahmalingeshwara Temple
|B
|Donation, Devotee
|-
|Mandarthi Mela<ref name=martha/>
|1950s
|still performing
|Durgaparameswari Temple
|B
|Devotees' donation
|-
|Keremane Mela
|
|
|
|B
|
|-
|Bappanadu Mela
|
|
|Bappanadu Durgaparameshwari Temple, Mulki
|T
|
|-
|Yakshamitra Yakshagana Mela Toronto
| Dec 2008, New Market, ON
|
|Sringeri Vidhyabharathi Temple, Etobicoke.
|Badagu
|Ticket and Free when sponsored.
|}

<gallery class="center" caption="Characters found in Yakshagana" widths="120px">
File:Raghurama Shetty Guru Yakshaloka USA.jpg|Raghuram Shetty Yakshaloka USA
File:Prathibha Shetty Yakshaloka USA Indrajitu villain.jpg|Prathibha Raghuram Shetty Yakshaloka USA Indrajitu Villain
File:Kondadakuli.jpg|''Kondadakuli''
File:Madana02.jpg|''Madana Vesha''
File:Tuluyakshagana.jpg|''Thulu Yakshagana''
File:Yakshagana bhima.JPG|''Bhima'' in Yakshagana
File:Jambavanta.JPG|] as depicted in Yakshagana
File:Keremane Shivanand Hegde.jpg|''Krishna - Keremane Shivanand Hegde''
File:Yakshagana.jpg|''Gajamukhadavage Ganapage''
File:Yaksha.jpg|''Sharanu Bande Guruve''
File:Yaksha2.jpg|''Bannada Vesha''
File:Yaksha4.jpg|Yakshagana player in costume
File:Mangalore yakshagana,poothini.jpg|''Poothini''
File:Yakshagana Veerabhadra Thenkuthittu.JPG|Veerabhadra (Thenkuthittu)
]
]
</gallery>
<gallery class="center" caption="Yakshagana related photos" widths="120px">
Image:Kambalashwa 040.jpg|''Pundu Vesha'' with ''Pagade'' or ''Kedige Mundale'' (Kambalashwa photo)
File:Akrura2.jpg|Akrura vesha
File:Akrura3.jpg|Akrura
File:Yaksha3.jpg|''Bannada Vesha''
File:Badagu vesha.jpg|Badaguthittu vesha
File:Chowki.jpg|Chowki, the greenroom of Yakshagana, where artists get themselves ready
File:Face of Parvati dancer.jpg|Parvathi artist
File:FullPagadeYakshagana.jpg|Full Pagade vesha in Yakshagana
File:Hanumantha in the making.jpg|Hanumantha
File:Hanumantha ready to get on stage.jpg|Hanumantha on last leg of Makeup.
File:Yaksharanga.jpg|A performance artist troupe of the ''Yaksharanga'' variant
File:Kateel mela.jpg|Maisasura in Kateel Mela
]
]
</gallery>
]

==See also==
* ], a visually similar form of ].
* ]
* ]

==Notes==
{{notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Ashton, Martha Bush; ''Yakshagana''; published by Abhinav Publications; India; 1st edition (15 June 2003); {{ISBN|81-7017-047-8}} and {{ISBN|978-81-7017-047-1}}
* Rao, Neelavara Lakshminarayana & Patil, Gorpadi Vittala; ''Yakshagana Swabodhini''; published by: Yakshagana Kendra; MGM College; Udupi, India; 1st edition.

==External links==
* {{commons category-inline}}
*
* .
* .
*
*

{{Culture of Tulunadu}}
{{Karnataka topics}}
{{South India topics}}
{{Dance in India}}

]
] ]
] ]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 14:20, 24 December 2024

Theatre form in India

Yakshagana
Yakshagana performers in action
Origin11th century

Yakshagana is a traditional theatre, developed in Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and western parts of Chikmagalur districts, in the state of Karnataka and in Kasaragod district in Kerala that combines dance, music, dialogue, costume, make-up, and stage techniques with a unique style and form. It is believed to have evolved from pre-classical music and theatre during the period of the Bhakti movement. It is sometimes simply called "Aata" or āṭa (meaning "the play"). This theatre style is mainly found in coastal regions of Karnataka in various forms. Towards the south from Dakshina Kannada to Kasaragod of Tulu Nadu region, the form of Yakshagana is called Thenku thittu and towards the north from Udupi up to Uttara Kannada it is called Badaga thittu. Both of these forms are equally played all over the region. Yakshagana is traditionally presented from dusk to dawn. Its stories are drawn from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata and other epics from both Hindu and Jain and other ancient Indic traditions.

