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{{Short description|Text with references (links) to other text that the reader can immediately access}} | |||
{{Cleanup|November 2006}} | |||
{{for|the concept in semiotics|Hypertext (semiotics)}} | |||
In ], '''hypertext''' is a ] ] for displaying ]s which, according to an early definition (Nelson 1970), "branch or perform on request." Hypertext is a way of organizing material that attempts to overcome the inherent limitations of traditional text and in particular its linearity. The prefix '''hyper-''' (] term for over or beyond) signifies the overcoming of such constraints. The most frequently discussed form of hypertext document contains automated ]s to other documents called ]s. Selecting a hyperlink causes the computer to load and display the linked document. | |||
]s]] | |||
A document can be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamically generated (in response to user ]). Therefore, a well-constructed hypertext system can encompass, incorporate or supersede many other user interface paradigms like menus and command lines, and can be used to access both static collections of cross-referenced documents and interactive ]. The documents and applications can be local or can come from anywhere with the assistance of a ] like the ]. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the ]. | |||
{{InfoMaps}} | |||
The term "hypertext" is often used where the term ] might seem appropriate; the two have always been synonymous but "hypertext" is grammatically simpler. | |||
] wrote "]" in July of 1945 in which he described the ], a theoretical proto-hypertext device which in turn helped inspire the subsequent invention of hypertext.]] | |||
] in 2009, at the 40th anniversary celebrations of "]" in San Francisco, a 90-minute 1968 presentation of the ] which was a combination of hardware and software that demonstrated many hypertext ideas]] | |||
'''Hypertext''' is ] displayed on a ] or other ] with references (]) to other text that the reader can immediately access.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypertext | title=Hypertext | type=definition |publisher=Merriam-webster Free Online Dictionary | access-date= February 26, 2015}}</ref> Hypertext documents are interconnected by ]s, which are typically activated by a ] click, keypress set, or screen touch. Apart from text, the term "hypertext" is also sometimes used to describe tables, images, and other presentational ]s with integrated hyperlinks. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the ],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehman |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Phelps |first2=Shirelle |title=West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 9 | edition=2 |date=2005 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |location=Detroit |isbn=9780787663742 |page=451}}</ref> where ]s are often written in the ] (HTML). As implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the ]. | |||
==Etymology== | |||
{{Blockquote | "(...)'Hypertext' is a recent coinage. 'Hyper-' is used in the mathematical sense of extension and generality (as in 'hyperspace,' 'hypercube') rather than the medical sense of 'excessive' ('hyperactivity'). There is no implication about <u>size</u>— a hypertext could contain only 500 words or so. 'Hyper-' refers to structure and not size." | ], '''', 23 January 1967}} | |||
The English prefix "hyper-" comes from the ] prefix "ὑπερ-" and means "over" or "beyond"; it has a common origin with the prefix "super-" which comes from Latin. It signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text. | |||
The term "hypertext" is often used where the term "]" might seem appropriate. | |||
In 1992, author ] – who coined both terms in 1963 <ref>http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036 Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate</ref><ref name="Rettberg">{{cite web|url=http://elmcip.net/node/7367|title=Complex Information Processing: A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate|publisher=Electronic Literature as a Model of Creativity and Innovation in Practice|first=Jill Walker|last=Rettberg}}</ref>– wrote: | |||
{{Blockquote | By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. | ], '']'', 1992}} | |||
==Types and uses of hypertext== | |||
Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input, such as ]s). Static hypertext can be used to ] collections of data in documents, ], or books on ]. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. ] used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is ], which expands or contracts the content in place, thereby giving more control to the reader in determining the level of detail of the displayed document. Some implementations support ], where text or other content is included by reference and automatically rendered in place. | |||
Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the ], written in the final months of 1990 and released on the ] in 1991. | |||
==History== | ==History== | ||
{{Main|History of hypertext|Timeline of hypertext technology}}{{See also|National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)#Scrapbook}} | |||
Foreshadowing hypertext was a simple ] used in various ] works (], ]s, etc.), consisting of setting a term in small capital letters, as an indication that an entry or article existed for that term (within the same reference work). Sometimes the term would be preceded by a pointing hand ], <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">☞like this</span>, or an ], <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">➧like this</span>. In addition to such manual cross-references, there were experiments with various methods for arranging layers of ]s around a document. The most famous example is the ]. | |||
{{Cyber anthropology|related}} | |||
In 1941, ] published "]", a ] that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext.<ref name="inspiration">{{Citation | chapter-url = http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=317431 | publisher = The Association for Computing Machinery | chapter = Hypertext and creative writing| doi = 10.1145/317426.317431 | title = Proceeding of the ACM conference on Hypertext - HYPERTEXT '87 | year = 1987 | last1 = Bolter | first1 = Jay David | last2 = Joyce | first2 = Michael | pages = 41–50 | isbn = 089791340X | s2cid = 207627394 }}.</ref> | |||
In 1945, ] wrote an article in '']'' called "]", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a ]. A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails. Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in a relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart. | |||
The point of hypertext is to deal with the problem of ]. All of the persons mentioned below were obsessed with the realization that ] is simply drowning in ], so that, too often, decisionmakers keep making foolish decisions and ]s inadvertently duplicate existing work (e.g., the belated rediscovery of ]'s work). | |||
