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{{Short description|German physician who created homeopathy (1755–1843)}}
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{{Infobox person
{{see also|Homeopathy|Classical homeopathy}}
|name = Samuel Hahnemann
'''Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann''' (] ] in ], ] - ] ] in ], ]) was a German physician who founded ]. Hahnemann is also credited with introducing the practice of ] during his employment with the Duke of ].
|image = Samuel_Hahnemann_Daguerreotype_1840s.png
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Hahnemann in 1841
|birth_date = {{birth date|1755|4|10|df=yes}}
|birth_place = ], ]
|birth_name = Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann
|death_date = {{death date and age|1843|7|2|1755|4|10|df=yes}}
|death_place = ], France
|citizenship =
|nationality = German
|alma_mater =
|known_for = ]
| awards =
|footnotes =
|signature = Signatur Samuel Hahnemann.PNG
}}
'''Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɑː|n|ə|m|ə|n}} {{respell|HAH|nə|mən}}, {{IPA|de|ˈzaːmueːl ˈhaːnəman|lang}}; 10 April 1755<ref>Though some sources do state that he was born in the early hours of 11 April 1755, {{cite book|first=Richard |last=Haehl |title=Samuel Hahnemann his Life and Works |volume=1 |year=1922 |page=9 |quote=Hahnemann, was born on 10 April at approximately twelve o'clock midnight.}}</ref> – 2 July 1843) was a German ], best known for creating the ] system of ] called ].<ref name=Ladyman>{{cite book |author=Ladyman J |veditors=Pigliucci M, Boudry M |year=2013 |pages=48–49 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |chapter=Chapter 3: Towards a Demarcation of Science from Pseudoscience |title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |quote=Yet homeopathy is a paradigmatic example of pseudoscience. It is neither simply bad science nor science fraud, but rather profoundly departs from scientific method and theories while being described as scientific by some of its adherents (often sincerely). |isbn=978-0-226-05196-3}}</ref>


== Early life ==
An impressive in Washington D.C. commemorates Hahnemann's life and works.
Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann was born in ], ], near ]. His father Christian Gottfried Hahnemann<ref>. Homoeoscan.com. 10 April 2014</ref> was a painter and designer of porcelain, for which the town of Meissen is famous.<ref>
{{cite book
| author = Coulter, Harris Livermore
| title = Divided Legacy, a History of the Schism in Medical Thought
| volume = II
| location = Washington
| publisher = ]
| year = 1977
| page = 306
| isbn = 0-916386-02-3
| oclc = 67493911
}}</ref>


As a young man, Hahnemann became proficient in a number of languages, including English, French, Italian, Greek and Latin. He eventually made a living as a translator and teacher of languages, gaining further proficiency in "], ], ] and ]".<ref name="skylarkbio">
Hahnemann's notable works include:
{{cite web
*''Versuch über ein neues Prinzip zur Auffindung der Heilkräfte der Arzneisubstanzen, nebst einigen Blicken auf die bisherigen'', (''Hufelands Journal der practischen Arzneykunde'', ])
| url = http://www.skylarkbooks.co.uk/Hahnemann_Biography.htm
*'']'' (]) explains the theory of homeopathic medicine. Hahnemann published the 5th edition in ]; an unfinished 6th edition was discovered after Hahnemann's death but not published until ].
| title = Hahnemann Biography
*'']'' is a compilation of ] reports, published in six volumes during the ] (vol. VI in ].) Revised editions of volumes I and II were published in ] and ], respectively.
| access-date = 13 January 2009
*''Chronic Diseases'' (1828) is an elucidation of the root and cure of ] together with a compilation of ] reports, published in five volumes during the ].
}}</ref>


Hahnemann studied medicine for two years at ]. Citing Leipzig's lack of clinical facilities, he moved to ], where he studied for ten months.<ref>
{{cite book
|author = Martin Kaufman
|title = Homeopathy in America, the Rise and Fall of a Medical Heresy
|location = Baltimore
|publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press
|year = 1972
|page = 24
|isbn = 0-8018-1238-0
|oclc = 264319
}}</ref> His medical professors in Leipzig and Vienna included the physician ],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6CGjDgAAQBAJ&q=%22Joseph%20von%20Quarin%22 |title=The Birth of Homeopathy out of the Spirit of Romanticism|first=Alice A.|last=Kuzniar|year=2017|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn= 978-1487521264}}</ref> later credited for turning ] into a model European medical institution.<ref> (biography)</ref>


After one term of further study, Hahnemann graduated with a medical degree with honors from the ] on 10 August 1779. His poverty may have forced him to choose Erlangen, as the school's fees were lower than in Vienna.<ref>Haehl, vol. 1, p. 24.</ref> Hahnemann's thesis was titled ''Conspectus adfectuum spasmodicorum aetiologicus et therapeuticus'' .<ref>Cook, p. 36.</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| author = Richard Haehl
| title = Samuel Hahnemann His Life and Work
| year = 1922
| volume = 2
| page = 11
| location = London
| publisher = Homoeopathic Publishing
| oclc = 14558215
}}</ref>


== Medical practice ==
==Life==
In 1781, Hahnemann took a village doctor's position in the copper-mining area of ], ].<ref>Haehl, vol. 1, p. 26.</ref> He soon married Johanna Henriette Kuchler and would eventually have eleven children.<ref name="skylarkbio"/> After abandoning medical practice, and while working as a translator of scientific and medical textbooks, he translated fifteen books from English, six from French and one each from Latin and Italian from 1777 to 1806.<ref>Bradford, pp. 515–16.</ref> Hahnemann travelled around Saxony for many years, staying in many different towns and villages for varying lengths of time, never living far from the ] and settling at different times in ], ], ] and ]<ref>Cook, pp. 83–4,</ref> before finally moving to Paris in June 1835.<ref>Cook, p. 168.</ref>
Born Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann in ], ] on ], ], Hahnemann showed early proficiency at languages; ''"by twenty he had mastered ], ], ], ] and ],"'' <ref>http://www.skylarkbooks.co.uk/Hahnemann_Biography.htm</ref> and was making a living as a translator and teacher of languages. He later gained proficiency in ''"], ], Chaldaic and ]."'' <ref>http://www.skylarkbooks.co.uk/Hahnemann_Biography.htm</ref>


===Creation of homeopathy===
Hahnemann studied medicine at ] and ]. He received his doctor of medicine degree at the ] on 10 August ], qualifying with honors with a thesis on the treatment of cramps. He began practicing as a doctor in ]. ''"Shortly thereafter he married Johanna Henriette Kuchler"''<ref>http://www.skylarkbooks.co.uk/Hahnemann_Biography.htm</ref>; they had eleven children.
{{Main article|Homeopathy}}
Hahnemann was dissatisfied with the state of medicine in his time, and particularly objected to practices such as ]. He claimed that the medicine he had been taught to practice sometimes did the patient more harm than good:
<blockquote>My sense of duty would not easily allow me to treat the unknown pathological state of my suffering brethren with these unknown medicines. The thought of becoming in this way a murderer or malefactor towards the life of my fellow human beings was most terrible to me, so terrible and disturbing that I wholly gave up my practice in the first years of my married life and occupied myself solely with ] and writing.<ref name="skylarkbio"/></blockquote>


After giving up his practice around 1784, Hahnemann made his living chiefly as a writer and translator, while resolving also to investigate the causes of medicine's alleged errors. While translating ]'s ''A Treatise on the Materia Medica'', Hahnemann encountered the claim that ], the bark of a Peruvian tree, was effective in treating ] because of its astringency. Hahnemann believed that other astringent substances are not effective against malaria and began to research cinchona's effect on the human body by self-application. Noting that the drug induced malaria-like symptoms in himself,<ref>Haehl, vol. 1, p.38; Dudgeon, p.48</ref> he concluded that it would do so in any healthy individual. This led him to postulate a healing principle: "that which can produce a set of symptoms in a healthy individual, can treat a sick individual who is manifesting a similar set of symptoms."<ref name="skylarkbio"/> This principle, ''like cures like'', became the basis for an approach to medicine which he gave the name ]. He first used the term homeopathy in his essay ''Indications of the Homeopathic Employment of Medicines in Ordinary Practice'', published in ]'s ''Journal'' in 1807.<ref>Gumpert, Martin (1945) ''Hahnemann: The Adventurous Career of a Medical Rebel'', New York: Fischer, p. 130.</ref>
Through his practice, Hahnemann quickly discovered that the medicine of his day did as much harm as good:
:''"My sense of duty would not easily allow me to treat the unknown pathological state of my suffering brethren with these unknown medicines. The thought of becoming in this way a murderer or malefactor towards the life of my fellow human beings was most terrible to me, so terrible and disturbing that I wholly gave up my practice in the first years of my married life and occupied myself solely with ] and writing."'' <ref>http://www.skylarkbooks.co.uk/Hahnemann_Biography.htm</ref>