Etymology

Yakshagāna literally means the song (gāna) of the yaksha (nature spirits). Yakshagana is the scholastic name in Kannada (used for the last 200 years) for art forms formerly known as kēḷike, āṭa, bayalāṭa, and daśāvatāra. The word Yakshagana previously referred to a form of literature primarily in Kannada (starting from the 16th century). Of late Yakshaganas in Tulu and even now in Telugu are available. Performance of this Yakshagana literature or the play is called āṭa. It is now no longer believed that the word Ekkalagaana refers to Yakshagana.

Music genre

Yakshagana performance in progress
Karavali Gandu Kale Yakshagana

Yakshagana has a separate tradition of music, separate from Karnataka Sangeetha and the Hindustani music of India. Yakshagana and Karnatak Sangeetha may have a common ancestor are not decedents of one another.

A typical Yakshagana performance consists of background music played by a group of musicians (known as a himmela); and a dance and dialogue group (known as the mummela), who together enact poetic epics on stage. The himmela is made up of a lead singer (bhagawatha)—who also directs the production—and is referred to as the "first actor" (modalane vesha). Additional himmela members are players of traditional musical instruments, such as the maddale (hand drum), the pungi (pipe), the harmonium (organ), and the chande (loud drums). The music is based on ragas, which are characterised by rhythmic patterns called mattu and tala (or musical meter in Western music).

A Yakshagana(ಯಕ್ಷಗಾನ) performance typically begins in the twilight hours, with an initial beating of the drums of several fixed compositions, called abbara or peetike. This may last for up to an hour before the actors finally arrive on the stage. The actors wear resplendent costumes, head-dresses, and face paints.

Yakshagana performers in action.

A performance usually depicts a story from the "Kavya" (epic poems) and the "Puranas" (ancient Hindu texts). It consists of a story teller (the bhagawatha) who narrates the story by singing (which includes prepared character dialogues) as the actors dance to the music, portraying elements of the story as it is being narrated. All components of Yakshagana—including the music, the dance, and the dialogue—are improvised. Depending on the ability and scholarship of the actors, there will be variations in dances as well as the amount of dialogue. It is not uncommon for actors to get into philosophical debates or arguments without falling out of character. The acting in Yakshagana can be best categorised as method acting. The performances have drawn comparison to the Western tradition of opera. Traditionally, Yakshagana will run through dusk to dawn.

Yakshagana is popular in the districts of Dakshina Kannada, Kasaragod, Udupi, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and western parts of Chikkamagaluru . Yakshagana has become popular in Bengaluru in recent years, particularly in the rainy season, when there are few other forms of entertainment possible in the coastal districts.

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History

Main article: List of Yakshagana plays in the Kannada language

Origins

Thenkuthittu Yakshagana
yakshagana artist ravi alevoraya in female role
Rakshasa (the demon) as depicted in Yakshagana performances, is called Bannada Vesha. (Artist: Karki Krishna Hasyagara)

Yakshagana can refer to a style of writing, as well as the written material itself. It was probably used for poems enacted in bayalaata (or open theatre drama), such as the ballads of Koti and Chennayya. Yakshagana in its present form is believed to have been strongly influenced by the Vaishnava Bhakti movement. Yakshagana was first introduced in Udupi by Madhvacharya's disciple Naraharitirtha. Naraharitirtha was the minister in the Kalinga Kingdom. He also was the founder of Kuchipudi.

The first written evidence regarding Yakshagana is found on an inscription at the Lakshminarayana Temple in Kurugodu, Somasamudra, Bellary District, and is dated 1556 CE. A copy is available at the University of Madras. The inscription mentions land donated to the performers of the art, so as to enable people to enjoy tala maddale programs at the temple. Another important piece of evidence is available in the form of a poem authored by Ajapura Vishnu, the Virata Parva, inscribed on a palm-leaf found at Ajapura (present day Brahmavara). Another historic palm-leaf manuscript, dated 1621 CE, describes Sabhalakshana.