] gives a presentation on ], a theoretical hypertext model conceived in the 1960s whose first and incomplete implementation was first published in 1998.<ref name="wiredwired"/>]] | |||
In the early ], two visionaries attacked the cross-referencing problem through proposals based on ]-intensive ] methods. ] proposed a proto-hypertext concept based on his monographic principle in which all documents would be decomposed down to unique phrases stored on ]s. In the ], ] proposed the creation of a ]. For reasons of cost, neither proposal got very far. | |||
In 1965, ] coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965).<ref>{{Citation | publisher = Vassar | url = http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html | last = Joyce | first = MI | title = Did Ted Nelson first use the word "hypertext" {{sic|nolink=y}}, meaning fast editing" at Vassar College? | access-date = 2011-01-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130324010943/http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html | archive-date = 2013-03-24 | url-status = dead }}</ref> He later worked with ] to develop the ] (text editing) in 1967 at ]. It was implemented using the terminal ] with a ] which was provided as a ].<ref>, 2013, pp.103-106.</ref> By 1976, its successor ] was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community<ref name=barnet>{{Cite journal|last=Barnet|first=Belinda|date=2010-01-01|title=Crafting the User-Centered Document Interface: The Hypertext Editing System (HES) and the File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS) |journal=Digital Humanities Quarterly|url=http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000081/000081.html|volume=4|issue=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026044125/https://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000081/000081.html |archive-date= Oct 26, 2023 }}</ref> which van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.brown.edu/articles/2016/05/hypertext |date= May 23, 2016 |title=Where meter meets mainframe: An early experiment teaching poetry with computers |website=News from Brown |access-date=2016-05-24}}</ref> Ted Nelson said in the 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized, which was named ], but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998.<ref name="wiredwired">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.06/xanadu.html |title=The Curse of Xanadu |author=Gary Wolf |magazine=] |volume=3 |issue=6 |date=June 1995}}</ref> | |||
Therefore, all major ] of hypertext start with ], when ] wrote an article in '']'' called "]," about a futuristic device he called a ]. He described the device as a mechanical desk linked to an extensive archive of ]s and able to display ]s, ]s or any document from the ], and further able to automatically follow references from any given page to the specific page referenced. | |||
] independently began working on his ] system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "]". | |||
Most experts do not consider the Memex to be a true hypertext system. However, the story starts with the Memex because "As We May Think" directly influenced and inspired the two ] men generally credited with the invention of hypertext, ] and ]. | |||
In 1971 a system called ], produced by David Yates and his team at the UK's ], went live. It was an information storage and retrieval system that included what would now be called word processing, e-mail and hypertext. | |||
Nelson coined the words "hypertext" and "hypermedia" in ] and helped ] develop the ] in ] at ]; Engelbart had begun working on his ] system in ] at ], although delays in obtaining funding, personnel and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until ]. That year, Engelbart demonstrated a hypertext interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "]". | |||
], an early hypertext system, was developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s, used for documents on Nimitz class aircraft carriers, and later evolving as ] (Knowledge Management System). | |||
After funding for NLS slowed to a trickle in ], progress on hypertext research nearly came to a halt. During this time, the ] at ] started as an ] research project under the supervision of ]. Only much later would its participants realize that their system was a hypertext system. ZOG was deployed in ] on the ] and later commercialized as ]. | |||
The first hypermedia application |
The first hypermedia application is generally considered to be the ], implemented in 1978. The Movie Map allowed users to arbitrarily choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape, in two seasons (from actual photographs) as well as ]. | ||
In 1980, ] created ], an early hypertext database system somewhat like a ] but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and ] programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the ]. ], the first significant hypertext system for ]s, was developed by Peter J. Brown at the ] in 1982. | |||
In 1980, ],<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |language=it |first1=Andrea |last1=Tornielli |url=http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/documenti/dettaglio-articolo/articolo/web-busa-6893/ |title=Padre Busa, il gesuita che ha inventato l'ipertesto |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229160656/http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/documenti/dettaglio-articolo/articolo/web-busa-6893/ |archive-date=2014-12-29 |publisher=] |website=VaticanInsider |date=2011}}</ref> an Italian ] priest and one of the pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis,<ref>Matthew Zepelin, "", July 5, 2014.</ref> published the '']'', as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of ]'s works.<ref>, ''Corriere del Veneto'', 15. August 2011</ref> Sponsored by the founder of IBM, ],<ref>, '']'', 31 December 1956, 15 August 2011</ref> the project lasted about 30 years (1949–1980), and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the ''Index Thomisticus'' the first important hypertext work about ] books and of a few related authors.<ref>Thomas N. Winter, " Roberto Busa, S.J., and the Invention of the Machine-Generated Condordance", Digital commons, University of Nebraska </ref> | |||
] was the first hypertext system for ]s, but it was not very successful. Guide was quite expensive and difficult to use, as it had originally been developed for ] ]s and was subsequently ported to ]. It was immediately eclipsed by ]. | |||
In 1983, ] at the ] led a group that developed the ] system that was commercialized by ]. They studied many designs before adopting the . Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the ] as a hypertext document and then the first commercial electronic book ''Hypertext Hands-On!''. | |||
