Origins of Asian martial arts: Difference between revisions

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			{{Short description\|none}}
	{{dablink\|This article is about a matter under debate within the martial arts. <br />See also ].}}
			The origins of Asian ] are diverse and scattered, having roots in various regions of Asia. Various ] ] reference the study of animal movements as inspiration for martial arts techniques.

			==Prehistory==
	'''Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts''', or more specifically, ], is endorsed by the traditional ] claims and the claims of a large number of ] historians. Both versions agree that while ] in ] predate the establishment of the Shaolin temple, foreign influence was vital on Shaolin's approach to institutionalized martial arts in China.<ref></ref><ref>The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit </ref><ref name="NYTIMES"></ref>
			The evolution of the martial arts has been described by historians in the context of countless historical battles. Building on the work of ] (], ]), Rudgley argues that ], as well as the martial arts of the ], ] and ] peoples, all have "roots in the prehistoric era and to a common ] ancestral people who inhabited north-eastern Asia."<ref>{{cite book \| last = Rudgley \| first = Richard \| author-link = Richard Rudgley \| title = The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age \| orig-year = 1999 \| year = 2000 \| publisher = Simon & Schuster}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \| last=Laughlin \| first=William S. \| author-link=William S. Laughlin \| year=1961 \| publication-date=2004 \| contribution=Acquisition of Anatomical Knowledge by Ancient Man \| editor-last=Washburn \| editor-first=Sherwood L \| editor-link=Sherwood Washburn \| title=Social Life of Early Man \| publication-place=London \| publisher=Routledge \| pages=150–175 }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite news \| last=Marsh \| first=Gordon H. \| last2=Laughlin \| first2=William S. \| author2-link=William S. Laughlin \| year=1956 \| title=Human Anatomical Knowledge among the Aleutian Islanders \| periodical=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology \| volume=12 \| issue=1 \| pages=38–78 }}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt}}</ref>

			==India==
	]]]
			{{further\|Indian martial arts}}
			''Dhanurveda'', a section found in the ] (1700 BC - 1100 BC) contains references to martial arts.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Psychophysical Acting: An Intercultural Approach After Stanislavski\|page=66\|publisher=Routledge\|author1=Phillip B. Zarrilli \|author2=Peter Hulton }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism\|page=182\|author1=Denise Cush \|author2=Catherine A. Robinson \|author3=Michael York \|publisher=Psychology press}}</ref> Around the 3rd century BC, the ] taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various ] finger movements were taught in ] Buddhism. These elements of ], as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref><ref>The Bodhisattva Warriors : The Origin, Inner Philosophy, History, and Symbolism of the Buddhist Martial Art within India and China, by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: Yorkindo Beach, Me. {{ISBN\|0877287856}}</ref><ref>The Spiritual Legacy of Shaolin Temple: Buddhism, Daoism, and the Energetic Arts - Page 78 by Andy James. Published 2004. Wisdom Publications. 179 pages. {{ISBN\|0861713524}}</ref>

			] were an important influence in the development of a number of modern ], particularly within the ] (countries outside ] influenced by ] and religion) of ]. Examples include Indo-Malay ],<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1992). ''Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia''. pg 23. Tuttle Publishing</ref> Burmese ], ] and ],<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.</ref> Filipino ] and ],<ref>Mark V. Wiley (1994). ''Filipino Martial Arts: Serrada Escrima'' pg21. Tuttle Publishing</ref> Thai ]<ref name=DraegerComp>Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. Kodansha International.</ref> and Cambodian ]. Indian martial arts also influenced the various forms of ], namely ] from ], ] from ], ] from ], ] from ] and ] from ].<ref name=DraegerComp/>
	==Centres of foreign influence==
	] tombs are shown in the picture.]]
	Earliest evidence of martial arts is found in ] and ]. <ref> </ref> A ] copper stand, dating from the third Millennium B.C., shows two men trying to unbalance each other by controlling the hip. <ref></ref> There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the ] and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by the ''"middlemen merchants from Dilmun"''. <ref>Neyland, R.S. (1992) “The seagoing vessels on Dilmun seals”, in D.H. Keith & T.L. Carrell (ed.), ''Underwater archaeology proceedings of the Society for Historical Archaeology Conference at Kingston, Jamaica 1992'' pp. 68-74. Tucson (AZ): Society for Historical Archaeology.</ref> Ancient Egypt had trading relations with India. <ref> Archaeologists Uncover Ancient Maritime Spice Route Between India, Egypt. Publication: Popular-Science.Net. Date: April 1, 2004</ref><ref> New Proof Of Ancient India's Flourishing Trade With Rome by Anand Parthasarathy</ref> ] was in contact with India before ]'s invasion. The Greek ] system was practiced by Alexander the Great's army. <ref> History and backgroud of Pankration</ref> It has been suggested that over time, concepts in primitive martial arts spread east to India, where they fell on fertile ground and began their development in relationship to ], ], and ], and were eventually transmitted to China. <ref> The Roots of Martial Arts</ref><ref> Martial Arts-Basic History by Rick Gill</ref> Historians, notably Tatsuo Suzuki, ], and Masutasu Oyama have asserted on the possible Greek influence on Chinese martial arts. <ref></ref><ref> History and backgroud of Pankration</ref>