=== Development of homeopathy ===
After giving up his practice he made his living chiefly as a writer and translator. While translating ]'s ''A Treatise on the Materia Medica'', Hahnemann encountered the claim that ], the bark of a Peruvian tree, was effective in treating ] because of its astringency. Hahnemann realised that other astringent substances are not effective against ] and began to research ]'s effect on the human organism very directly: by self-application. He discovered that the drug evoked malaria-like symptoms in himself, and concluded that it would do so in any healthy individual. This led him to postulate a healing principle: ''"that which can produce a set of symptoms in a healthy individual, can treat a sick individual who is manifesting a similar set of symptoms."'' <ref>http://www.skylarkbooks.co.uk/Hahnemann_Biography.htm</ref> This principle, ''like cures like'', became the first of a new medicinal approach to which he gave the name ].
Following up the work of the Viennese physician ], Hahnemann tested substances for the effects they produced on a healthy individual, presupposing (as von Störck had claimed) that they may heal the same ills that they caused. His researches led him to agree with von Störck that the toxic effects of ingested substances are often broadly parallel to certain disease states,<ref>Dudgeon, pp.xxi–xxii; Cook, p.95</ref> and his exploration of historical cases of poisoning in the medical literature further implied a more generalised medicinal "law of similars".<ref>Dudgeon, p.49 & p.176; Haehl, vol. 1, p.40</ref> He later devised methods of diluting the drugs he was testing in order to mitigate their toxic effects. He claimed that these dilutions, when prepared according to his technique of "potentization" using dilution and succussion (vigorous shaking), were still effective in alleviating the same symptoms in the sick. His more systematic experiments with dose reduction really commenced around 1800–01 when, on the basis of his "law of similars," he had begun using '']'' for the treatment of coughs and ] for scarlet fever.<ref>Cook, pp.96–7; Dudgeon, pp.338–340 & pp.394–408</ref>


He first published an article about the homeopathic approach in a ] medical journal in 1796. Following a series of further essays, he published in 1810 "Organon of the Rational Art of Healing", followed over the years by four further editions entitled '']'', the first systematic treatise and containing all his detailed instructions on the subject. A 6th ''Organon'' edition, unpublished during his lifetime, and dating from February 1842, was only published many years after his death. It consisted of a 5th ''Organon'' containing extensive handwritten annotations.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021000237/http://www.minimum.com/reviews/organon-sixth.htm |date=21 October 2010 }}. Minimum.com. Retrieved on 16 May 2012.</ref> The ''Organon'' is widely regarded as a remodelled form of an essay he published in 1806 called "The Medicine of Experience", which had been published in Hufeland's Journal. Of the ''Organon'', ] states it "was an amplification and extension of his "Medicine of Experience", worked up with greater care, and put into a more methodical and ] form, after the model of the Hippocratic writings."<ref>] (1853) ''Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Homeopathy'', London: Henry Turner, p. xxxi.</ref>
Hahnemann began systematically testing substances for the effect they produced on a healthy individual and trying to deduce from this the ills they would heal. He quickly discovered that ingesting substances to produce noticeable changes in the organism resulted in toxic effects. His next task was to solve this problem, which he did through exploring dilutions of the compounds he was testing. He claimed that these dilutions, when done according to his technique of ] (systematic mixing through vigorous shaking) and ], were still effective in producing symptoms. However, these effects have never been duplicated in ], and his approach has been universally abandoned by modern medicine.


=== Coffee theory of disease ===
Hahnemann began practicing medicine again using his new technique, which soon attracted other doctors. He first published an article about the homeopathic approach to medicine in a ] medical journal in ]; in ], he wrote his ''Organon of the Medical Art'', the first systematic treatise on the subject.
] (1837)]]
Around the start of the nineteenth century Hahnemann developed a theory, propounded in his 1803 essay ''On the Effects of Coffee from Original Observations'', that many diseases are caused by ].<ref>Hahnemann S (1803): '''', in Hahnemann S., Dudgeon R. E. (ed) (1852): ''The Lesser Writings of Samuel Hahnemann''. New York: ], p. 391.</ref> Hahnemann later abandoned the coffee theory in favour of the theory that disease is caused by '']'', but it has been noted that the list of conditions Hahnemann attributed to coffee was similar to his list of conditions caused by ''Psora''.<ref>Morrell, P. (1996): , www.homeoint.org</ref>


== Later life ==
Hahnemann continued practicing medicine, researching new medicines, writing and lecturing to the end of a long life. He died in ] in ], 88 years of age, and is entombed in a mausoleum at ]'s ] cemetery.
] at ], Washington, D.C.]]


In early 1811<ref>Bradford, p. 76.</ref> Hahnemann moved his family back to ] with the intention of teaching his new medical system at the ]. As required by the university statutes, to become a faculty member he was required to submit and defend a thesis on a medical topic of his choice. On 26 June 1812, Hahnemann presented a ] thesis, entitled ''"A Medical Historical Dissertation on the Helleborism of the Ancients."''<ref>Bradford, p. 93.</ref> His thesis very thoroughly examined the historical literature and sought to differentiate between the ancient use of '']'', or black hellebore, and the medicinal uses of the "white hellebore", botanically '']'', both of which are poisonous plants.<ref>Haehl, Vol. 2, p. 96.</ref>
== Hahnemann's Good Reputation as a Scientist ==


Hahnemann continued practicing and researching homeopathy, as well as writing and lecturing for the rest of his life. He died in 1843 in Paris, at 88 years of age, and is entombed in a mausoleum at Paris's ].{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
Hahnemann "acquired a great reputation for his improvements in the practice of medicine, in pharmacology, and especially in hygiene." Hufeland, for example, "never lost respect for Hahnemann's genius and services to medicine." As a translator Hahnemann always "intercalates various improvements and inventions." He was widely regarded as "a writer who has improved and perfected," any text translation he undertook. This was no chance comment. Numerous examples exist of this observation. Numerous honours and accomplishments in chemistry and pharmacy preceded his discovery of homeopathy, what Ameke calls "his pre-homeopathic labours." Various writers refer to "Hahnemann's superiority," or to this "very valuable book by my esteemed friend, Dr Samuel Hahnemann."


== Descendants ==
These comments mostly allude to his innumerable minor discoveries and embellishments to the art of chemistry, or to the value of his translation footnotes, which were all completed before the emergence of homeopathy. For example, "in 1788, Hahnemann discovered the solubility of metallic sulphates in boiling nitric acid." Another is "the test for wine invented by Dr Hahnemann has especially pleased me." Or "Hahnemann’s mercury, an excellent and mild preparation, the usefulness of which has been proved." He is variously described as "a capable physician," and "one of the most distinguished physicians of Germany…of matured experience and reflection…a man rendered famous by his writings."
Hahnemann's daughter, Amelie (1789–1881), had a son: Leopold Suss-Hahnemann. Leopold emigrated to England, and he practised homeopathy in London. He retired to the ] and died there at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Dr Leopold Suss-Hahnemann's youngest daughter, Amalia, had two children, Winifred (born in 1898) and Herbert. William Herbert Tankard-Hahnemann (1922–2009) was Winifred's son. He served as a Major in the British Army during World War II, and then had a career in the city of London. He was at one point appointed as a Freeman of the City of London. Mr William Herbert Tankard-Hahnemann, the great-great-great-grandson of Samuel Hahnemann died on 12 January 2009 (his 87th birthday) after 22 years of active patronage of the British Institute of Homeopathy.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} The William Tankard-Hahnemann line continues with his son, Charles.