Yakshagana bears some resemblance to other members of the 'traditional theatre family:' Ankhia Nata (found in Assam); Jathra (in Bengal); Chau (Bihar, Bengal); Prahlada Nata (Orissa); Veedhinatakam & Chindu (Andhra); Terukoothu Bhagawathamela (Tamil Nadu), and Kathakali (Kerala). However, some researchers have argued that Yakshagana is markedly different from this group.

Experts have placed the origin of Yakshagana somewhere in the period of the 11th to 16th centuries CE. Yakshagana was an established performance art form by the time of the noted Yakshagana poet, Parthi Subba (c. 1600). His father, Venkata, is attributed by some to be the author of the great Hindu epic, Ramayana, although historian Shivaram Karanth counters these claims (made most notably by historians Muliya Thimmappa and Govinda Pai) and argues that it is Subba, who was in fact its author. Venkata is the probable founder of the tenkuthittu (southern) style of the art.

Troupe centers, such as Kudlu and Kumbla in the Kasaragod District, and Amritheshwari, Kota near Kundapura, claim to have had troupes three to four centuries ago, indicating that the art form almost certainly had begun to take shape by circa 1500.

The Yakshagana form of today is the result of a slow evolution, drawing its elements from ritual theatre, temple arts, secular arts (such as Bahurupi), royal courts of the past, and the artists' imaginations—all interwoven over a period of several hundred years.

Early poets

Early Yakshagana poets included Ajapura Vishnu, Purandaradasa, Parthi Subba, and Nagire Subba. King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1704–1714) authored 14 Yakshaganas in various languages in the Kannada script. Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar (1794–1868) also wrote several Yakshagana prasanga, including Sougandhika Parinaya. Noted poet, Muddana, composed several Yakshagana prasanga's, including the very popular Rathnavathi Kalyana.

Evolution

In the 19th century, Yakshagana began to move away from the strict traditional forms. Practitioners of the day produced a number of new compositions. Also, a large number of troupes arose across coastal Karnataka.

The early 20th century saw the birth of 'tent' troupes, giving performances to audiences made up of common people who were admitted by ticket. These troupes were responsible for the commercialisation of Yakshagana. The genre saw major changes in form and organisation. Electrical lights replaced the gas lights; seating arrangements improved; the inclusion of folk epics, Sanskrit dramas, and fictional stories formed the modern thematic base of the discipline. Popular entertainment became the criterion, replacing the historic classical presentations. Tulu, the language of the southern part of the Dakshina Kannada and Udupi district's was introduced; increasing popularity with the common people.

At this time, writer Kota Shivaram Karanth, experimented with the dance form by introducing Western musical instrumentation. He reduced the time of a Yakshagana performances from 12 hours to under three hours, incorporated movie plot lines, and added Shakespearean themes. Today, female artists perform in Yakshagana shows.

Parallel forms

Panar Vesha, an imitation of Yakshagana (photo taken at Vandar Kambla, Udupi district)

Yakshagana is related to other performance art forms prevalent in other parts of Karnataka and the neighbouring states of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. Yakshagana defies simple classification into categories such as folk, classical, or rural. It can be included in each or all of these, depending upon the rules used for classification. It is more varied and dynamic than most dance forms. Yakshagana can, however, be classified as one of many traditional dance forms. While it prevails primarily in the coastal areas of Karnataka, other dance forms (such as Doddata) are today often called by the same name. Several forms of traditional theatre – Mudalpaya (of southern Karnataka); Doddata (of northern Karnataka); Kelike (on the border with Andhra Pradesh); and Ghattadakore (of Kollegal—in the Chamarajnagar District), may be included in this category. Among them, the Ghattadakore is a direct branch of the coastal form of Yakshagana, while Mudalapaya is the most closely connected form.

Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh

There is a form called Yakshaganamu in Andhra Pradesh, which exhibits some resemblance to the Yakshagana forms of the Karnataka plateau region and is less sophisticated as a visual art.