			==China==
	Chinese wrestling is the oldest fighting system in China. This practice was later influenced by ] sportive practices. <ref></ref><ref>Chinese Martial Arts Training Manuals: A Historical Survey By Brian L. Kennedy, Elizabeth Guo (248)</ref>
			{{Main article\|Chinese martial arts}}
			Chinese boxing can be reliably traced back to the ] (1122-255 BC).<ref name="Draeger">{{cite book \|last = Draeger & Smith \|title = Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts \|year = 1969 \|isbn =978-0-87011-436-6 \|pages = 15 }}</ref> During the ], the literature mentions displays of archery, fencing and wrestling by nobles. Warfare between rival states was conducted according to Confucian chivalry (deference to rank, attacking in turn, food sent to hungry enemies). During the ], warfare grew bloodier and common men were expected to have skill in personal attack (chi-chi).<ref name="Draeger"/>

			Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Huiguang and Sengchou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma.<ref>{{cite journal \| author = Canzonieri, Salvatore \|date=February–March 1998 \| title = History of Chinese Martial Arts: Jin Dynasty to the Period of Disunity \| journal = Han Wei Wushu \| volume = 3 \| issue = 9 }}</ref> The martial arts '']'' and ''] Quan'' predate the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery by centuries<ref>{{cite journal \| first = Salvatore \| last = Canzonieri \| title = The Emergence of the Chinese Martial Arts \| journal = Han Wei Wushu \| issue = 23 }}</ref> as does shǒubó (手搏).

			] may have spread to China via the ] in the early 5th or 6th centuries of the common era and thus influenced ]. Elements from ], like the ], ], and the fierce ] were ] into protectors of ]; these mythical figures from the ]s figure prominently in ], ] and ] fighting.<ref>Wells, Marnix, and Naizhou Chang. Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou's Theory of Internal Martial Arts and the Evolution of Taijiquan. Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books, 2004, p. 23</ref> The religious figures from ] also figure in the movement and fighting techniques of Chinese martial arts.<ref>Wells, ''Scholar Boxer,'' p. 200</ref> Various styles of kung fu are known to contain movements that are identical to the ] hand positions used in ] and ], both of which derived from India.<ref>Johnson, Nathan J. Barefoot Zen: The Shaolin Roots of Kung Fu and Karate. York Beach, Me: S. Weiser, 2000, p. 48</ref> Similarly, the 108 pressure points in Chinese martial arts are believed by some to be based on the marmam points of Indian ].<ref>{{cite book \| last = Subramaniam Phd. \| first = P., (general editors) Dr. Shu Hikosaka, Asst. Prof. Norinaga Shimizu, & Dr. G. John Samuel, (translator) Dr. M. Radhika \| title = Varma Cuttiram வர்ம சுத்திரம்: A Tamil Text on Martial Art from Palm-Leaf Manuscript \| year = 1994 \| publisher = Institute of Asian Studies \| location = Madras \| pages = 90 & 91}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last = Reid Phd. \| first = Howard, Michael Croucher \| title = The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts \| year = 1991 \| publisher = Outlook Press \| location = New York \| isbn = 0879514337\| pages = 58–85}}</ref>
	==Establishment of the Shaolin temple==
	The ]n ] master ] ({{zh-cp \|c=跋陀 \|p='''Bátuó'''}}) was the founding abbot and patriarch<ref>Faure, Bernard. , Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-691029-02-4 </ref> of the ] temple.<ref></ref>

			The predominant telling of the diffusion of the martial arts from India to China involves a 5th-century prince turned into a ] named ] who is said to have traveled to ], sharing his own style and thus creating ].<ref>{{cite journal\|author=Cephas, Shawn\|date=Winter 1994\|title=The Root of Warrior Priests in the Martial Arts\|journal=]}}</ref> According to ], the Monk's creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a watershed in the history of kungfu, because it led to a change of course, as kungfu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense."<ref>Wong, Kiew Kit. ''The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense Health and Enlightenment''. Tuttle martial arts. Boston, Mass: Tuttle, 2002, p. 13</ref>
	According to the ''Deng Feng County Recording'' (''Deng Feng Xian Zhi''), Bátuó came to China in 464 CE to preach ].
			].]]
	Thirty-one years later, in 495, the Shaolin Monastery was built by the order of ] for Batuo's preaching.<ref></ref> The temple originally consisted of a round dome used as a shrine and a platform where Indian and Chinese monks translated Indian Buddhist scriptures into native Chinese languages.<ref></ref>