== Writings ==
In 1799 one writer alludes to Hahnemann by calling him "a man who has made himself a name in Germany both as a chemist and a practitioner deserves especial recommendation," and adds that "every article gives evidence of having been written with the greatest care." Another critic expresses his admiration for "a
Hahnemann wrote a number of books, essays, and letters on the homeopathic method, chemistry, and general medicine:
man who has conferred so many benefits on science...by his valuable translations...that are
* ''Heilkunde der Erfahrung.'' Norderstedt 2010, {{ISBN|3-8423-1326-8}}
faithful and successful... added precious notes which expand and elucidate " such that "he has thus enhanced the value of the work."
* {{cite book
| url = http://www.mickler.de/journal/versuch-prinzip-1.htm
| title = Versuch über ein neues Prinzip zur Auffindung der Heilkräfte der Arzneisubstanzen, nebst einigen Blicken auf die bisherigen
| language = de
| year = 1796
}} reprinted in {{cite book | title = Versuch über ein neues Prinzip zur Auffindung der Heilkräfte der Arzneisubstanzen, nebst einigen Blicken auf die bisherigen | year = 1988 | publisher = Haug | isbn = 3-7760-1060-6 }}
*'']'', a collection of 27 drug "provings" published in ] in 1805.<ref>
{{cite book
| title = Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis, sive in sano corpore humano observatis
| language = la
| oclc = 14852975
| url = https://archive.org/details/fragmentadeviri00hahngoog
| year = 1824
| publisher = Typis observatoris medici
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
|url = http://www.hahnemann.de/frontend1/media/pdf/fragmenta_leseprobe.pdf
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080413203202/http://www.hahnemann.de/frontend1/media/pdf/fragmenta_leseprobe.pdf
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 13 April 2008
|title = Übersetzung der 'Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum' von Marion Wettemann
|language = de
}}{{Dubious|date=January 2009}}</ref>{{Dubious|date=January 2009}}<ref>. Homeoint.org. Retrieved on 16 May 2012.</ref>
*'']'' (1810), a detailed delineation of what he saw as the rationale underpinning homeopathic medicine, and guidelines for practice. Hahnemann published the 5th edition in 1833; a revised draft of this (1842) was discovered after Hahnemann's death and finally published as the 6th edition in 1921.<ref>Online etext of Hahnemann's ''Organon der Heilkunst''.</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429001118/http://www.vithoulkas.com/homeopathy/organon/index.html |date=29 April 2007 }} English version, full text online; (); {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713184926/http://www.homeopathyhome.com/reference/organon/organon.html |date=13 July 2014 }}. Homeopathyhome.com. Retrieved on 16 May 2012.</ref>
*'']'', a compilation of "]" reports, published in six volumes between vol. I in 1811 and vol. VI in 1821; second edition of vol. I to Vol. VI from 1822 to 1827 and third revised editions of volumes I and II were published in 1830 and 1833, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.homeoint.org/books4/bradford/bibliography.htm |title=The Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Hahnemann |last=Bradford |first=TL |date= |website=HOMÉOPATHE INTERNATIONAL |access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref>
*''Chronic Diseases'' (1828), an explanation of the root and cure of ] according to the theory of ]s, together with a compilation of "]" reports, published in five volumes during the 1830s.
* ''The Friend of Health'', in which Hahnemann "recommended the use of fresh air, bed rest, proper diet, sunshine, public hygiene and numerous other beneficial measures at a time when many other physicians considered them of no value."<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Rothstein | first1 = William G. | title = American physicians in the nineteenth century: from sects to science | location = Baltimore | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1992|isbn=978-0-8018-4427-0 | page = 158 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = The Friend of Health | author = Hahnemann, Samuel | year = 1792}}</ref>
* ''Appeal to Thinking Philanthropist Respecting the Mode of Propagation of the Asiatic Choler'', in which Hahnemann describes cholera physicians and nurses as the "certain and frequent propagators" of ] and that whilst deriding nurses' "fumigations with chlorine", promoted the use of "drops of camphorated spirit" as a cure for the disease.<ref>
{{cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/lesserwritingss00hahngoog
| chapter = Appeal to thinking philanthropist respecting the mode of propagation of the Asiatic choler | author = Hahnemann, Samuel | year = 1831 | title = The lesser writings of Samuel Hahnemann | pages = –763 | oclc = 3440881| publisher = William Radde }}</ref>
* Hahnemann also campaigned for the humane treatment of the ] in 1792.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/lesserwritingss00hahngoog | chapter = Description of Klockenbring During his Insanity | title = The lesser writings of Samuel Hahnemann | author = Hahnemann, Samuel | year=1796 | pages= | oclc = 3440881| publisher = William Radde}}</ref>
* ] wrote that "In 1787, Hahnemann discovered the best test for arsenic and other poisons in wine, having pointed out the unreliable nature of the '],' which had been in use up to that date."<ref>{{cite book | author = John Henry Clarke | title = Homoeopathy: all about it; or, The principle of cure | url = https://archive.org/details/b20392576 | year = 1894 | place = London | publisher = Homoeopathic Publishing | oclc = 29160937 | author-link = John Henry Clarke }}</ref><ref>Haehl, Vol. 1, p. 34.</ref>
* ''Samuel Hahnemanns Apothekerlexikon''. Vol.2. Crusius, Leipzig 1798–1799 by the ]
* ''Reine Arzneimittellehre''. Arnold, Dresden (several editions) 1822–1827 by the ]
* ''Systematische Darstellung der reinen Arzneiwirkungen aller bisher geprüften Mittel''. Vieweg, Braunschweig 1831 – by the ]


== See also ==
So highly regarded were Hahnemann's translations "which he has enriched with his own
* ]
notes." These "great many explanatory and supplementary remarks...give the
* ]
translation a great advantage over the original." Such writers could clearly appreciate the "thoroughness of his emendations...his short
notes... serve to explain the text...and which is enhanced by the translator's notes."
Such comments reveal the clear and unambiguous recognition which he received for his "thorough pharmaceutical knowledge and industry...this celebrated chemist...this meritorious physician...the meritorious Hahnemann...whom chemistry has to thank for many important discoveries." He is unanimously applauded as one who "has won for himself unfading laurels," for his contributions to science.


==Notes==
Hahnemann was "so much respected and renowned for his valuable services," that he did not require to "to make himself more popular with the German public." When Hahnemann correctly stated that "Arsenic does not contain muriatic acid… Hahnemann’s superiority," in points of chemistry. In all his translations, "accuracy prevails everywhere," and reflects the "extreme care he employed in his labours." As early as 1784, "Hahnemann advocated the crystallisation of tartar emetic." It was in the fine details of his corrections and
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
footnote additions that he earned his reputation as a meticulous, highly knowledgeable, diligent and thus reliable scientific translator. In time, he garnered a similar reputation for his work reforming pharmacy, for example, "the regulation and sale of poisons," he "preservation of odoriferous substances," and the "evaporation of extracts over water baths." Ameke also lists many pages of examples of his contributions to pharmacy and examples of his recommended small doses for drugs of all types.


==References==
In such innumerable ways Hahnemann was considered to have "enriched our therapeutic thesaurus." In every case, they all prove "how thoroughly Hahnemann had studied the subject," in question, whether it was botany, pharmacy or chemistry. It meant that when he made a statement "every page shows that the well
*{{cite book
informed author speaks from experience," it shows his great diligence, that he
| author = Bradford, Thomas Lindsley
composed work of more than "an ordinary character," that he always produced
| title = The Life and Letters of Samuel Hahnemann
"useful work," and that "he surpassed most of them in knowledge of the subjects," on which he expounded. Such factors considerably enhanced his scientific credentials.
| orig-year = 1895
| date = 1999
| location = Philadelphia
| publisher = Boericke & Tafel
| oclc = 1489955
}}
*{{cite book
| author = Cook, Trevor
| title = Samuel Hahnemann Founder of Homeopathy
| location = Wellingborough, Northamptonshire
| publisher = Thorsons
| year = 1981
| isbn = 0-7225-0689-9
}}
*{{cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/samuelhahnemannh01haehuoft | author = Haehl, Richard; Wheeler, Marie L. (tr.) and Grundy, W.H.R. (tr.) | editor = John Henry Clarke, Francis James Wheeler | title = Samuel Hahnemann his Life and Work | volume = 1 | year = 1922 | publisher = Homoeopathic Publishing | place = London | oclc = 222833661 }}, reprinted as {{ISBN|81-7021-693-1}}