In ], ] revealed its ] application for its ] line of computers at the ] in ]. HyperCard was an immediate hit and helped to popularize the concept of hypertext with the general public (although as ] later pointed out, it was technically a hypermedia system because its ]s originated only from regions on the screen). The first hypertext-specific ] also took place that year. | |||
In August 1987, ] released ] for the ] line at the ]. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's ] (marketed by ] and released earlier that year) and Brown University's ], led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) ] took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the branched literature writing software ], were also demonstrated.<ref>Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). ''Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979–1994: A History'' Ablex Publishing, Norwood NJ, p. 213</ref> | |||
Meanwhile, Nelson had been working on and advocating his ] system for over two decades, and the commercial success of HyperCard stirred ] to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project limped on for four years without ever releasing a complete product, before Autodesk pulled the plug in the midst of the ]-] recession. | |||
Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his ] system for over two decades) convinced ] to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released. | |||
In ], ] created ], an early hypertext database system, somewhat like a ]. In the late ], Berners-Lee, then a scientist at ], invented the ] to meet the demand for automatic information sharing between scientists working in different universities and institutes all over the world. Early in ], the ] (NCSA) at the ] released a first version of their ] to replace the two existing, somewhat deficient ]s: one that ran only on ] and one that was minimally ]. Mosaic ran in the ] environment, popular in the research community, and offered usable window-based interaction. It allowed images as well as text to anchor hypertext links, and it incorporated other Internet protocols, including ]. Web traffic exploded from only 500 known web servers in ] to over 10,000 in ] after the release of browser versions for both the PC and Macintosh environments. | |||
In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at ], proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the project "WorldWideWeb".<ref name = "WWW_proposal">{{Citation |url=http://www.w3.org/Proposal.html |title=WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project |publisher=The World Wide Web consortium}}.</ref> | |||
All the earlier hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the ], even though it lacks many features of those earlier systems such as ]s, ] and ]. | |||
{{blockquote | HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many large classes of stored information, such as reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose the implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the requirements for ] needs by experiments... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN<ref name="WWW_proposal" /> }} | |||
In 1992, ] was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet. | |||
As new web browsers were released, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. As a result, all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as integrated browsers/editors (a feature of the original WorldWideWeb browser, which was not carried over into most of the other early Web browsers). | |||
==Implementations== | ==Implementations== | ||
Besides the already mentioned ], ], |
Besides the already mentioned ], ], ], ], and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets: | ||
] Display console – Brown University 1969]] | |||
*] 1970s multi-user successor to the ] | |||
* ] – a 1970s multi-user successor to the ]. | |||
*] used for displaying help in the ] operating systems. | |||
*] |
* ] – a 1970s hypertext system developed at ]. | ||
* ] – an early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer-aided instruction. | |||
*] has evolved in orientation from paper to in-computer documents. | |||
* ] – used to display online help in ] operating systems. | |||
*Adobe's ] supports links. | |||
* ] – a mid-1980s program for group web-authoring and information sharing. | |||
*], the ] help system. | |||
* ] - a mid-1980s program commercially applied to hundreds of projects, including July 1988 ] and Hypertext Hands-On! book. | |||
*] implementations, like the ] system that powers ], that aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers. | |||
* ] – the ] help system. | |||
*] | |||
* ] – a 1980s successor to ] developed as a commercial product. | |||
*] | |||
* ] – a mid-1980s program for hypertext narrative. | |||
*] with the ] extension. | |||
* ] - an hypertext system developed in 1985 at ] for their Genera operating system. | |||
* Adobe's ] – a widely used publication format for electronic documents. | |||
* ] – released on the Commodore ] ] 1990. | |||
* ] – released with Windows 3.0 in 1990. | |||
* ]s – aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers. Various ] have slightly different conventions for formatting, usually simpler than ]. | |||
* ] – a document editor specifically designed for hypertext. Started in 1996 as ] (educational project for ] 1997). | |||
* ] with the ] extension – a newer hypertext markup language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by ]. | |||
==Academic conferences== | ==Academic conferences== | ||
Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ].<ref>{{Citation|publisher=ACM |title=SIGWEB Hypertext Conference |url=http://www.sigweb.org/conferences/ht-cover.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024015626/http://www.sigweb.org/conferences/ht-cover.shtml |archive-date=2008-10-24 }}.</ref> The ] hosts annual conferences discussing ], poetry and other forms of ]. Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by ],<ref>{{Citation | title = IW3C2 | url = http://www.iw3c2.org/}}.</ref> also include many papers of interest. There is a list on the Web with links to all conferences in the series.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.iw3c2.org/conferences/ | contribution = Conferences | title = IW3C2 | access-date = 2005-11-13 | archive-date = 2016-11-10 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161110115003/http://www.iw3c2.org/conferences/ | url-status = dead }}.</ref> | |||
One of the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annually held ] Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia () | |||
Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by , includes many papers of interest. There is a with links to all conferences in the series. | |||
==Hypertext fiction== | ==Hypertext fiction== | ||
{{Main |Hypertext fiction}} | |||
Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of ], or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, '']'' and ], became available in the 1990s. ]'s ''Uncle Roger'' (1986) and ]'s '']'' (1987) are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rettberg |first=Jill Walker |date=2012 |title=Electronic Literature Seen from a Distance: The Beginnings of a Field |url=http://www.dichtung-digital.org/2012/41/walker-rettberg.htm |journal=Dichtung Digital |issue=41 |hdl=1956/6272 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berens |first=K. I. |date=2014-07-30 |title=Judy Malloy's seat at the (database) table: A feminist reception history of early hypertext literature |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqu037 |journal=Literary and Linguistic Computing |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=340–348 |doi=10.1093/llc/fqu037 |issn=0268-1145}}</ref> | |||
An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text. | |||
===Authors=== | |||
*''Storyspace 2.0'', a professional level hypertext development tool, is available from ''Eastgate Systems,'' which has also published many notable works of ], including ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'', and ]'s '']''. | |||
*Other works include ]'s '']'' and ]'s '']''. | |||
*An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally-networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text. | |||
One of the most successful computer games, '']'', was first written in HyperCard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack. The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways, ''Myst'' redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative.<ref>{{cite web| last = Parrish| first = Jeremy| url = http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3134600| title = When SCUMM Ruled the Earth| website = ]| access-date = 2008-05-02| archive-date = 2016-03-03| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213613/http://www.1up.com/features/essential-50-myst| url-status = dead}}</ref> | |||
===Critics and theorists=== | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on. This can also been seen as contributing to a ] fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext ]s), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://biblumliteraria.blogspot.com/2008/07/es-el-hipertexto-una-bendicin-o-un.html | title = ¿Es el hipertexto una bendición o un...? |trans-title=Is hypertext a blessing or a...? |date=Jul 2008 | publisher = Biblum literaria | language = es}}.</ref> However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way.<ref>{{Citation | publisher = U Calgary | place = ] | url = http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~scriptor/papers/arthur.html | title = The Game of Reading an Electronic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight}}.</ref> This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like ] who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift"{{Sfn | Green | 2001 | p = 15}} as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world, and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links. | |||
== See also == | |||
In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works. ]'s ''Cyberflesh Girlmonster'' a hypertext ] that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella ] (2001) is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory. The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for ]) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into the mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post-feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the American psyche. | |||
===Forms=== | |||
{{Original research|section|date=November 2023}} | |||
],'' where windows layer on top of each other]] | |||
There are various forms of hypertext fiction, each of which is structured differently. Below are four: | |||
* '''Axial''' hypertext fiction has the simplest structure. Its hypertext is situated along a linear axis. With a straight path from beginning to end, it is fairly easy for the reader to follow. An example of an axial hypertext fiction is ]. | |||
* '''Arborescent''' hypertext fiction is more complex than the axial form. Its hypertext has a branching structure which resembles a tree, representing one beginning but many possible endings. The branches followed and ultimately the ending reached are determined by choices made by the reader at each branch point in the narrative. This is much like ] novels that allow readers to choose their own ending. | |||
* '''Networked''' hypertext fiction is more complex than both axial and arborescent forms. It consists of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation. Unlike the arborescent form, networked hypertexts do not have any designated beginning or any designated endings. An example of a networked hypertext is ]'s ]. | |||
* '''Layered''' hypertext fiction consist of two layers of linked pages. Each layer is ] sequentially and a page in the top layer is doubly linked with a corresponding page in the bottom layer. The top layer contains plain text, the bottom multimedia layer provides photos, sounds and video. In the Dutch historical novel ''{{Interlanguage link|De man met de hoed|nl}}''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.demanmetdehoed.nl/presentatie/Welkom.html|title=Welkom|website=demanmetdehoed.nl}}</ref> designed as layered hypertext in 2006 by Eisjen Schaaf, Pauline van de Ven, and ], the structure is proposed to enhance the atmosphere of the time, to enrich the text with research and family archive material and to enable readers to insert memories of their own while preserving tension and storyline. | |||
==See also== | |||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] (HyperText Markup Language) | * ] (HyperText Markup Language) | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist |32em}} | |||
==Documentary film== | |||
* {{cite book | last = Bolter | first = Jay David | title = Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print | location= New Jersey | publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-8058-2919-9 }} | |||
* ]: ''Hypertext: an Educational Experiment in English and Computer Science at Brown University.'' Brown University, Providence, RI, U.S. 1974, Run time 15:16, {{IMDb title|qid=Q123563796|title=Hypertext}}, | |||
* {{cite journal | last = Byers | first = T. J. | title = Built by association | journal = PC World | year = April 1987 | volume = 5 | pages = 244-251 }} | |||
* {{cite journal | last = Cicconi| first = Sergio | title = | journal= Mediapolis. Ed. Sam Inkinen. Berlino & New York: De Gruyter. | pages= 21-43 | year = 1999 }} | |||
==Bibliography== | |||
* {{cite journal | last = Crane | first = Gregory | title = Extending the boundaries of instruction and research | journal = T.H.E. Journal (Technological Horizons in Education) | issue = Macintosh Special Issue | year = 1988 | pages = 51-54 }} | |||
* {{Citation | title = Technoculture: From Alphabet to Cybersex | first = Lelia | last = Green | publisher = Allen & Unwin Ep | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-1-86508048-2}}. | |||