Variations and subgenres

Scholars have classified Yakshagana broadly into several types:

  • Moodalopaya Yakshagana; includes eastern areas of Karnataka (such as Channarayapattna and Arsikere Taluks of the Hassan District), Nagamangala Taluk of the Mandya District, Turuvekere Taluk of the Tumkur District, Hiriyuru, Challakere of Chitradurga District and North Karnataka.
  • Paduvlopaya Yakshagana comprises the western parts of extended Karnataka (including Kasaragod Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada).
  • Tenkutittu (includes areas Kasaragod (Kerala), Mangalore District, Udupi, Sampaaje, Sulliya, Puttur, Bantwala, Belthangady, Karkala, etc.)
  • Badagutittu (Udupi to Kundapura area, Uttara Kannada district)
  • Badabadagutittu/Uttara Kannadatittu (extreme north parts of Uttara Kannada)

Tenkutittu

The southern (Thenkuthittu) form showcasing an authentic Shiva (left) and Veerabhadra (right) at a performance in Moodabidri, depicting Roudra Rasa

One of the traditional variations, the tenkutittu style, is prevalent in Dakshina Kannada, Kasaragod District, western parts of Coorg (Sampaje), and few areas of Udupi district. The influence of Karnatic Music is apparent in tenkutittu, as evidenced by the type of maddale used and in bhaagavathike. Yakshagana is influenced more by folk art blended with classical dance aspects. In tenkutittu, three iconic set of colours are used: the Raajabanna, the Kaatbanna, and the Sthreebanna.

The himmela in the tenkutittu style is more cohesive to the entire production. Rhythms of the chande and maddale coupled with the chakrataala and jaagate of the bhaagavatha create an excellent symphonic sound. The dance form in tenkutittu strikes the attention of the audience by 'Dheengina' or 'Guttu'. Performers often do dhiginas (jumping spins in the air) and will continuously spin (sometimes) hundreds of times. Tenkutittu is noted for its incredible dance steps; its high flying dance moves; and its extravagant rakshasas (demons).

Tenkutittu has remained a popular form and has its own audience outside the coastal areas. The Dharmasthala and Kateelu durgaparameshwari melas (the two most popular melas) have helped to popularise this form. Several creative tenkutittu plays have been composed by noted scholars, such as Amritha Someshwara.

Badagutittu

The Badagutittu style is prevalent in North Canara (Uttara Kannada District) and the northern parts of Udupi district from Kundapura to Byndoor. The Badagutittu school of Yakshagana places more emphasis on facial expressions, matugarike (dialogues), and dances appropriate for the character depicted in the episode. It makes use of a typical Karnataka chande.

The Badagutittu style was popularised by Shivram Karanth's, "Yakshagana Mandira," presented at Saligrama Village in Dakshina Kannada as a shorter more modern form of Yakshagana.

Keremane Shivarama Hegde, the founder of the Yakshagana troupe, Idagunji Mahaganapati Yakshagana Mandali, is an exponent of the Badagutittu style of Yakshagana. He is also the first Yakshagana artist to receive the Rashtrapati Award from the president of India. He hails from the Honnavar taluk of Uttara Kannada (North Canara) District.

Puppetry variant

There were more than 30 string-puppet troupes in the undivided Dakshina Kannada district during the period 1910–1915 in places such as Basrur, Barkur, Kokkarne, Mudabidri. The presentation of the puppetry in Yakshagana style is highly stylised and adheres strictly to the norms and standards of Yakshagana. The puppets (generally 18 inches high) wear costumes similar to those worn by live actors of Yakshagana, and have the same elaborate make-up, colourful headgear, and heavy jewellery. The puppeteer is known as the Suthradhara. The content in the Yakshagana puppetry, is also mainly drawn from the ancient epics.