==Further reading==
All quotations from:
{{refbegin}}
Wilhelm Ameke, History of Homœopathy, with an appendix on the present state of University medicine, translated by A. E. Drysdale, edited by R. E. Dudgeon, London: E. Gould & Son, 1885.
*{{Cite journal

| pmid = 18354994
One of Hahnemann's more significant non-homeopathic achievements was the development of a test for arsenic that was in common use before the 1830's breakthrough of the ] (for the presence of arsenic in solids). It involved combining a sample fluid with hydrogen sulfide in the presence of hydrochloric acid. A yellow precipitate, arsenic trisulfide, would be formed if arsenic were present. Hahnemann's process is still used in water tests for arsenic today.
| last = Brockmeyer

| first = Bettina
==List of translations & publications made by Hahnemann==
| year = 2007
===From the English===
| title = Representations of illness in letters addressed to Samuel Hahnemann: gender and historical perspectives
* 1777. Stedtmann's Physiological, essays and observations. Leipsic. Muller.
| language = de
* 1777. Nugent's Essay on hydrophobia. Leipsic. Muller.
| volume = 29
* 1777. Falconer On water and warm baths. Leipsic. Hilscher.
|journal= Medizin, Gesellschaft, und Geschichte: Jahrbuch des Instituts für Geschichte der Medizin der Robert Bosch Stiftung
* 1777. Ball’s Modern practice of physic. Leipsic. 2 vols.
| pages = 211–221, 259
* 1789. History of the lives of Abelard and Heloise. Leipsic. Weygand.
}}
* 1790. Inquiry into the nature, causes and cure of consumption of the lungs. Leipsic. Weygand.
*{{Cite journal
* 1790. A treatise on the materia medica. William Cullen. Leipsic. Schweikert. 2 vols.
| pmid = 17153748
* 1791. John Grigg's Advice to the female sex in pregnancy and lying in with directions on the management of children. Leipsic. Weygand.
| last = Kayne
* 1790-91. Arthur Young's Annals of agriculture. Leipsic. Crusius. 2 vols
| first = Steven
* 1791. Donald Monro’s Medical and pharmaceutical chemistry. Leipsic. 2 vols.
| year = 2006
* 1791. Edward Rigby's Chemical observation on sugar. Dresden. Walther.
| title = Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843): the founder of modern homeopathy.
* 1797-8. Edinburgh Dispensatory. Leipsic. Fleischer. 2 vols.
| volume = 36
* 1797-8. W. Taplin's Equerry, or modern veterinary medicine. Leipsic. 2 vols.
| issue = 2 Suppl
* 1800. Home's Practical observations on the cure of strictures of the urethra by caustics. Leipsic. Fleischer.
| journal= Pharmaceutical Historian
* 1800. Thesaurus Medicaminum ; A New Collection of Medical Prescriptions, Distributed into Twelve Classes, and Accompanied with Pharmaceutical Remarks, etc. Leipsic. Fleischer. (This is the book of which Hahnemann wrote a preface ridiculing the body of the book...see below)
| pages = S23–6

}}
===From the Latin===
*{{Cite journal
* 1806. Albrecht von Haller's Materia medica, Leipsic. Steinaker.
| pmid = 17153289

| last = Brockmeyer
===From the French===
| first = Bettina
* 1784. Demachy's Art of manufacturing chemical products. With Struve's additions. Leipsic. Crusius. 2 vols.
| year = 2005
* 1785. Demachy's Art of distilling liquor. Leipsic. Crusius. 2 vols.
| title = Writing about oneself and others: men and women in letters to doctor Samuel Hahnemann 1831–1835
* 1787. Demachy's Art of manufacturing vinegar. With Annotations by Struve. Leipsic. Crusius.
| language = de
* 1787. Signs of the purity and adulterations of drugs. By J. B. van den Sande. Dresden. Walther.
| volume = 24
* 1790-1 Metherie's Analytical essay on pure air, and the different kinds of air. Leipsic. Crusius. 2 vols.
| journal = Würzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen / Im Auftrage der Würzburger medizinhistorischen Gesellschaft und in Verbindung mit dem Institut für Geschichte der Medizin der Universität Würzburg
* 1796. Hand-Book For Mothers. J. J. Rousseau on the Education of Infants, under the above title. Leipsic. Fleischer. Second edition in 1804.
| pages = 18–28

}}
===From the Italian===
*{{Cite journal
* 1790. Fabbroni's Art of making wine. Leipsic. Barth.
| pmid = 15871338

| year = 2005
* NB. The total mass of Hahnemann's translations amount to 9400 pages in a 29 year period, which is 324 pages per year, or roughly 1 page per day, every day.
| title = Biographic synopsis on Samuel Hahnemann

| language = es
===Original Writings, Books, Essays and Magazine Articles===
| volume = 28
* 1779. Inaugural thesis. Defended August 10, 1779. Erlangen. Ellrodtianis: Dissertatio inauguralis medica, Conspectus adfectuum spasmodicorum aetiologicus et therapeuticus
| issue = 3
* 1781 small essays published in Kreb's journal. Quedlinburg.
| journal= Revista de enfermería (Barcelona, Spain)
* 1783. Articles in the Sammlung for physicians. Leipsic. Weygand. 1783-7.
| pages = 10–16
* 1784. Directions for curing old sores and ulcers, etc. Leipsic. Crusius.
}}
* 1786. On arsenical poisoning, its treatment and judicial detection. Leipsic. Crusius.
*{{Cite journal
* 1787. Treatise on the prejudices existing against coal fires ; and mode of improving this combustible, and its employment in heating bakers' ovens. Dresden. Walther.
| pmid = 15822443
* 1787. On the difficulties of preparing soda from potash and kitchen salt. In Crell's annals of chemistry.
| last = Eschenbruch
* 1788. On the influence of certain gases in the fermentation of wine. In Crell's annals of chemistry. Vol. 1, pt. 4.
| first = Nicholas
* 1788. On the wine test for iron and lead. In Crell's annals, vol. 1, pt. 4.
| year = 2005
* 1788. Concerning bile and gall stones. In Crell's annals, vol. 2, pt. 10.
| title = Rationalist, magician, scharlatan? Samuel Hahnemann and homeopathy from the viewpoint of homeopathy
* 1788. Essay on a -new agent in the prevention of putrefaction. In Crell's annals, vol. 2, pt. 12. Also journal of medicine. Paris. Vol. 81.
| language = de
* 1789. Unsuccessful experiments with some new discoveries. In Crell's annals of chemistry, vol. 1, pt. 3.
| volume = 94
* 1789. Letter to L. Crell upon baryta. In Crell's annals of chemistry, vol. 1, pt. 8.
| issue = 11
* 1789. Discovery of a new constituent in plumbago. In Crell's annals, vol. 2, pt. 10.
|journal= Schweiz. Rundsch. Med. Prax.
* 1789. Observations on the astringent properties of plants. In Crell's annals, vol., 4, pt. 10.
| pages = 443–446
* 1789. Exact mode of preparing the soluble mercury. In the New Literary Adviser for Physicians, Halle, 1789, and in Baldinger's New Magazine for Physicians, Vol. 11, pt. 5.
}}
* 1789. Instructions for surgeons respecting venereal diseases ; together with a new mercurial preparation. Leipsic. Crusius. Also in Dudgeon's translation of Lesser Writings.
*{{Cite journal
* 1790. Complete mode of preparing the soluble mercury. Crell's Annals, Vol. 2, pt. 8.
| pmid = 11624613
* 1790. Notes to Crell on various subjects. Crell's Annals, Vol. 1, pt. 3.
| last = Jutte
* 1791. Insolubility of some metals and their oxides, in caustic ammonia. Crell's Annals, vol, 2, pt. 8.
| first = R.
* 1791. On the best method of preventing salivation and the destructive effects of mercury. Blumenbach’s Medical Book, Vol. 3, pt. 3.
| year = 1999
* 1792. On the preparation of Glauber's salts according to the mode of Ballen. Crell's Annals, pt. 1.
| title = "Thus it passes from the patient's purse into that of the doctor without causing displeasure" – Samuel Hahnemann and medical fees
* 1792. On the art of testing wine. Scherf's Archives of Medicine, Vol. 3.
| language = de
* 1792. The friend of health. Vol, 1, Leipsic. Fleischer. Vol. 2. Leipsic. Crusius. Consists of a series of short essays on medical subjects. Dudgeon's Lesser Writings. Stapf's K1. Med. Schrift.
| volume = 18
* 1793-99. Pharmaceutical lexicon Leipsic. Crusius. In 4 vols.
| journal= Medizin, Gesellschaft, und Geschichte: Jahrbuch des Instituts für Geschichte der Medizin der Robert Bosch Stiftung
* 1793. Remarks on the Wirtemburg and Hahnemann's wine test. In the German Literary Gazette, No. 79.
| pages = 149–167
* 1793. Preparation of the Cassel yellow. Erfurt. Also in Act. Academ. Scient. Erfurt. 1794.
}}
* 1794. On Hahnemann's test for wine and the new liquor probatorius fortior. Tromsdorf's journal of Pharmacy, Vol 2. Crell's Annals, Vol. 1.
*{{Cite journal
* 1795. On Crusta Lactea. Blumenbach's Med. Bibliothek, Vol. 3.
| pmid = 8121514
* 1796. Description of Klockenbring during his insanity. In German Monthly Magazine, February, 1796. Lesser Writings.
| last = de Goeij
* 1796. Essay on a new principle for ascertaining the curative powers of drugs. Hufeland's journal for Practicing Physicians, Vol. 2, pts. 3, 4. Lesser Writings. This was the first public announcement of the new principle of Homoeopathy.
| first = C. M.
* 1797. Something about the pulverization of Ignatia beans. In Tromsdorf's journal of Pharmacy, Vol. 5, pt. 1.
| year = 1994
* 1797. Are the obstacles to the attainment of simplicity and certainty in the practice of medicine insurmountable? Hufeland's journal, Vol. 4. pt. 4. Lesser Writings. Brit. Jour. Hom., Vol. 2.
| title = Samuel Hahnemann: an indignant systems builder
* 1797. Case of rapidly cured colicodynia. Hufeland's Journal, Vol. 3, pt. 1. Dudgeon's Lesser Writings.
| language = nl
* 1798. Antidotes to some heroic vegetable substances. Hufeland's journal, Vol. 5, pt. 1. Lesser Writings.
| volume = 138
* 1798. Some kinds of continued and remittent fevers. Hufeland's Journal, Vol, 5, pt. 1. Lesser Writings.
| issue = 6
* 1798. Some periodical and hebdomadal diseases. Hufeland's journal, vol. 5, pt. 1. Lesser Writings.
|journal = Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde

| pages = 310–314
* 1800. Preface to the Thesaurus Medicaminum. Leipsic. Fleischer. Lesser Writings. This is the preface in which he condemns the book: "the contents of this book...are the grossest imposition ever palmed upon man, a confused jumble of unknown drugs -- mostly poisons -- mixed together in what are called prescriptions...none of which possesses the qualities attributed to it... it contains a multitude of anarchical elements that totally disqualify it for any orderly action whatever... the best counsel I can give you, dear reader, is to place the main body of this book into the fire."
}}

*{{Cite journal
* 1801. Observations on the three current methods of treatment. Hufeland's journal, vol. 11, pt. 4. Stapf’s KI. Med. Schrift.
| pmid = 11620590
* 1801. Essay on small doses of medicine and of Belladonna in particular. Hufeland's journal, vol. 13, pt. 2. Lesser Writings.
| last = Rizza
* 1801. Fragmentary observations on Brown's elements of medicine. Hufeland's Journal, vol. 12, pt. 2. Lesser Writings.
| first = E.
* 1801. View of professional liberality at the commencement of the nineteenth century. Reichs Anzeiger, No. 32. Lesser Writings.
| year = 1994
* 1801. Cure and prevention of scarlet fever. Gotha. Becker. Edited by Buchner, and reprinted in 1844. Lesser Writings.
| title = Samuel Hahnemann: a mystical empiricist. A study of the origin and development of the homeopathic medical system
* 1803. On a proposed remedy for hydrophobia. in Reichs Anzeiger, no. 71. lesser writings.
| language = it
* 1803. On the effects of coffee. Leipsic. Steinacker. Lesser Writings ; Am. Jour. Hom., June, 1835 ; Hom. Exam., Aug., 1840. Trans. into French by Brunnow, and published at Dresden, 1824 ; into Danish by Lund, Copenhagen,
| volume = 6
* 1827 ; into Hungarian by Paul Balogh Pesth 1829 ; into Russian by Dr. A. Peterson ; also into Spanish and Italian; in 1855 into English by Mrs. Epps, and published in a book "Progress of Homoeopathy,' London, 1855. Trans. by W. L. Breyfogle, Louisville, Ky., 1875.
| issue = 3
* 1805. Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis sive in sano corpore humano observatis. Leipsic. Barth. 2 parts. (The first collection of Drug Provings on the Healthy Body.) This was issued in one volume in 1834, edited by F. F. Quin, of London.
|journal = Medicina Nei Secoli
* 1805. Aesculapius in the balance. Dresden. Arnold. Lesser Writings. Brit. Jour. Hom., vol. 3. Hom. Pioneer. Schweikert's Zeitung, vol. 1, 1830. Trans. Into Danish by Lund.
| pages = 515–524
* 1806. Objections to proposed substitutes for Cinchona, and to succedanea in general. In Reichs Anzeiger, No. 57. Lesser Writings.
}}
* 1806. Concerning substitutes for quinine. Hufeland's journal, vol. 23.
*{{cite journal
* 1806. What are poisons ? what are medicines ? Hufeland's Journal, vol. 24, pt. 3.
| pmid = 1405462
* 1806. Scarlet fever and Purpura miliaris, two different diseases. Hufeland's journal, vol. 17, pt. 1.
| last = Meissner
* 1806. Medicine of experience. Berlin. Wittig. Hufeland's journal, vol. 22, pt. 3. Lesser Writings. Brit. Jour. Hom., vol. 1.
| first = M.
* 1808. On the value of speculative systems of medicine, especially in connection with the various systems of practice. Allgemeine Anzeiger. Lesser Writings. Brit. Jour. Hom., vol. 2. Hom. Exam., 1840. Am. Jour. Hom., Feb., 1835. Hom. Pioneer.
| year = 1992
* 1808. Extract from a letter to a physician of high standing on the great necessity of a regeneration in medicine. In Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 343 Lesser Writings. Hom. Exam., Sept., 1840. Hom. Pioneer. (Letter to Hufeland.)
| title = Samuel Hahnemann—the originator of homeopathic medicine
* 1808. Indications of the homoeopathic employment of medicines in ordinary practice. Hufeland's journal, vol. 26, pt. 2 ; also in first three editions of Organon. Dudgeon's trans of the Organon.
| volume = 30
* 1808. On the present want of foreign medicines. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 207. Lesser Writings
| issue = 7–8
* 1808. On substitutes for foreign drugs, and on the recent announcement of the medical faculty in Vienna relative to the superfluousness of the latter. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 327. Lesser Writings.
|journal = Krankenpflege Journal
* 1808. Observations on scarlet fever. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 160. Lesser Writings.
| pages = 364–366
* 1808. Reply to a question about the prophylactic for scarlet fever. Hufeland's journal, vol. 27, pt. 4.
}}
* 1809. To a candidate for the degree of M. D. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 227. Lesser Writings.
*{{cite journal
* 1809. Signs of the times in the ordinary system of medicine. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 326. Lesser Writings.
| pmid = 2970128
* 1809. On the prevailing fever. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 261. Lesser Writings.
| last = Schmidt

| first = J. M.
==The Organon==
| year = 1988
* 1810. Organon of Rational Healing. Dresden. Arnold. 2d edition, 1819 ; 3d edition, 1824; 4th edition, 1829 ; 5th edition, 1833.
| title = The publications of Samuel Hahnemann
* Trans. into French by Brunnow, and published in Dresden by Arnold in 1824 ; 2d edition of same, 1832.
| volume = 72
* Into Hungarian in 1830, Pesth, Ottonal.
| issue = 1
* French translation by Dr. Jourdan, Paris, Baillière, 1832 ; also in 1834 ; 3d edition of same, 1845 ; 4th, 1873.
|journal = Sudhoffs Archiv
* In 1833 translated from the 4th German edition by Chas. H. Devriant, with notes by Sam'l Stratton. Dublin, London, Edinburgh.
| pages = 14–36
* Trans. by Dr. Liedbeck into Swedish, Stockholm, 1836.
}}
* In 1840, into Russian by Wratzky ; into Russian by Sarokin in 1887-90.
*{{cite journal
* Into, Spanish by Sanlieby, Madrid ; into Spanish in 1853 by Valero.
| pmid = 6750668
* Into Italian by Guranta, and also by Fransesco Romano.
| last = Lozowski
* A 6th German edition was edited by Lutze, Coethen, 1865.
| first = J.
* In 1849 by Dudgeon into English from the 5th edition. London, Headland.
| year = 1982
* In 1836 the 1st American from the British translation of 1833 was published by the Allentown Academy.
| title = Homeopathy (Samuel Hahnemann)
* 1843, 2d American edition, New York, Radde.
| language = pl
* 1849, 3d American edition, New York, Radde.
| issue = 4–5
* 1869, 4th American edition, New York, Radde.
|journal = Pielȩgniarka I Połozna
* In 1876 it was re-translated by Conrad Wesselhoeft, of Boston, and published by Boericke &- Tafel. This is the 5th American from the 5th German edition.
| pages = 16–17
* 1893 New edition by Dudgeon, with an Appendix. London
}}
* Trans. by Fincke, Jour. of Homoeopathics, New York, 1889. See, also Cal. Horn'th, vol. 9, p. 3,37.
*{{cite journal

