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{{more citations needed|date=October 2019}}
'''] grammar''' has many ], with ]es and ]es added to roots to express ]s and to form words. '''] grammar''' has many ], with ]es and ]es added to roots to express ]s and to form words.


== Split-Ergative System == == Split-ergative system ==
Among all modern Iranian languages, only ] and Kurdish are ], with respect to both case-marking and verb-agreement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ergative-construction|title = Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> There are general descriptions of ergativity in Kurdish,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kurdishacademy.org/sites/default/files/KurdAlignment_0.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129135720/http://kurdishacademy.org/sites/default/files/KurdAlignment_0.pdf |archive-date=2013-01-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Theodora Bynon. 1979. The Ergative Construction in Kurdish. ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 211-224. Among all modern Iranian languages, only ] and Kurdish are ], with respect to both case-marking and verb-agreement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ergative-construction|title = Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> There are general descriptions of ergativity in Kurdish,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kurdishacademy.org/sites/default/files/KurdAlignment_0.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129135720/http://kurdishacademy.org/sites/default/files/KurdAlignment_0.pdf |archive-date=2013-01-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Theodora Bynon. 1979. The Ergative Construction in Kurdish. ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 211–224.
</ref> as well as in specific forms of Kurdish, such as Sorani <ref>John Haiman. Ergativity in Sorani Kurdish. ''Essais de typologie et de linguistique générale : mélanges offerts à Denis Creissels''. Ed. Franck Florici et al. Lyon: ENS Editions, 2010. 243-250</ref> and Kurmanjî.<ref></ref> </ref> as well as in specific forms of Kurdish, such as Sorani <ref>John Haiman. Ergativity in Sorani Kurdish. ''Essais de typologie et de linguistique générale : mélanges offerts à Denis Creissels''. Ed. Franck Florici et al. Lyon: ENS Editions, 2010. 243–250</ref> and Kurmanji.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/uhlcs/LENCA/LENCA-2/information/datei/14-haig.pdf |title=Abstract on origins of ergativity |access-date=2013-07-30 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052711/http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/uhlcs/LENCA/LENCA-2/information/datei/14-haig.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>


Sorani Kurdish has a ] system. Transitive verbs show nominative/accusative marking in the present tense, and ergative marking in the past tense.<ref name="Friend, Robyn C 1985">Friend, Robyn C. 1985. Some Syntactic and Morphological Features of Suleimaniye Kurdish. Ann Arbor: UMI. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles; 240pp.)</ref> Kurmanji and Sorani Kurdish have a ] system. Transitive verbs show nominative/accusative marking in the present tense, and ergative marking in the past tense.<ref name="Friend, Robyn C 1985">Friend, Robyn C. 1985. Some Syntactic and Morphological Features of Suleimaniye Kurdish. Ann Arbor: UMI. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles; 240pp.)</ref>


==Nouns== ==Nouns==

=== Summary ===

*A Kurdish noun in the absolute state, in other words without any ending of any kind, gives a generic sense of the noun.
* It is also the ] of the noun, i.e. the form in which a noun is given in a vocabulary list or dictionary.
* Nouns in Kurmanji are declined in four cases: ], ], ] (or ezafe) and ]. The distinction of nominative and oblique doesn't exist in Sorani.
* Nouns in Sorani can be simple or compound.
* Any unmodified noun in Kurdish may be generic, i.e., it can refer to one or more than one items. Plural is not obligatory when more than one item are implied.
* For most in Sorani nouns the plural is formed through adding a suffix, some are formed through irregular endings. For Kurmanji, nominative plural is marked by verbs.
* Kurmanji has a ] number for a few of something, represented by the infix ''-in-''.
* There are 3 grammatical genders in Kurmanji: feminine, masculine and neuter. Sorani has no grammatical gender. Languages like Zazaki and Hawramani have likewise 3 grammatical genders.
* In Kurmanji, as in many other Indo-European languages, the assignment of noun genders often seems arbitrary and must be memorized by word. However, all nouns derived from infinitives, names of settlements (including countries), nouns being female by nature, and nouns ending in ''-î'' are always feminine. These genders also have distinct case endings.
* Definiteness is not formally marked in Kurmanji. In Sorani nouns may be marked with a definite marker (-aka) or an indefinite marker (-ēk).
* Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in number and case.
* Personal pronouns are marked for number and person (1st, 2nd, 3rd). They can be free-standing or take the form of clitics. Free-standing forms are used for emphasis.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
Kurmanji
|-
|-
! !! Sing. M. !! Sing. F !! Pauc. !! Plur.
|-
! Oblique
| ''-î'' || ''-ê'' || ''-inan'' || ''-an''
|-
!Construct
| ''-ê'' || ''-a'' || ''-inên/inêt'' || ''-ên/êt''
|-
! Vocative
| ''-o'' || ''-ê'' || ''-inno/inine'' || ''-no/ine''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Sorani
!
!Sing.
!Plur.
|-
!Indefinite
| ''-êk-''
|
|-
!Definite
| ''-eke-''
| ''-ekan''
|}