* {{cite paper | author = Engelbart, Douglas C. | title = Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework, AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579 |date= 1962 | url = http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html }} | |||
* {{cite book | last = Heim | first = Michael | title = Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing | location= New Haven | publisher=Yale University Press | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-300-07746-7 }} | |||
==Further reading== | |||
* {{cite book | last = Landow | first = George | title = Hypertext 3.0 Critical Theory and New Media in a Era of Globalization: Critical Theory and New Media in a Global Era (Parallax, Re-Visions of Culture and Society) | location= Baltimore | publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 2006 | id = ISBN 0-8018-8257-5 }} | |||
* {{cite journal | last = Engelbart | first = Douglas C | title = Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework | id = AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579 | year = 1962 | url = http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html | access-date = 2011-05-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110504035147/http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html | archive-date = 2011-05-04 | url-status = dead |website=Doug Engelbart Institute }} | |||
* {{cite journal | last = Yankelovich | first = Nicole | coauthors = Landow, George P., and Cody, David | title = Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students | journal = SIGCUE Outlook | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | year = 1987 | pages = All }} | |||
* {{cite conference | last |
* {{cite conference | last= Nelson | first= Theodor H. | title= Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate | book-title=ACM/CSC-ER Proceedings of the 1965 20th national conference |date=September 1965 | url= http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036}} | ||
* {{cite journal | last |
* {{cite journal | last=Nelson | first=Theodor H. | title=No More Teachers' Dirty Looks | journal= ] |date=September 1970 | url= http://www.newmediareader.com/excerpts.html}} | ||
* {{cite conference | |
* {{cite conference | last =Nelson | first = Theodor H | author-mask = 3 | title=A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything | book-title=AFIPS Conference Proceedings | volume = 42 | year=1973 | pages= M22–23}} | ||
* {{cite journal | last1 =Yankelovich | first1 =Nicole | last2 =Landow | first2 = George P | last3 = Cody | first3 = David | title = Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students | journal= SIGCUE Outlook | volume=20 | issue=3 | year=1987}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last = van Dam | first = Andries | title = Hypertext: '87 keynote address | journal = Communications of the ACM | year = July 1988 | volume = 31 | pages = 887-895 | url = http://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Keynote_Address.html }} | |||
* {{cite book | last= Heim | first=Michael | title=Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing | location=New Haven | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | isbn= 978-0-300-07746-9}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=van Dam | first=Andries | title=Hypertext: '87 keynote address | journal = Communications of the ACM |date=July 1988 | volume=31 | pages=887–95 | url= http://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Keynote_Address.html | doi=10.1145/48511.48519 | issue=7| s2cid=489007 | doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{Cite journal | title=Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey | journal=Computer | volume=20 | issue= 9 | pages = 17–41 | last=Conklin | first=J. | year=1987 | doi= 10.1109/MC.1987.1663693| s2cid=9188803 }} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Byers | first=T. J. | title=Built by association | journal=PC World |date=April 1987 | volume=5 | pages= 244–51}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Crane | first=Gregory | title=Extending the boundaries of instruction and research | journal =THE Journal | issue=Macintosh Special Issue | year=1988 | pages = 51–54}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Nelson | first=Theodor H. | title=Literary Machines 93.1 | location= Sausalito, CA | publisher =Mindful Press | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-89347-062-3}} | |||
* {{cite book | last1=Moulthrop | first1=Stuart | last2=Kaplan | first2=Nancy | year=1994 | title=Literacy and computers: The complications of teaching and learning with technology | chapter=They became what they beheld: The futility of resistance in the space of electronic writing | pages=220–237}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Cicconi| first=Sergio | title=Hypertextuality | journal= Mediapolis | publisher = Ed. Sam Inkinen & De Gruyter | place = Berlino & New York | pages=21–43 | year=1999 | doi=10.1515/9783110807059.21 | isbn=978-3-11-016141-0 | url= http://www.cisenet.com/cisenet/writing/essays/hypertextuality.htm}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Bolter | first= Jay David | title= Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print | location=New Jersey | publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates | year=2001 | isbn = 978-0-8058-2919-8}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Landow | first=George | title=Hypertext 3.0 Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization: Critical Theory and New Media in a Global Era (Parallax, Re-Visions of Culture and Society) | location = Baltimore | publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | isbn= 978-0-8018-8257-9}} | |||
* {{cite book | last = Buckland | first= Michael | title= Emanuel Goldberg and His Knowledge Machine | publisher = Libraries Unlimited | year=2006 | isbn= 978-0-313-31332-5}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Ensslin | first=Astrid | title=Canonizing Hypertext: Explorations and Constructions | location =London | publisher=Continuum | year=2007 | isbn= 978-0-8264-9558-7}} | |||
* Barnet, Belinda. (2013) ''Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext'' (Anthem Press; 2013) A technological history of hypertext, | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
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* | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614153026/https://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9212/hype.htm |date=2017-06-14 }} | |||
* (by Sergio Cicconi) | |||
* , whether and how concepts from hypertext research can be used on the Web. | |||
* | |||
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===Hypertext conferences=== | |||
* (for more on hypertext literature) | |||
* , an international conference organized by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. | |||
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* (Texts in English and German). Editor Roberto Simanowski. | |||
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Latest revision as of 19:04, 31 December 2024