Background of puppetry

Yakshagana puppetry has existed for centuries. The modern form of the art, however, was largely moulded by the brothers Laxman, Narasimha, and Manjappa Kamath; who hailed from Uppinakudru village, Kundapur taluk. Devanna Padmanabha Kamath, the grandson of Laxman Kamath infused new life into the art and performed shows all over India. Later, Kogga Devanna Kamath improved this subgenre even further, being recognised with the Tulsi Samman and Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards. His son, Bhaskar Kogga Kamath, is currently performing shows while training others in the art of Yakshagana puppetry. K. V. Ramesh is a leading puppeteer from Kasaragod. He leads the Yakshagana puppet troupe Shri Gopalakrishna Yakshagana Gombeyata Sangha.

Ballet variant

The second half of the 20th century saw experiments and adoptions of this art into other venues. One notable effort was that of Shivarama Karantha, who produced and exhibited Yakshagana ballet, using and training local artists. Some of the changes brought about by Karanth, however, attracted criticism. One legal decision even banned any public performance of his experimental ballets being billed as "Yakshagana."

Important components

The artists pray to lord Ganesha before their performance. Yakshagana also ends with a prayer to Ganesha

Raga

Main article: Yakshagana Raga

Yakshagana Rāga refers to melodic framework used in Yakshagana. It is based on pre-classical melodic forms that comprise a series of five or more musical notes upon which a melody is founded. Ragas in Yakshagana are closely associated with a set of melodic forms called mattu. In the Yakshagana tradition, rāgas are associated with different times of the night throughout which the Yakshagana is performed.

Tala

Main article: Yakshagana Tala

Yakshagana Tala (Sanskrit tāla) are frameworks for rhythms in Yakshagana that are determined by a poetry style called Yakshagana Padya. Tala also decide how a composition is to be enacted by the dancers. It is similar to tala in other forms of Indian music, but differs from them structurally. Each composition is set to one or more talas, rendered by the himmela percussion artists play.

Prasanga and literature

Main article: Yakshagana poetry

Yakshagana poetry (Yakshagana Padya or Yakshagana Prasanga) is a collection of poems written to form a music drama. The poems are composed in well known Kannada metres, using a frame work of ragas and talas. Yakshagana also has its own metre (or prosody). The collection of Yakshagana poems forming a musical drama is called a Prasanga. The oldest surviving parasanga books are believed to have been composed in the 15th century. But many compositions have been lost to time. There is evidence showing that oral compositions were in use before the 15th century. The narratives of the surviving historic Yakshagana Prasangas are now often printed in paperback.

A kings costume (raja vesha) with kireeta (or headgear); the mace is used as an abstract depiction of a weapon
Artists Headwear,Worn by Male Artists where Female artists wear small one

Costumes and ornaments

Yakshagna costumes are rich in colour. The costumes (or vesha) in Kannada depend on characters depicted in the play (prasanga). It also depends on the Yakshagana style (tittu).

Traditionally, Badagutittu Yakshagana ornaments are made out of light wood, pieces of mirror, and coloured stones. Lighter materials, such as thermocol, are sometimes used today, although ornaments are still predominantly made of woodwork.

Yakshagana costumes consist of headgear (Kirita or Pagade), Kavacha that decorates the chest, Buja Keerthi (armlets) that decorate the shoulders, and belts (Dabu)—all made up of light wood and covered with golden foil. Mirror work on these ornaments helps to reflect light during shows and add more color to the costumes. Armaments are worn on a vest and cover the upper half of the body. The lower half is covered with kachche, which come in unique combinations of red, yellow, and orange checks. Bulky pads are used under the kachche, making the actors' proportions different in size from normal.

The character, Bannada Vesha, is used to depict monsters. This often involves detailed facial makeup taking three to four hours to complete. Males play the female roles in traditional Yakshagana. However, more recently, yakshagana has seen female artists, who perform in both male and female roles.

The character of Stree Vesha makes use of sari and other decorative ornaments.

Instruments

Maddale

Main article: Maddale

The maddale is a percussion instrument and, along with the chande, is the primary rhythmic accompaniment in the Yakshagana ensemble. It is played in a similar fashion as Mridangam.

Taala (Bells)

Yakshagana bells or cymbals, are a pair of finger bells made of a special alloy (traditionally five metal). They are made to fit the tone of the bhagawatha's voice. Singers carry more than one set, as finger bells are available in different keys, thus enabling them to sing in different pitches. They help create and guide the background music in Yakshagana.