=== Possession === === Possession ===
Line 68: Line 20:
=== Pronouns in various Kurdish languages and other languages for comparison === === Pronouns in various Kurdish languages and other languages for comparison ===
{| class="wikitable" {| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
!
!Central Kurdish<ref name=":42">Thackston, W. M.: http://fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Sorani/ - Sorani Kurdish. Iranian Studies at Harvard University. 2006. (Page 27)</ref> !Central Kurdish<ref name=":42">Thackston, W. M.: http://fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Sorani/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510084402/http://fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Sorani/ |date=2015-05-10 }} – Sorani Kurdish. Iranian Studies at Harvard University. 2006. (Page 27)</ref>
!Southern Kurdish<ref>Celîliyan, ʻEbasî: Ferhengî başûr: Kurdî-Kurdî-Farisî. 2004. (Page 26, 80, 85, 86, 706)</ref> !Southern Kurdish<ref>Celîliyan, ʻEbasî: Ferhengî başûr: Kurdî-Kurdî-Farisî. 2004. (Page 26, 80, 85, 86, 706)</ref>
! style="background:#F4F4F4" |Modern Persian{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}
!Kurmanji<ref name="Windfuhr, Gernot 20092">Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ernest N. McCarus'un makalesi. (Page 629)</ref> !Kurmanji<ref name="Windfuhr, Gernot 20092">Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ernest N. McCarus'un makalesi. (Page 629)</ref>
!Gorani<ref>http://www.royalacademy.dk/Publications/High/737_MacKenzie,%20D.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> !Gorani<ref>http://www.royalacademy.dk/Publications/High/737_MacKenzie,%20D.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
! style="background:#F4F4F4" |Zazaki<ref name="ReferenceA2">Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ludwig Paul. (page 551)</ref> ! style="background:#F4F4F4" |Zazaki<ref name="ReferenceA2">Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ludwig Paul. (page 551)</ref>
! style="background:#F4F4F4" |Talysh<ref>Aboszodə, Müəllifi-Fəxrəddin: Talıçca-Türkçe Luğət. 55 min kelimə. Bakı. 2011. Yeniden neşri. Bakü. 2015. (page 24, 210, 211, 214, 441, 501)</ref><ref name="Wolfgang, Schulze 20002">Wolfgang, Schulze: Northern Talysh. Lincom Europa. 2000. (Sayfa 35)</ref> ! style="background:#F4F4F4" |Talysh<ref>Aboszodə, Müəllifi-Fəxrəddin: Talıçca-Türkçe Luğət. 55 min kelimə. Bakı. 2011. Yeniden neşri. Bakü. 2015. (page 24, 210, 211, 214, 441, 501)</ref><ref name="Wolfgang, Schulze 20002">Wolfgang, Schulze: Northern Talysh. Lincom Europa. 2000. (Sayfa 35)</ref>
!]<ref>Bartholomae, Christian: Altiranisches Wörterbuch, Strassburg. K. J. Trübner. 1904. (page 225, 295, 660, 1303, 1718, 1844)</ref> !]<ref>Bartholomae, Christian: Altiranisches Wörterbuch, Strassburg. K. J. Trübner. 1904. (page 225, 295, 660, 1303, 1718, 1844)</ref>