Text with references (links) to other text that the reader can immediately access For the concept in semiotics, see Hypertext (semiotics).Information mapping |
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Hypertext is text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can immediately access. Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress set, or screen touch. Apart from text, the term "hypertext" is also sometimes used to describe tables, images, and other presentational content formats with integrated hyperlinks. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, where Web pages are often written in the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). As implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet.
Etymology
"(...)'Hypertext' is a recent coinage. 'Hyper-' is used in the mathematical sense of extension and generality (as in 'hyperspace,' 'hypercube') rather than the medical sense of 'excessive' ('hyperactivity'). There is no implication about size— a hypertext could contain only 500 words or so. 'Hyper-' refers to structure and not size."
— Theodor H. Nelson, Brief Words on the Hypertext, 23 January 1967
The English prefix "hyper-" comes from the Greek prefix "ὑπερ-" and means "over" or "beyond"; it has a common origin with the prefix "super-" which comes from Latin. It signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text.
The term "hypertext" is often used where the term "hypermedia" might seem appropriate.
In 1992, author Ted Nelson – who coined both terms in 1963 – wrote:
By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext.
— Nelson, Literary Machines, 1992
Types and uses of hypertext
Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input, such as dynamic web pages). Static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. Links used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText, which expands or contracts the content in place, thereby giving more control to the reader in determining the level of detail of the displayed document. Some implementations support transclusion, where text or other content is included by reference and automatically rendered in place.
Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, written in the final months of 1990 and released on the Internet in 1991.
History
Main articles: History of hypertext and Timeline of hypertext technologySee also: National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) § ScrapbookPart of a series on |
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In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published "The Garden of Forking Paths", a short story that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext.
In 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called "As We May Think", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex. A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails. Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in a relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart.
In 1965, Ted Nelson coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965). He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System (text editing) in 1967 at Brown University. It was implemented using the terminal IBM 2250 with a light pen which was provided as a pointing device. By 1976, its successor FRESS was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community which van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds". Ted Nelson said in the 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized, which was named Project Xanadu, but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998.
Douglas Engelbart independently began working on his NLS system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "The Mother of All Demos".
In 1971 a system called Scrapbook, produced by David Yates and his team at the UK's National Physical Laboratory, went live. It was an information storage and retrieval system that included what would now be called word processing, e-mail and hypertext.
ZOG, an early hypertext system, was developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s, used for documents on Nimitz class aircraft carriers, and later evolving as KMS (Knowledge Management System).
The first hypermedia application is generally considered to be the Aspen Movie Map, implemented in 1978. The Movie Map allowed users to arbitrarily choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape, in two seasons (from actual photographs) as well as 3-D polygons.
In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the World Wide Web. Guide, the first significant hypertext system for personal computers, was developed by Peter J. Brown at the University of Kent in 1982.
In 1980, Roberto Busa, an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis, published the Index Thomisticus, as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of Aquinas's works. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J. Watson, the project lasted about 30 years (1949–1980), and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the Index Thomisticus the first important hypertext work about Saint Thomas Aquinas books and of a few related authors.
In 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation. They studied many designs before adopting the blue color for links. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document and then the first commercial electronic book Hypertext Hands-On!.
In August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia, led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) academic conference took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the branched literature writing software Storyspace, were also demonstrated.
Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades) convinced Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released.
In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN, proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the project "WorldWideWeb".
HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many large classes of stored information, such as reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose the implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the requirements for information access needs by experiments... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN
In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet.
As new web browsers were released, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. As a result, all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as integrated browsers/editors (a feature of the original WorldWideWeb browser, which was not carried over into most of the other early Web browsers).
Implementations
Besides the already mentioned Project Xanadu, Hypertext Editing System, NLS, HyperCard, and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets:
- FRESS – a 1970s multi-user successor to the Hypertext Editing System.