Chande

Main article: Chande

The Chande is a drum and, along with the maddale, is an important rhythmic accompaniment in the Yakshagana ensemble.

Artists

Over the centuries, hundreds of artists performed Yakshagana and some of them have gained star value, like Keremane Shivarama Hegde, Kuriya Vithala Shastry, Keremane Shambhu Hegde, Soorikumeru Govinda Bhat, Keremane Mahabala Hegde, Chittani Ramachandra Hegde, Naranappa Uppoor, Balipa Narayana Bhagawat, Karki Krishna Hasyagara and Kalinga Navada.

Training and research

As most troupes are associated with temples, training in the art has been confined to temple premises. The Govinda Pai Research Institute, located at MGM College, runs a Yakshagana Kalakendra in Udupi trains youngsters in this ancient dance form. It also does research work on language, rituals, and dance art forms. Srimaya Yakshagana Kalakendra, Gunavante which was founded by Shri Keremane Shambhu Hegde, is another notable Yakshagana Gurukula that trains Yakshagana students .

Outside India

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Mohini Bhasmasura played at California in 2011

Yakshagana is finding new popularity outside India. Amateur troupes have emerged in California, USA and Ontario, Canada. Yakshamitra in Canada, Yakshagana Kalavrinda, Yaksharanga in the U.S. "Yakshaloka Boston" are a few examples of these international troupes.

Yakshamitra founded in 2008 in Toronto, Canada, is the first full pledged Yakshagana mela outside India. It is the first to use local live music himmela for their performances. The other troupes usually use a recorded background himmela for their shows.

"Yakshaloka USA" was founded in New England by Raghuram Shetty in 1995 and used recorded audio for shows. Being the first build a local Yakshagana troupe ("Yakshaloka Boston") in North America and introduce tenku tittu (Southern style) Yakshagana to this continent, he trained thousands of local Americans and inspired 5 Yakshagana troupes (Massachusetts, Washington, Florida, Northern and Southern California). Including shows like Sindh World Conference 2000, AKKA 2002, Saint Peters-burg Folk Festival 2005, Irvine Global Village 2014 etc. Yakshaloka USA has showcased hundreds of multi-lingual shows in major theatres across USA in both styles of Yakshagana. Yakshaloka promotes vibrant ancient Indian art by creating unique shows of its own, presentations in schools and Universities including worlds leading acting schools in Hollywood, training kids and adults from all over the world, joining hands with visiting artists (E.g.: Northern style legend Chittani Ramachandra Hegde troupe 2006), and sponsoring/facilitating leading artists (E.g.: Southern style legend Dr Puttur Shridhara Bhandary 2013).

Yakshagana Kalavrinda performs on the east coast of the U.S. "Yakshaloka Boston" troupe has mainly the artists from Boston area and visiting artists from various parts of USA and India. The troupe has given many shows in the east coast, Midwest, southern USA.

Yaksharanga in the USA started after the visit of Yakshagana artist, Sri Chittani Ramachandra Hegde. His performance at the age of 74 was so inspiring that art lovers decided to continue his art thousands of miles away from its home. Sri Kidayuru Ganesh, who accompanied Sri Chittani, stayed back for a couple of months to train a new generation of Yakshagana artists. The initial result was a performance of Yakshagana "Sudanvarjuna Kalaga". Hegde won the Padmashri Award in 2012 for his lifetime contribution to the art. Yaksharanga has since performed many shows around California.

Yakshagana Troupe, "Shri Idagunji Mahaganapati Yakshagana Mandali, Keremane," headed by Shri Keremane Shambhu Hegde and Shri Keremane Shivanand Hegde, toured the U.S., and performed more than 22 programs throughout North America. The troupe visited 12 countries. This troupe was one of the first few troupes that took Yakshagana (in its traditional form) outside India (referring to their performance at Hilton Hotel, Bahrain in 1983).

Mela or troupes

There are about 30 full-fledged professional troupes, and about 200 amateur troupes in Yakshagana. Professional troupes go on tour between November and May, giving about 180–200 shows. There are about one thousand professional artists and many more amateurs. Further there are off season shows during the wet season, the anniversary shows, school and college students Yakshagana and of course the Talamaddale performances. Yakshagana commercial shows witness 12,000 performances per year in Karnataka generating a turnover of Rs. Six crore.