!Parthian<ref name=":12">{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7au4-y3Q-AC&q=parthian+personal+pronouns&pg=PA208 |title = The Iranian Languages|isbn = 9781135797034|last1 = Windfuhr|first1 = Gernot|date = 13 May 2013}}</ref> !Parthian<ref name=":12">{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7au4-y3Q-AC&q=parthian+personal+pronouns&pg=PA208 |title = The Iranian Languages|isbn = 9781135797034|last1 = Windfuhr|first1 = Gernot|date = 13 May 2013| publisher=Routledge }}</ref>
!Middle Persian<ref name=":12" /> !Middle Persian<ref name=":12" />
|- bgcolor="#c0f0f0" |- bgcolor="#c0f0f0"
| |
| colspan="3" |<div align="center">no distinction of nominative and oblique</div> | colspan="2" |<div align="center">no distinction of nominative and oblique</div>
| colspan="7" |<div align="center">nominative</div> | colspan="6" |<div align="center">nominative</div>
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br />person
|
1. person singular ! singular
|min | min
| min
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |min
|man | ez
| min
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ez
|min | ez
| az
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ez
| azəm
|az
| az
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |azəm
|az | an
|an
|- |-
! plural
|2. person singular
| ême
|to
| îme
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ti
|to | em
| ême
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |tu, ti
|to | ma
| əmə
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ti
| ahma- (accusative)
|tı
| amāh
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |tvəm
| amāh
|tu
|to
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd<br />person
|3. person singular
! singular
|ew
| to
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ew
|ū, ān | ti
| tu, ti
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ew
| to
|ad (masculine), ade (feminine)
| ti
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |o (masculine), a (feminine)
| tı
|əv
| tvəm
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |hva- (masculine)
| tu
hā (feminine)
|ho | to
|oy
|- |-
|1. person plural ! plural
| êwe
|ême
| îwe
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |îme
| hûn
|mā
| şime
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |em
| şima
|ême
| şımə
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ma
| yūšma- (accusative)
|əmə
| aşmāh
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ahma- (accusative)
| aşmāh
|amāh
|amāh
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd<br />person
|2. person plural
! singular
|êwe
| ew
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |îwe
| ew
|şomā
| ew
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |hûn
| ad (masculine)<br />ade (feminine)
|şime
| o (masculine)<br />a (feminine)
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |şima
| əv
|şımə
| hva- (masculine)<br />hā (feminine)
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |yūšma- (accusative)
| ho
|aşmāh
| oy
|aşmāh
|- |-
|3. person plural ! plural
|ewane | ewane
| ewane
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ewane
| ew / ewana
|işān, inhā
| adê
|ew / ewana
| ê
|adê
| əvon
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ê
| ?
|əvon
| hawin
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |?
| oy
|hawin
|oy
|} |}