| pmid = 11610925
==Materia Medica Pura==
| last = Habacher
* 1811. Materia Medica Pura. Dresden. Arnold. 6 vols. Vol. 1 1811; vol. 2, 1816; vol. 3, 1817; vol. 4, 1818 ; vol. 5, 1819 ; vol. 6, 1821.
| first = M.
* 2d edition. Vol. 1, 1822 ; vol. 2, 1824 ; vol. 3, 1825 ; vol. 4, 1825 ; vol. 5, 1826 ; vol. 6, 1827.
| year = 1980
* 3d edition, 1830. Vol. 2, 1833. Only two vols. were published of this edition.
| title = Homöopathische Fernbehandlung durch Samuel Hahnemann
* In 1825 translated into Italian by Romani. Naples. Nobile.
| language = de
* In 1826 an edition in Latin was published in Leipsic by Brunnow, Stapf and Gross, containing also the Viribus.
| volume = 15
* Trans. in 1828 into French by Bigel. Varsovie.
| issue = 4
* Into French by Jourdan in 1834, Paris, Baillière. * In 1877 by the Drs. Simon into French
|journal = Medizinhistorisches Journal
* In 1840 Dr. Quin commenced a translation into English in London, but when vol. 1 was published it was destroyed by fire. No others were published.
| pages = 385–391
* 1846 Trans. by Hempel, New York. Radde.
}}
* A Hahnemann Materia Medica by Drysdale, Black, Dudgeon and Hughes, published in London in 1852 ; but 3 parts published.
*{{cite journal
* Into Italian by Dadea in 1873. Turin. 2 vols.
| pmid = 4581537
* 1880. Trans. by Dudgeon, London. 2 vols. with additions by Hughes.
| last1 = Antall
* 1880. Trans. by Arndt. Med. Counselor, vols. 3, 4, 5.
| first1 = J.

| last2 = Kapronczay
===Other Works cont'd===
| first2 = K.
* 1812. Dissertation on the Helleborism of the ancients. Leipsic. Tauchnitz. Thesis to the Faculty at Leipsic. Also in Lesser Writings.
| year = 1973
* 1813. Spirit of the homoeopathic doctrine of medicine. In Allgemeine Anzeiger, March, 1813. Vol. 2 of Materia Medica Pura. Lesser Writings. As a pamphlet in New York by Hans Birch Gram in 1825. Trans. by Ad. Lippe in 1878, and published in The Organon, a journal. Hom. Exam., Oct., 1840. Also trans. by G. M. Scott, London, Glasgow. 1838. Trans. by Lund into Danish.
| title = Samuel Hahnemann
* 1814. Treatment of typhus& fever at present prevailing. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 6. Lesser Writings.
| volume = 114
* 1816. Venereal disease and its improper treatment. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 211. Lesser Writings.
| issue = 32
* 1816. Treatment of burns. Answer to Dr. Dzondi. In Allgemeine Anzeiger, Nos..-156, 204. Lesser Writings.
|journal = Orvosi Hetilap
* 1819. On uncharitableness to suicides. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 144. Lesser Writings.
| pages = 1945–1947
* 1820. On the preparation and dispensing of medicines by homoeopathic physicians. First published in Stapf's Lesser Writings of Hahnemann. Also Dudgeon's Lesser Writings.
}}
* 1821. Treatment of purpura miliaris. Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 26. Lesser Writings.
*{{cite journal
* 1825. How may homoeopathy be most certainly readicated ? Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 227. Lesser Writings.
| pmid = 14143315
* 1825. Information for the truth seeker. Published in the Materia Medica Pura under the title: How Can Small Doses of Such Very Attenuated Medicines as Homoeopathy Employs Still Possess Great Power? Allgemeine Anzeiger, No. 194. Lesser Writings. Hom. Pioneer. Brit. Jour. of Hom., vol. 2.
| last = Hodges

| first = P. C.
==Chronic Diseases==
| year = 1964
* 1828. Chronic diseases, their nature and homoeopathic treatment. Dresden and Leipsic. Arnold. Vols. 1, 2, 3, 1828 ; vol. 4, 1830.
| title = Homeopathy and Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann
* 2d edition. Dusseldorf. Schaub. Vols. 1, 2, 1835 ; vol. 3, 1837 ; vol. 4, 1838 ; vol. 5, 1839.
| volume = 35
* Trans. into French by Jourdan. Paris, 1832. 2d edition of same 1846.
| journal = Postgraduate Medicine
* Into French by Bigel. Edited by Des Guidi in 1832.
| pages = 666–668
* Into English from French edition by G. M. Scott. Glasgow, 1842.
| doi = 10.1080/00325481.1964.11695164
* Into Italian by Belluornini. Teramo. 1832-7. 4 vols.
}}
* In 1849 into Italian by Villannera. Madrid.
*{{cite journal
* In 1845 by Hempel into English. New York. Raddle 5 vols.Reprint of vol. 1 in Med. Advance, vol. 22. 1889.
| pmid = 13562700
* In 1894 from 5th German edition into English by L. H. Tafel. Boericke ac Tafel. Philadelphia.
| last = Dietrich

| first = H. J.
===Other works cont'd===
| year = 1958
* 1829. Letters by Hahnemann to dr. Schreier. New Archives of Stapf. Vol. 23.
| title = Hahnemann's capacity for greatness; Samuel Hahnemann; and Hahnemann Medical College
* 1829. Letter to Korsakoff about impregnation of globules with medicine. Stapf's Archivs. Vol. 8, pt. 2. Lesser Writings.
| volume = 93
* 1829. Lesser medical writings of Hahnemann. Collected by Stapf. Dresden : Arnold. But for this book we should know but little of the essays of Hahnemann. These are for the most part translated and published in Dudgeon's edition of Lesser Writings, of which there is an English and an American edition.
| issue = 2
* 1831. Allopathy, a word of warning to sick persons. Leipsic. Baumgartner. Lesser Writings. Trans. into Danish by Lund.
|journal=The Hahnemannian
* 1831. Appeal to thanking philanthropists respecting the mode of propagation of Asiatic cholera. Leipsic. Berger. Lesser Writings. Brit. Jour. of Hom., Oct., 1849. S. W. Hom. Jour. and Rev., vol. 3.-
| pages = 35–39
* 1831. Cure of Asiatic cholera. Coethen. Aug. 1831 Same. 2d edition. Leipsic. Gluck.
}}
* 1831. Letter about the cure of cholera. Berlin. Hirschwald. Trans. into Danish by Lund.
*{{cite journal
* 1831. Circular on the cholera, Schweikert's Zeitung d. Natur. Heilkunst. Vol. 2.
| pmid = 14379841
* 1831. Cure and prevention of Asiatic cholera. Stapf's Archivs. Vol. 11, pt. 1. Schweickert's Zeitung, Vol. 2.
| last = Koch
* 1831. Notes by Hahnemann on Korsakoff's letter on attenuation of homoeopathic remedies. Stapf's Archivs, vol. 11, pt. 2. Lesser Writings.
| first = E.
* 1832. Summons to the half-homoeopathists of Leipsic. N. W. Jour. Hom., vol. 4.
| year = 1955
* 1832. Cure of cholera. Nurnburg. Stein.
| title = On the 200th anniversary of Dr. Samuel Hahnemann; several ideas concerning homeopathy
* 1832. Preface to Boenninghausen's Repertory.
| language = de
* 1843. Introduction to the proving of Arsenic. Brit. Jour. Hom., vol. 1.
| volume = 10
* 1845. Examination of the sources of the materia medica. Brit. Jour. of Hom., vol. 3.
| issue = 16
* 1849. On the contagiousness of cholera. Brit. Jour. of Hom., Vol. 7.
| periodical=Das Deutsche Gesundheitswesen
* 1850. Studies of homoeopathic medicine. Hartung. Paris. 2 vols. Contains 12 essays and 14 letters by
| pages=585–590
Hahnemann.
}}
* 1853. Treatment of chronic local disease and of phthisis. Brit. Jour. of Hom., Vol. 11.
*{{cite journal
* 1863. Itch insect. Brit. Jour. of Hom., Vol. 21.
| pmid = 14384489

| last = Auster
===Source===
| first = F.
Thomas Lindsley Bradford, Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Hahnemann, Philadelphia: Boericke & Tafel, 1895
| year = 1955
| title = 200th Anniversary of the birth of Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, born April 10, 1755
| language = de
| volume = 94
| issue = 4
|journal = Pharmazeutische Zentralhalle für Deutschland
| pages = 124–128
}}
{{refend}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* Online etext of Hahnemann's ''Organon der Heilkunst'':
{{EB1911 poster|Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich}}
** ()
* {{OL author}}
**
*