Town/Village Date Started Date of closure (if any) Main sponsor Thenkuthittu (T) or Badaguthittu (B) Free or Ticket
Kumble 19th century T Donation
Karki Hasyagara Mela 1850s Badabadagutittu
Soukooru Mela B
Kamalashile Mela still performing Sri Braahmi Durgaparameshwari Temple B Donation
Halady 1980s Still performing Halady temple B Free/donation
Saligrama 1980s Still performing B Ticket
Amrutheswari Early 20th century Still performing Amrutheswari temple B Ticket
Makkala Mela 1973 Saligrama
Dharmasthala Mela 19th century still performing Sri Kshetra Dharmasthala T Devotees' donation
Kudlu Kutyala Mela T
Suratkal Mela T
Ranjadakate mela B From Shimoga Dist.
Goli Garadi Koti Chennaya Garadi B Sasthana
Kateel Mela 1867 still performing Kateel Shri Durgaparameshwari Temple T
Idugunji Mela 1934 still performing B Donation/Tickets
Hosanagara Mela still performing T
Perduru Mela 1983–1984 still performing Sri Anathapadhmanaabha Temple B Ticket
Kondadakuli Mela B Ticket
Maranakatte mela still performing Sri Brahmalingeshwara Temple B Donation, Devotee
Mandarthi Mela 1950s still performing Durgaparameswari Temple B Devotees' donation
Keremane Mela B
Bappanadu Mela Bappanadu Durgaparameshwari Temple, Mulki T
Yakshamitra Yakshagana Mela Toronto Dec 2008, New Market, ON Sringeri Vidhyabharathi Temple, Etobicoke. Badagu Ticket and Free when sponsored.
  • Characters found in Yakshagana
  • Raghuram Shetty Yakshaloka USA Raghuram Shetty Yakshaloka USA
  • Prathibha Raghuram Shetty Yakshaloka USA Indrajitu Villain Prathibha Raghuram Shetty Yakshaloka USA Indrajitu Villain
  • Kondadakuli Kondadakuli
  • Madana Vesha Madana Vesha
  • Thulu Yakshagana Thulu Yakshagana
  • Bhima in Yakshagana Bhima in Yakshagana
  • Jambavanta as depicted in Yakshagana Jambavanta as depicted in Yakshagana
  • Krishna - Keremane Shivanand Hegde Krishna - Keremane Shivanand Hegde
  • Gajamukhadavage Ganapage Gajamukhadavage Ganapage
  • Sharanu Bande Guruve Sharanu Bande Guruve
  • Bannada Vesha Bannada Vesha
  • Yakshagana player in costume Yakshagana player in costume
  • Poothini Poothini
  • Veerabhadra (Thenkuthittu) Veerabhadra (Thenkuthittu)
  • Yakshagana related photos
  • Pundu Vesha with Pagade or Kedige Mundale (Kambalashwa photo) Pundu Vesha with Pagade or Kedige Mundale (Kambalashwa photo)
  • Akrura vesha Akrura vesha
  • Akrura Akrura
  • Bannada Vesha Bannada Vesha
  • Badaguthittu vesha Badaguthittu vesha
  • Chowki, the greenroom of Yakshagana, where artists get themselves ready Chowki, the greenroom of Yakshagana, where artists get themselves ready
  • Parvathi artist Parvathi artist
  • Full Pagade vesha in Yakshagana Full Pagade vesha in Yakshagana
  • Hanumantha Hanumantha
  • Hanumantha on last leg of Makeup. Hanumantha on last leg of Makeup.
  • A performance artist troupe of the Yaksharanga variant A performance artist troupe of the Yaksharanga variant
  • Maisasura in Kateel Mela Maisasura in Kateel Mela
Yakshaganam Performance in Kerala Bhavan's Laying the Foundation Stone Event

See also

Notes

  1. This King of Mysore was deaf and dumb, but knew several languages.
  2. Mysore kings often gave patronage to various forms of performance artists