'''Oblique'''
{| class="wikitable" {| class="wikitable"
|+ Oblique
!Kurmanji<ref name="Windfuhr, Gernot 2009">Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ernest N. McCarus. (page 629)</ref> !Kurmanji<ref name="Windfuhr, Gernot 2009">Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ernest N. McCarus. (page 629)</ref>
!Zazaki <ref name="ReferenceA">Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ludwig Paul'un makalesi. (page 551)</ref> !Zazaki <ref name="ReferenceA">Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ludwig Paul'un makalesi. (page 551)</ref>
Line 190: Line 137:
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |ay | style="background:#F4F4F4" |ay
|ho |ho
| - | –
|<center>-</center> |{{center|-}}
|- |-
| style="background:#F4F4F4" |me | style="background:#F4F4F4" |me
Line 211: Line 158:
|əvoni |əvoni
|} |}

== Adjectives ==
In Sorani, adjectives follow the head noun and may be joined by 'ezafe' or an open compound structure. The following example shows the Ezafe construction:

pyāw-ī  čak = a good fellow (''Lit: man of good'')

==Demonstrative==
Demonstrative pronouns when followed by postpositions (attached to the nouns) become demonstrative adjectives.

{|class=wikitable
! Case !!colspan=1| NOM. SING. !!colspan=1| NOM. PLUR. !!colspan=2| OBL. SING. !!colspan= 1| OBL. PLUR.
|-
|''Distance'' ||||||MASC. || FEM.||
|-
| '''near''' || ev ... han|| ev ... ana || vî ... î || vê ... ê || van ... an
|-
| '''far''' || ew ... han || ew ... ana|| wî ... î ||wê ... ê|| wan ... an
|-
|}

As demonstrative adjectives, Sorani Kurdish does not use OBL forms (though for demonstrative pronouns it does use OBL. plural forms); neither Kurmanji uses nominative plural forms.

==Prepositions and postpositions==

{{Empty section|date=March 2022}}


==Verbs== ==Verbs==
Line 244: Line 166:
* Verbs have two stems: present and past. * Verbs have two stems: present and past.
* Present stems can be simple or secondary. * Present stems can be simple or secondary.
* Simple tenses are formed by the addition of personal endings to the two stems. * Simple tenses are formed by the addition of personal endings wo stems.
* Secondary stems consist of a root + suffixes that indicate transitivity, intransitivity, and causativity. * Secondary stems consist of a root + suffixes that indicate transitivity, intransitivity, and causativity.
* There are 3 tenses: present, past, and future. * There are 3 tenses: present, past, and future.
Line 259: Line 181:
! Past participle ! Past participle
| |
* Ends in ''-î'' when the stem ends in consonants or ''-î'' (''hatín'' → ''hát'''î''''' "come"). * Ends in ''-î'' when the stem ends in consonants or ''-î'' (''hatin'' → ''hat'''î''''' "come").
* Ends in ''-yî'' when the stem ends in ''-a'' or ''-û'' (''mán'' → ''má'''yî''''' "remained"). * Ends in ''-yî'' when the stem ends in ''-a'' or ''-û'' (''mán'' → ''má'''yî''''' "remained").
|} |}


=== Present and future === == See also ==
* ]
{| class="wikitable"
* ]
|+ Present endings
* ]
! rowspan="2" |
{{Portal|Kurdistan|Languages}}
! colspan="2" | Consonantic
! colspan="2" | Vocalic
|-
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1st
| ''-im''
| rowspan="3" | ''-in''
| ''-m''
| rowspan="3" | ''-n''
|-
! 2nd
| ''-î''
| ''-yî''
|-
! 3rd
| ''-i''
| ''-∅''
|}
* In the indicative present, augments ''dí-'' and ''ná-'' are used to make positive and negative forms, respectively (''zanî́n'' → '''''dí'''zanim'' "I know", '''''ná'''zanim'' "I don't know").
** However, when the stem begins with ''a-'' or ''ê-'', ''dí-'' drops its last vowel and becomes ''d-'' instead (''axaftín'' → '''''d'''áxavim'' "I speak"), but such forms also coexist with the non-dropping variant ''dí-'' ('''''dí'''axavim'').
* In the subjunctive present, augments ''bí-'' and ''né-'' is used to make positive and negative forms, respectively (''zanî́n'' → '''''bí'''zanim'' "should I know"), but unlike the ''dí'' augment, this augment does not lost its last vowel except in some dialects.
** The augment ''bí-'' is optional for compound verbs. The negative augment ''né-'' is also exceptional because it attaches to the verbal parts of the compound (''hildán'' → ''hil'''né'''dim'' "should I not lift", not ''*néhildim'').
* The present stem (placed to both indicative and subjunctive presents) are usually regular and it takes from the verb's stem, except for some common verbs where it completely irregular and it must learned as a ] of a verb (''xwestín'' : present '''''xwéz'''im'' "to want", ''dîtin'' : '''''bîn'''im'' "to see").
** The present stem of verbs with infinitive in ''-andin'', however, end in ''-în''.
* The future tense are formed ] by adding ''dê'' or ''-ê'' after the nouns or personal pronouns and before the verb. The ending ''-ê'' may cause contraction to the pronouns (''tu'' + ''-ê'' → ''tê'', ''tû ê'', ''tiwê''; ''ew'' + ''-ê'' → ''ewê'', ''wê'').