- ZOG – a 1970s hypertext system developed at Carnegie Mellon University.
- Electronic Document System – an early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer-aided instruction.
- Information Presentation Facility – used to display online help in IBM operating systems.
- Intermedia – a mid-1980s program for group web-authoring and information sharing.
- HyperTies - a mid-1980s program commercially applied to hundreds of projects, including July 1988 Communications of the ACM and Hypertext Hands-On! book.
- Texinfo – the GNU help system.
- KMS – a 1980s successor to ZOG developed as a commercial product.
- Storyspace – a mid-1980s program for hypertext narrative.
- Document Examiner - an hypertext system developed in 1985 at Symbolics for their Genera operating system.
- Adobe's Portable Document Format – a widely used publication format for electronic documents.
- Amigaguide – released on the Commodore Amiga Workbench 1990.
- Windows Help – released with Windows 3.0 in 1990.
- Wikis – aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers. Various wiki software have slightly different conventions for formatting, usually simpler than HTML.
- PaperKiller – a document editor specifically designed for hypertext. Started in 1996 as IPer (educational project for ED-Media 1997).
- XML with the XLink extension – a newer hypertext markup language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by HTML.
Academic conferences
Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media. The Electronic Literature Organization hosts annual conferences discussing hypertext fiction, poetry and other forms of electronic literature. Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by IW3C2, also include many papers of interest. There is a list on the Web with links to all conferences in the series.
Hypertext fiction
Main article: Hypertext fictionHypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of electronic literature, or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, Storyspace and Intermedia, became available in the 1990s. Judy Malloy's Uncle Roger (1986) and Michael Joyce's afternoon, a story (1987) are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction.
An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text.
One of the most successful computer games, Myst, was first written in HyperCard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack. The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways, Myst redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative.
Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on. This can also been seen as contributing to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext Gamebooks), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives. However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way. This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift" as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world, and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links.
In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works. Linda Dement's Cyberflesh Girlmonster a hypertext CD-ROM that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella These Waves of Girls (2001) is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory. The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for Penelope Trunk) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into the mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post-feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the American psyche.
Forms
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There are various forms of hypertext fiction, each of which is structured differently. Below are four:
- Axial hypertext fiction has the simplest structure. Its hypertext is situated along a linear axis. With a straight path from beginning to end, it is fairly easy for the reader to follow. An example of an axial hypertext fiction is The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam.
- Arborescent hypertext fiction is more complex than the axial form. Its hypertext has a branching structure which resembles a tree, representing one beginning but many possible endings. The branches followed and ultimately the ending reached are determined by choices made by the reader at each branch point in the narrative. This is much like gamebook novels that allow readers to choose their own ending.
- Networked hypertext fiction is more complex than both axial and arborescent forms. It consists of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation. Unlike the arborescent form, networked hypertexts do not have any designated beginning or any designated endings. An example of a networked hypertext is Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl.
- Layered hypertext fiction consist of two layers of linked pages. Each layer is doubly linked sequentially and a page in the top layer is doubly linked with a corresponding page in the bottom layer. The top layer contains plain text, the bottom multimedia layer provides photos, sounds and video. In the Dutch historical novel De man met de hoed [nl] designed as layered hypertext in 2006 by Eisjen Schaaf, Pauline van de Ven, and Paul Vitányi, the structure is proposed to enhance the atmosphere of the time, to enrich the text with research and family archive material and to enable readers to insert memories of their own while preserving tension and storyline.
See also
- Timeline of hypertext technology
- Cybertext
- Distributed Data Management Architecture
- HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
- Hyperwords
- HTTP
- Hyperkino
References
- "Hypertext" (definition). Merriam-webster Free Online Dictionary. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
- Lehman, Jeffrey; Phelps, Shirelle (2005). West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 9 (2 ed.). Detroit: Thomson/Gale. p. 451. ISBN 9780787663742.
- http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036 Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate
- Rettberg, Jill Walker. "Complex Information Processing: A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate". Electronic Literature as a Model of Creativity and Innovation in Practice.
- Bolter, Jay David; Joyce, Michael (1987), "Hypertext and creative writing", Proceeding of the ACM conference on Hypertext - HYPERTEXT '87, The Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 41–50, doi:10.1145/317426.317431, ISBN 089791340X, S2CID 207627394.
- ^ Gary Wolf (June 1995). "The Curse of Xanadu". WIRED. Vol. 3, no. 6.
- Joyce, MI, Did Ted Nelson first use the word "hypertext" [sic], meaning fast editing" at Vassar College?, Vassar, archived from the original on 2013-03-24, retrieved 2011-01-03
- Belinda Barnet. Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext, 2013, pp.103-106.
- Barnet, Belinda (2010-01-01). "Crafting the User-Centered Document Interface: The Hypertext Editing System (HES) and the File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS)". Digital Humanities Quarterly. 4 (1). Archived from the original on Oct 26, 2023.