*
* A historical overview * A historical overview
* former site of the Hahnemann Hospital, Liverpool
*
* {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich |short=x}}

*
== References ==
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www.cemon.it Centro di medicina Omeopatica Napoletano/libera università di medicina omeopatica
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Latest revision as of 01:03, 20 November 2024

German physician who created homeopathy (1755–1843)

Samuel Hahnemann
Hahnemann in 1841
BornChristian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann
(1755-04-10)10 April 1755
Meissen, Electorate of Saxony
Died2 July 1843(1843-07-02) (aged 88)
Paris, France
NationalityGerman
Known forHomeopathy
Signature

Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann (/ˈhɑːnəmən/ HAH-nə-mən, German: [ˈzaːmueːl ˈhaːnəman]; 10 April 1755 – 2 July 1843) was a German physician, best known for creating the pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine called homeopathy.

Early life

Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann was born in Meissen, Saxony, near Dresden. His father Christian Gottfried Hahnemann was a painter and designer of porcelain, for which the town of Meissen is famous.

As a young man, Hahnemann became proficient in a number of languages, including English, French, Italian, Greek and Latin. He eventually made a living as a translator and teacher of languages, gaining further proficiency in "Arabic, Syriac, Chaldaic and Hebrew".

Hahnemann studied medicine for two years at Leipzig. Citing Leipzig's lack of clinical facilities, he moved to Vienna, where he studied for ten months. His medical professors in Leipzig and Vienna included the physician Joseph von Quarin, later credited for turning Vienna General Hospital into a model European medical institution.

After one term of further study, Hahnemann graduated with a medical degree with honors from the University of Erlangen on 10 August 1779. His poverty may have forced him to choose Erlangen, as the school's fees were lower than in Vienna. Hahnemann's thesis was titled Conspectus adfectuum spasmodicorum aetiologicus et therapeuticus .

Medical practice

In 1781, Hahnemann took a village doctor's position in the copper-mining area of Mansfeld, Saxony. He soon married Johanna Henriette Kuchler and would eventually have eleven children. After abandoning medical practice, and while working as a translator of scientific and medical textbooks, he translated fifteen books from English, six from French and one each from Latin and Italian from 1777 to 1806. Hahnemann travelled around Saxony for many years, staying in many different towns and villages for varying lengths of time, never living far from the River Elbe and settling at different times in Dresden, Torgau, Leipzig and Köthen (Anhalt) before finally moving to Paris in June 1835.

Creation of homeopathy

Main article: Homeopathy

Hahnemann was dissatisfied with the state of medicine in his time, and particularly objected to practices such as bloodletting. He claimed that the medicine he had been taught to practice sometimes did the patient more harm than good:

My sense of duty would not easily allow me to treat the unknown pathological state of my suffering brethren with these unknown medicines. The thought of becoming in this way a murderer or malefactor towards the life of my fellow human beings was most terrible to me, so terrible and disturbing that I wholly gave up my practice in the first years of my married life and occupied myself solely with chemistry and writing.

After giving up his practice around 1784, Hahnemann made his living chiefly as a writer and translator, while resolving also to investigate the causes of medicine's alleged errors. While translating William Cullen's A Treatise on the Materia Medica, Hahnemann encountered the claim that cinchona, the bark of a Peruvian tree, was effective in treating malaria because of its astringency. Hahnemann believed that other astringent substances are not effective against malaria and began to research cinchona's effect on the human body by self-application. Noting that the drug induced malaria-like symptoms in himself, he concluded that it would do so in any healthy individual. This led him to postulate a healing principle: "that which can produce a set of symptoms in a healthy individual, can treat a sick individual who is manifesting a similar set of symptoms." This principle, like cures like, became the basis for an approach to medicine which he gave the name homeopathy. He first used the term homeopathy in his essay Indications of the Homeopathic Employment of Medicines in Ordinary Practice, published in Hufeland's Journal in 1807.

Development of homeopathy

Following up the work of the Viennese physician Anton von Störck, Hahnemann tested substances for the effects they produced on a healthy individual, presupposing (as von Störck had claimed) that they may heal the same ills that they caused. His researches led him to agree with von Störck that the toxic effects of ingested substances are often broadly parallel to certain disease states, and his exploration of historical cases of poisoning in the medical literature further implied a more generalised medicinal "law of similars". He later devised methods of diluting the drugs he was testing in order to mitigate their toxic effects. He claimed that these dilutions, when prepared according to his technique of "potentization" using dilution and succussion (vigorous shaking), were still effective in alleviating the same symptoms in the sick. His more systematic experiments with dose reduction really commenced around 1800–01 when, on the basis of his "law of similars," he had begun using Ipecacuanha for the treatment of coughs and Belladonna for scarlet fever.

He first published an article about the homeopathic approach in a German-language medical journal in 1796. Following a series of further essays, he published in 1810 "Organon of the Rational Art of Healing", followed over the years by four further editions entitled The Organon of the Healing Art, the first systematic treatise and containing all his detailed instructions on the subject. A 6th Organon edition, unpublished during his lifetime, and dating from February 1842, was only published many years after his death. It consisted of a 5th Organon containing extensive handwritten annotations. The Organon is widely regarded as a remodelled form of an essay he published in 1806 called "The Medicine of Experience", which had been published in Hufeland's Journal. Of the Organon, Robert Ellis Dudgeon states it "was an amplification and extension of his "Medicine of Experience", worked up with greater care, and put into a more methodical and aphoristic form, after the model of the Hippocratic writings."

Coffee theory of disease

Bust of Samuel Hahnemann by French sculptor David d'Angers (1837)

Around the start of the nineteenth century Hahnemann developed a theory, propounded in his 1803 essay On the Effects of Coffee from Original Observations, that many diseases are caused by coffee. Hahnemann later abandoned the coffee theory in favour of the theory that disease is caused by Psora, but it has been noted that the list of conditions Hahnemann attributed to coffee was similar to his list of conditions caused by Psora.

Later life

Samuel Hahnemann Monument at Scott Circle, Washington, D.C.

In early 1811 Hahnemann moved his family back to Leipzig with the intention of teaching his new medical system at the University of Leipzig. As required by the university statutes, to become a faculty member he was required to submit and defend a thesis on a medical topic of his choice. On 26 June 1812, Hahnemann presented a Latin thesis, entitled "A Medical Historical Dissertation on the Helleborism of the Ancients." His thesis very thoroughly examined the historical literature and sought to differentiate between the ancient use of Helleborus niger, or black hellebore, and the medicinal uses of the "white hellebore", botanically Veratrum album, both of which are poisonous plants.

Hahnemann continued practicing and researching homeopathy, as well as writing and lecturing for the rest of his life. He died in 1843 in Paris, at 88 years of age, and is entombed in a mausoleum at Paris's Père Lachaise Cemetery.

Descendants

Hahnemann's daughter, Amelie (1789–1881), had a son: Leopold Suss-Hahnemann. Leopold emigrated to England, and he practised homeopathy in London. He retired to the Isle of Wight and died there at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Dr Leopold Suss-Hahnemann's youngest daughter, Amalia, had two children, Winifred (born in 1898) and Herbert. William Herbert Tankard-Hahnemann (1922–2009) was Winifred's son. He served as a Major in the British Army during World War II, and then had a career in the city of London. He was at one point appointed as a Freeman of the City of London. Mr William Herbert Tankard-Hahnemann, the great-great-great-grandson of Samuel Hahnemann died on 12 January 2009 (his 87th birthday) after 22 years of active patronage of the British Institute of Homeopathy. The William Tankard-Hahnemann line continues with his son, Charles.