Present tenses for the verb ''zanîn'' ("to know"):
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" | Positive
! colspan="2" | Negative
|-
! Person
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! colspan="5" | Indicative present
|-
! 1st
| ''dízanim''
| rowspan="3" | ''dízanin''
| ''názanim''
| rowspan="3" | ''názanin''
|-
! 2nd
| ''dízanî''
| ''názanî''
|-
! 3rd
| ''dízane''
| ''názane''
|-
! colspan="5" | Subjunctive present
|-
! 1st
| ''bízanim''
| rowspan="3" | ''bízanin''
| ''nézanim''
| rowspan="3" | ''nézanin''
|-
! 2nd
| ''bízanî''
| ''nézanî''
|-
! 3rd
| ''bízane''
| ''nézane''
|}

=== Past ===
==== Intransitive verbs ====
{| class="wikitable"
! Past
|
* Personal endings are similar to the ] ones, except it always employs infinitive stems (''hatín'' → '''''hát'''im'' "I came") and do not use any augments as it does in present tenses.
* Negatives are formed by ''né-'' (''hatín'' → '''''né'''hatim'' "I don't came").
|-
! Past habitual
|
* Positive forms are formed by adding augment ''dí-'' to the past, and it is almost similar to that of present tense (''hatín'' → '''''dí'''hatim'' "I was coming").
* Negative forms are formed by adding augment ''né-'' directly to the its positive counterparts instead of the stem (''hatín'' → '''''né'''dihatim'' "I was not coming", not ''*néhatim'').
|}

Past tenses for intransitive verb of ''hatin'' (to come).
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
!Person!! 1st !! 2nd || 3rd ||Plural
|-
! !!colspan=4| Intransitive past
|-
!Simple past
| hatim||hatî||hat || hatin
|-
!Imperfective preterite
|dihatim||dihatî||dihat||dihatin
|-
!Perfect
|hatime||hatiyî||hatiye||hatine
|-
!Pluperfect
| hatibûm||hatibûy(î)||hatibû||hatibûn
|-
!Subjunctive preterite
|hatibim||hatibî||hatibe||hatibin
|-
!Past Conditional
|hatibama||hatibay(î)||hatiba||hatibana
|}

If a past transitive verb accepts a nominative personal suffix, it agrees with the object of the sentence.
Transitive past verbs in Sorani have OBL connected/dependent(not independent) personal pronouns on the object, if object is not mentioned they are on prefix or first part of the verb if the verb was compound, if there were not any prefix so they will be on the same place as th NOM ones.
OBL connected pronouns: -m, -t, -y, -man, -tan, -yan.

==Word order==
The normal word order in Kurdish is Subject-Object-Verb (S-O-V). Modifiers follow the nouns they modify.

==See also==
*]

==Notes== ==Notes==
<references/> <references/>

Latest revision as of 23:40, 19 December 2024

Kurdish grammar has many inflections, with prefixes and suffixes added to roots to express grammatical relations and to form words.

Split-ergative system

Among all modern Iranian languages, only Yaghnobi and Kurdish are ergative, with respect to both case-marking and verb-agreement. There are general descriptions of ergativity in Kurdish, as well as in specific forms of Kurdish, such as Sorani and Kurmanji.

Kurmanji and Sorani Kurdish have a split-ergative system. Transitive verbs show nominative/accusative marking in the present tense, and ergative marking in the past tense.

Nouns

Possession

Ezafe is used with nouns to indicate possession. Ezafe (-y) joins the possessive noun with its possessed noun

jēgā-y pāsā = the king's place (Lit: place of king)

Ezafe is also used alongside pronouns to show possession. Ezafe (-y) joins the possessor pronoun with its possessed noun.

jēgā-y min = my place (Lit: place of me)