- "Where meter meets mainframe: An early experiment teaching poetry with computers". News from Brown. May 23, 2016. Retrieved 2016-05-24.
- Tornielli, Andrea (2011). "Padre Busa, il gesuita che ha inventato l'ipertesto". VaticanInsider (in Italian). La Stampa. Archived from the original on 2014-12-29.
- Matthew Zepelin, "Computers and the Catholic Mind: Religion, Technology, and Social Criticism in the Postwar United States", July 5, 2014.
- Morto padre Busa, è stato il pioniere dell'informatica linguistica, Corriere del Veneto, 15. August 2011
- "Religion: Sacred Electronics", Time, 31 December 1956, 15 August 2011
- Thomas N. Winter, " Roberto Busa, S.J., and the Invention of the Machine-Generated Condordance", Digital commons, University of Nebraska
- Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979–1994: A History Ablex Publishing, Norwood NJ, p. 213
- ^ WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project, The World Wide Web consortium.
- SIGWEB Hypertext Conference, ACM, archived from the original on 2008-10-24.
- IW3C2.
- "Conferences", IW3C2, archived from the original on 2016-11-10, retrieved 2005-11-13.
- Rettberg, Jill Walker (2012). "Electronic Literature Seen from a Distance: The Beginnings of a Field". Dichtung Digital (41). hdl:1956/6272.
- Berens, K. I. (2014-07-30). "Judy Malloy's seat at the (database) table: A feminist reception history of early hypertext literature". Literary and Linguistic Computing. 29 (3): 340–348. doi:10.1093/llc/fqu037. ISSN 0268-1145.
- Parrish, Jeremy. "When SCUMM Ruled the Earth". 1UP.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
- ¿Es el hipertexto una bendición o un...? [Is hypertext a blessing or a...?] (in Spanish), Biblum literaria, Jul 2008.
- The Game of Reading an Electronic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, CA: U Calgary.
- Green 2001, p. 15.
- "Welkom". demanmetdehoed.nl.
Documentary film
- Andries van Dam: Hypertext: an Educational Experiment in English and Computer Science at Brown University. Brown University, Providence, RI, U.S. 1974, Run time 15:16, Hypertext at IMDb , Full Movie on the Internet Archive
Bibliography
- Green, Lelia (2001), Technoculture: From Alphabet to Cybersex, Allen & Unwin Ep, ISBN 978-1-86508048-2.
Further reading
- Engelbart, Douglas C (1962). "Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework". Doug Engelbart Institute. AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579. Archived from the original on 2011-05-04. Retrieved 2011-05-20.
- Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1965). "Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate". ACM/CSC-ER Proceedings of the 1965 20th national conference.
- Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1970). "No More Teachers' Dirty Looks". Computer Decisions.
- ——— (1973). "A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything". AFIPS Conference Proceedings. Vol. 42. pp. M22–23.
- Yankelovich, Nicole; Landow, George P; Cody, David (1987). "Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students". SIGCUE Outlook. 20 (3).
- Heim, Michael (1987). Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07746-9.
- van Dam, Andries (July 1988). "Hypertext: '87 keynote address". Communications of the ACM. 31 (7): 887–95. doi:10.1145/48511.48519. S2CID 489007.
- Conklin, J. (1987). "Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey". Computer. 20 (9): 17–41. doi:10.1109/MC.1987.1663693. S2CID 9188803.
- Byers, T. J. (April 1987). "Built by association". PC World. 5: 244–51.
- Crane, Gregory (1988). "Extending the boundaries of instruction and research". THE Journal (Macintosh Special Issue): 51–54.
- Nelson, Theodor H. (1992). Literary Machines 93.1. Sausalito, CA: Mindful Press. ISBN 978-0-89347-062-3.
- Moulthrop, Stuart; Kaplan, Nancy (1994). "They became what they beheld: The futility of resistance in the space of electronic writing". Literacy and computers: The complications of teaching and learning with technology. pp. 220–237.
- Cicconi, Sergio (1999). "Hypertextuality". Mediapolis. Berlino & New York: Ed. Sam Inkinen & De Gruyter: 21–43. doi:10.1515/9783110807059.21. ISBN 978-3-11-016141-0.
- Bolter, Jay David (2001). Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-2919-8.
- Landow, George (2006). Hypertext 3.0 Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization: Critical Theory and New Media in a Global Era (Parallax, Re-Visions of Culture and Society). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8257-9.
- Buckland, Michael (2006). Emanuel Goldberg and His Knowledge Machine. Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 978-0-313-31332-5.
- Ensslin, Astrid (2007). Canonizing Hypertext: Explorations and Constructions. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9558-7.
- Barnet, Belinda. (2013) Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext (Anthem Press; 2013) A technological history of hypertext,
External links
- Hypertext: Behind the Hype Archived 2017-06-14 at the Wayback Machine
- Reviving Advanced Hypertext, whether and how concepts from hypertext research can be used on the Web.
Hypertext conferences
- EdMedia + Innovate Learning, an international conference organized by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
- HyperText - ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia
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