Writings

Hahnemann wrote a number of books, essays, and letters on the homeopathic method, chemistry, and general medicine:

See also

Notes

  1. Though some sources do state that he was born in the early hours of 11 April 1755, Haehl, Richard (1922). Samuel Hahnemann his Life and Works. Vol. 1. p. 9. Hahnemann, was born on 10 April at approximately twelve o'clock midnight.
  2. Ladyman J (2013). "Chapter 3: Towards a Demarcation of Science from Pseudoscience". In Pigliucci M, Boudry M (eds.). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. University of Chicago Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-0-226-05196-3. Yet homeopathy is a paradigmatic example of pseudoscience. It is neither simply bad science nor science fraud, but rather profoundly departs from scientific method and theories while being described as scientific by some of its adherents (often sincerely).
  3. Brief History of Life of Samuel Hahnemann, The Father of Homoeopathy. Homoeoscan.com. 10 April 2014
  4. Coulter, Harris Livermore (1977). Divided Legacy, a History of the Schism in Medical Thought. Vol. II. Washington: Wehawken Books. p. 306. ISBN 0-916386-02-3. OCLC 67493911.
  5. ^ "Hahnemann Biography". Retrieved 13 January 2009.
  6. Martin Kaufman (1972). Homeopathy in America, the Rise and Fall of a Medical Heresy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-8018-1238-0. OCLC 264319.
  7. Kuzniar, Alice A. (2017). The Birth of Homeopathy out of the Spirit of Romanticism. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1487521264.
  8. Austria-Forum (biography)
  9. Haehl, vol. 1, p. 24.
  10. Cook, p. 36.
  11. Richard Haehl (1922). Samuel Hahnemann His Life and Work. Vol. 2. London: Homoeopathic Publishing. p. 11. OCLC 14558215.
  12. Haehl, vol. 1, p. 26.
  13. Bradford, pp. 515–16.
  14. Cook, pp. 83–4,
  15. Cook, p. 168.
  16. Haehl, vol. 1, p.38; Dudgeon, p.48
  17. Gumpert, Martin (1945) Hahnemann: The Adventurous Career of a Medical Rebel, New York: Fischer, p. 130.
  18. Dudgeon, pp.xxi–xxii; Cook, p.95
  19. Dudgeon, p.49 & p.176; Haehl, vol. 1, p.40
  20. Cook, pp.96–7; Dudgeon, pp.338–340 & pp.394–408
  21. Sixth Organon book review Archived 21 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Minimum.com. Retrieved on 16 May 2012.
  22. Dudgeon, R. E. (1853) Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Homeopathy, London: Henry Turner, p. xxxi.
  23. Hahnemann S (1803): On the Effects of Coffee from Original Observations, in Hahnemann S., Dudgeon R. E. (ed) (1852): The Lesser Writings of Samuel Hahnemann. New York: William Radde, p. 391.
  24. Morrell, P. (1996): On Hahnemann's coffee theory, www.homeoint.org
  25. Bradford, p. 76.
  26. Bradford, p. 93.
  27. Haehl, Vol. 2, p. 96.
  28. Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis, sive in sano corpore humano observatis (in Latin). Typis observatoris medici. 1824. OCLC 14852975.
  29. Übersetzung der 'Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum' von Marion Wettemann (PDF) (in German). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2008.
  30. "Fragmenta de viribus" and "Materia Medica Pura" full-text in French. Homeoint.org. Retrieved on 16 May 2012.
  31. Online etext of Hahnemann's Organon der Heilkunst.
  32. Organon of Homeopathy, 6th version Archived 29 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine English version, full text online; German original (other format); English translation Archived 13 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Homeopathyhome.com. Retrieved on 16 May 2012.
  33. Bradford, TL. "The Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Hahnemann". HOMÉOPATHE INTERNATIONAL. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  34. Rothstein, William G. (1992). American physicians in the nineteenth century: from sects to science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-8018-4427-0.
  35. Hahnemann, Samuel (1792). The Friend of Health.
  36. Hahnemann, Samuel (1831). "Appeal to thinking philanthropist respecting the mode of propagation of the Asiatic choler". The lesser writings of Samuel Hahnemann. William Radde. pp. 753–763. OCLC 3440881.
  37. Hahnemann, Samuel (1796). "Description of Klockenbring During his Insanity". The lesser writings of Samuel Hahnemann. William Radde. OCLC 3440881.
  38. John Henry Clarke (1894). Homoeopathy: all about it; or, The principle of cure. London: Homoeopathic Publishing. OCLC 29160937.
  39. Haehl, Vol. 1, p. 34.

References

  • Bradford, Thomas Lindsley (1999) . The Life and Letters of Samuel Hahnemann. Philadelphia: Boericke & Tafel. OCLC 1489955.
  • Cook, Trevor (1981). Samuel Hahnemann Founder of Homeopathy. Wellingborough, Northamptonshire: Thorsons. ISBN 0-7225-0689-9.
  • Haehl, Richard; Wheeler, Marie L. (tr.) and Grundy, W.H.R. (tr.) (1922). John Henry Clarke, Francis James Wheeler (ed.). Samuel Hahnemann his Life and Work. Vol. 1. London: Homoeopathic Publishing. OCLC 222833661.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), reprinted as ISBN 81-7021-693-1

Further reading

  • Brockmeyer, Bettina (2007). "Representations of illness in letters addressed to Samuel Hahnemann: gender and historical perspectives". Medizin, Gesellschaft, und Geschichte: Jahrbuch des Instituts für Geschichte der Medizin der Robert Bosch Stiftung (in German). 29: 211–221, 259. PMID 18354994.
  • Kayne, Steven (2006). "Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843): the founder of modern homeopathy". Pharmaceutical Historian. 36 (2 Suppl): S23–6. PMID 17153748.
  • Brockmeyer, Bettina (2005). "Writing about oneself and others: men and women in letters to doctor Samuel Hahnemann 1831–1835". Würzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen / Im Auftrage der Würzburger medizinhistorischen Gesellschaft und in Verbindung mit dem Institut für Geschichte der Medizin der Universität Würzburg (in German). 24: 18–28. PMID 17153289.
  • "Biographic synopsis on Samuel Hahnemann". Revista de enfermería (Barcelona, Spain) (in Spanish). 28 (3): 10–16. 2005. PMID 15871338.
  • Eschenbruch, Nicholas (2005). "Rationalist, magician, scharlatan? Samuel Hahnemann and homeopathy from the viewpoint of homeopathy". Schweiz. Rundsch. Med. Prax. (in German). 94 (11): 443–446. PMID 15822443.
  • Jutte, R. (1999). ""Thus it passes from the patient's purse into that of the doctor without causing displeasure" – Samuel Hahnemann and medical fees". Medizin, Gesellschaft, und Geschichte: Jahrbuch des Instituts für Geschichte der Medizin der Robert Bosch Stiftung (in German). 18: 149–167. PMID 11624613.
  • de Goeij, C. M. (1994). "Samuel Hahnemann: an indignant systems builder". Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde (in Dutch). 138 (6): 310–314. PMID 8121514.
  • Rizza, E. (1994). "Samuel Hahnemann: a mystical empiricist. A study of the origin and development of the homeopathic medical system". Medicina Nei Secoli (in Italian). 6 (3): 515–524. PMID 11620590.
  • Meissner, M. (1992). "Samuel Hahnemann—the originator of homeopathic medicine". Krankenpflege Journal. 30 (7–8): 364–366. PMID 1405462.
  • Schmidt, J. M. (1988). "The publications of Samuel Hahnemann". Sudhoffs Archiv. 72 (1): 14–36. PMID 2970128.
  • Lozowski, J. (1982). "Homeopathy (Samuel Hahnemann)". Pielȩgniarka I Połozna (in Polish) (4–5): 16–17. PMID 6750668.
  • Habacher, M. (1980). "Homöopathische Fernbehandlung durch Samuel Hahnemann". Medizinhistorisches Journal (in German). 15 (4): 385–391. PMID 11610925.
  • Antall, J.; Kapronczay, K. (1973). "Samuel Hahnemann". Orvosi Hetilap. 114 (32): 1945–1947. PMID 4581537.
  • Hodges, P. C. (1964). "Homeopathy and Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann". Postgraduate Medicine. 35: 666–668. doi:10.1080/00325481.1964.11695164. PMID 14143315.
  • Dietrich, H. J. (1958). "Hahnemann's capacity for greatness; Samuel Hahnemann; and Hahnemann Medical College". The Hahnemannian. 93 (2): 35–39. PMID 13562700.
  • Koch, E. (1955). "On the 200th anniversary of Dr. Samuel Hahnemann; several ideas concerning homeopathy". Das Deutsche Gesundheitswesen (in German). 10 (16): 585–590. PMID 14379841.
  • Auster, F. (1955). "200th Anniversary of the birth of Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, born April 10, 1755". Pharmazeutische Zentralhalle für Deutschland (in German). 94 (4): 124–128. PMID 14384489.

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