Pronouns in various Kurdish languages and other languages for comparison

Central Kurdish Southern Kurdish Kurmanji Gorani Zazaki Talysh Avestan Parthian Middle Persian
no distinction of nominative and oblique nominative
1st
person 		singular min min ez min ez az azəm az an
plural ême îme em ême ma əmə ahma- (accusative) amāh amāh
2nd
person 		singular to ti tu, ti to ti tı tvəm tu to
plural êwe îwe hûn şime şima şımə yūšma- (accusative) aşmāh aşmāh
3rd
person 		singular ew ew ew ad (masculine)
ade (feminine) 		o (masculine)
a (feminine) 		əv hva- (masculine)
hā (feminine) 		ho oy
plural ewane ewane ew / ewana adê ê əvon ? hawin oy
Oblique
Kurmanji Zazaki Parthian Middle Persian Talysh
Oblique accusative
min mi(n) man man mıni
te to to to tıni
wî ey ho oy əvi
wê ay ho – -
me ma amāh amāh əməni
we şıma aşmāh aşmāh şıməni
wan inan hawin awêşān əvoni

Verbs

Because the stress is distinctive in Kurdish, the acute diacritics (á) are used to denote the stressed syllables (normally not used in Kurdish) (Thackston 2006a).

General description

Kurdish verbs agree with their subjects in person and number. They have the following major characteristics:

  • Verbs have two stems: present and past.
  • Present stems can be simple or secondary.
  • Simple tenses are formed by the addition of personal endings wo stems.
  • Secondary stems consist of a root + suffixes that indicate transitivity, intransitivity, and causativity.
  • There are 3 tenses: present, past, and future.
  • There are 2 voices: active and passive.
  • There are 2 aspects: imperfective and perfective. Aspect is as important as tense.
  • There are 4 moods: indicative, conditional, imperative, and potential.
  • Past tense transitive sentences are formed as ergative constructions, i.e., transitive verbs in the past tense agree with the object rather than the subject of the sentence.

Non-finite endings

Infinitive Ends in -ín (consonant stems), -î́n (î-stems), -án (a-stems), or -û́n (û-stems).
Past participle
  • Ends in -î when the stem ends in consonants or -î (hatin → hatî "come").
  • Ends in -yî when the stem ends in -a or -û (mán → máyî "remained").

See also

Notes

  1. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".
  2. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-29. Retrieved 2013-07-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  3. Theodora Bynon. 1979. The Ergative Construction in Kurdish. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 211–224.
  4. John Haiman. Ergativity in Sorani Kurdish. Essais de typologie et de linguistique générale : mélanges offerts à Denis Creissels. Ed. Franck Florici et al. Lyon: ENS Editions, 2010. 243–250
  5. "Abstract on origins of ergativity" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
  6. ^ Friend, Robyn C. 1985. Some Syntactic and Morphological Features of Suleimaniye Kurdish. Ann Arbor: UMI. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles; 240pp.)
  7. Thackston, W. M.: http://fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Sorani/ Archived 2015-05-10 at the Wayback Machine – Sorani Kurdish. Iranian Studies at Harvard University. 2006. (Page 27)
  8. Celîliyan, ʻEbasî: Ferhengî başûr: Kurdî-Kurdî-Farisî. 2004. (Page 26, 80, 85, 86, 706)
  9. Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ernest N. McCarus'un makalesi. (Page 629)
  10. http://www.royalacademy.dk/Publications/High/737_MacKenzie,%20D.pdf
  11. Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ludwig Paul. (page 551)
  12. Aboszodə, Müəllifi-Fəxrəddin: Talıçca-Türkçe Luğət. 55 min kelimə. Bakı. 2011. Yeniden neşri. Bakü. 2015. (page 24, 210, 211, 214, 441, 501)
  13. ^ Wolfgang, Schulze: Northern Talysh. Lincom Europa. 2000. (Sayfa 35)
  14. Bartholomae, Christian: Altiranisches Wörterbuch, Strassburg. K. J. Trübner. 1904. (page 225, 295, 660, 1303, 1718, 1844)
  15. ^ Windfuhr, Gernot (13 May 2013). The Iranian Languages. Routledge. ISBN 9781135797034.
  16. Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ernest N. McCarus. (page 629)
  17. Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian languages. Routledge Language Family Series. 2009. Ludwig Paul'un makalesi. (page 551)
  18. Aboszodə, Müəllifi-Fəxrəddin: Talıçca-Türkçe Luğət. 55 min kelimə. Bakı. 2011. Yeniden neşri. Bakü. 2015.

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