References

  1. ^ Prof. Sridhara Uppura; 1998; Yakshagana and Nataka Diganta; publications.
  2. ^ "The changing face of Yakshagana". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 17 June 2009. Archived from the original on 21 June 2009. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
  3. Ashton, Martha Bush (3 January 1976). Yakshagana. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 9788170170471 – via Google Books.
  4. "Kasargod – Yakshaganam". Archived from the original on 29 December 2007.
  5. "yaksha". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
  6. ^ Dr. Shivarama Karantha; Yakshagana Bayalaata; Harsha Publications; 1963; Puttur, South Canara, India.
  7. Yakshagana; accessed 2 November 2013
  8. "Yakshagana".
  9. ^ Martha Bush Ashton, Bruce Christie (1977). Yakshagana, a Dance Drama of India. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 21,22. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  10. ^ "Focus on rural art". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 23 December 2005. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
  11. Note: This due to what Karantha describes as procedural lapses in their research and conclusions. Karantha bases his claim on the fact that Venkata was reported to be a bhagawatha (singer) himself, and is believed to have founded his own troupe.
  12. ^ Pranesh, Meera Rajaram (2003) . Musical Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (1638–1947 A.D.). Bangalore: Vee Emm. pp. 37, 38.
  13. Hapgood, Robert; 1983; Macbeth Distilled: A Yakshagana Production in Delhi]; "Shakespeare Quarterly;" Vol. 31; No. 3; Autumn, 1980; pp. 439–440.
  14. "Growing with Tradition". The Hindu. 14 October 2005. Archived from the original on 4 March 2006. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
  15. "Indrajitu Kalaga". rangashankara.org. Archived from the original on 28 October 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
  16. "3-day festival to celebrate Karanth's birth centenary". The Times of India. 20 December 2002. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
  17. ^ Brandon, James R., ed. (28 January 1997). The Cambridge guide to Asian Theatre (1997 (2nd reprint) ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 115, 116. ISBN 9780521588225.
  18. ^ Dr. Achar, Palthady Ramakrishna; 2004; Janapada Parisara; Puttur; "Supriya Prakashana;" p.68
  19. ^ "Tenkuthittu".
  20. ^ Classical Indian Dance Directory; Narthaki.com; accessed November 2013.
  21. ^ Dr. A Sundara. "Pre historic art in Karnataka".
  22. ^ Gosh, Banerjee, Sampa, Utpal Kumar; Banerjee, Utpal K. (2006). Indian puppets. New Delhi: Abhinav publications. p. 78. ISBN 9788170174356. Retrieved 16 August 2012.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. "Award for achievement". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 7 March 2006. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
  24. K.S., Upadhyaya (12 May 2001). "Sri Naranappa Uppooru". Udupi: Yakshagana.com. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
  25. Kota Shivarama Karanth (1 January 1997). Yakṣagāna. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-357-1. Retrieved 29 July 2013.
  26. "Seminar on Karanth".
  27. Manohar Laxman Varadpande (1987). History of Indian Theatre, Volume 2. ISBN 9788170172789.
  28. "Yakshaganam, Kasaragod, Kerala, India | Kerala Tourism".
  29. Prof Sridhara Uppura; Diganta Sahitya publications; Managalore; 1998.
  30. Yakshagana Costumes of Karnataka; "The Craft and Artisans"; accessed November 2013
  31. "Yakshagana exponent Shambhu Hegde no more". The New Indian Express. 16 May 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2024.
  32. "Keremane Mahabala Hegde passes away". The Hindu. 29 October 2009. Retrieved 24 December 2024.
  33. "Archive News". The Hindu.
  34. "Open study-chairs for research on Yakshagana". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 9 July 2007. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
  35. "Traditional touch in theatre". The Telegraph. Kolkata. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
  36. "About Kateel Yakshagana troup (Mela)". Archived from the original on 24 December 2013.

Further reading

  • Ashton, Martha Bush; Yakshagana; published by Abhinav Publications; India; 1st edition (15 June 2003); ISBN 81-7017-047-8 and ISBN 978-81-7017-047-1
  • Rao, Neelavara Lakshminarayana & Patil, Gorpadi Vittala; Yakshagana Swabodhini; published by: Yakshagana Kendra; MGM College; Udupi, India; 1st edition.

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