			The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts is attributed to Bodhidharma's own ], though its authorship has been disputed by several modern historians such as Tang Hao,<ref>{{cite book \| author = Tang Hao 唐豪 \| title = Shàolín Wǔdāng kǎo 少林武當考 \| orig-year = 1930 \| year = 1968 \| publisher = Qílín tushu \| location = Hong Kong 香港 \| language = zh}}</ref> Xu Zhen and ].<ref name=Matsuda>{{cite book \| author = Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 \| author-link = Ryuchi Matsuda \| title = Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 \| year = 1986 \| publisher = Danqing tushu \| location = Taipei 臺北 \| language = zh}}</ref> The oldest known available copy of the Yi Jin Jing was published in 1827<ref name=Matsuda/> and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624. According to Matsuda, none of the contemporary texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's ''Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method'' or Zhang Kongzhao's ''Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods'', mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The association of Bodhidharma with the martial arts only became widespread after the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel ''The Travels of Lao Ts'an'' in ''Illustrated Fiction Magazine''.<ref>{{Cite journal \| last=Henning \| first=Stanley \| title=Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan \| journal=Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii \| volume=2 \| issue=3 \| year=1994 \| pages=1–7 \| url=http://seinenkai.com/articles/henning/il&t.pdf\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621110700/http://seinenkai.com/articles/henning/il&t.pdf\| url-status=usurped\| archive-date=June 21, 2007\|format=PDF }}.</ref>
	==Bodhidharma==
	===Origins of Bodhidharma===
	The major accounts regarding the origins of ] are given by Yáng Xuànzhī, Tanlin and Daoxuan.

			The discovery of arms caches in the monasteries of ] during government raids in 446 AD suggests that Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery in 497.<ref name=Henning2>{{cite journal \| author = Henning, Stanley \| year = 1999b \| title = Martial Arts Myths of Shaolin Monastery, Part I: The Giant with the Flaming Staff \| journal = Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii \| volume = 5 \| issue = 1 }}</ref> Moreover, Chinese monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in many ways were effectively large landed estates, that is, sources of considerable wealth which required protection that had to be supplied by the monasteries' own manpower.<ref name=Henning2/>
	According to Yáng Xuànzhī:

			==Japan==
	{{Quotation\|At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild borderlands to China.<ref>Broughton 1999:54</ref>\|Yang Xuanzhi\|The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Lo-yang'' (547)}}
			{{main article\|Japanese martial arts}}
			The historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in the warrior traditions of the ] and the ] that restricted the use of weapons by members of the non-warrior classes. Originally, samurai were expected to be proficient in many weapons, as well as unarmed combat, and attain the highest possible mastery of combat skills, for the purpose of glorifying either themselves or their lord. Over time, this purpose gave way to a philosophy of achieving spiritual goals by striving to perfect their martial skills.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Eastern Thought\|page=169\|publisher=Suny press\|first=John \|last =Suler}}</ref>

			==Korea==
	Jeffrey Broughton notes that Yáng Xuànzhī may have been referring to a different monk named Bodhidharma, as he mentions a Bodhidharma twice. <ref>Broughton 54</ref>
			{{Main article\|Korean martial arts}}
			Wrestling, called ], and ] are the oldest forms of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, these were also popular among villagers during festivals, for dancing, mask performance and sport-fighting. The ancient Koreans did develop their own comprehensive system of unarmed weapon-based combat, but they had a preference for bows and arrows. It appears that during the ] dynasty, (37 BC – 668 AD) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, bow and arrow, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced.

			In 1593, Korea received help from ] to win back ] from the Japanese. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled ] (紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist ]. ] (1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the ] (무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the ] (Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).<ref>Kim, Wee-hyun. "Muyedobo T'ongji: Illustrated Survey of the Martial arts." Korea Journal 26:8 (August 1986): 42-54.</ref>
	Bodhidharma's original name was ''Bodhi''tara. <ref></ref> The suffix "dharma" means duty in context of ]. Yáng Xuànzhī may have been honoring another dharma teacher with the suffix (of dharma). There have been other Indian monks sharing the prefix of "]" (Sanskrit word for "awakening" or "enlightenment"), such as ], regarded as the ] of the Ti-Lun School.

			In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated ] (Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to Taekkyon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on.
	The claim that Bodhidharma was South Indian has its origins in Tanlin's preface to the '']''.

			== Indonesia ==
	{{Quotation\|The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region.<ref>"Western Region" is the Chinese literary term for the region that encompasses the territory between present-day Kazakhstan in the north and the tip of the Indian subcontinent in the south. "The Dharma Master was from South India, which is part of the Western Region" is a valid interpretation of this sentence.</ref> He was the third son of a great Indian King. <ref>{{cite book \| author=Broughton, Jeffrey L. \| title=The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen \| location=Berkeley \| publisher=University of California Press \| year=1999 \| id=ISBN 0-520-21972-4}}</ref>\|Tanlin\|The Two Entrances and Four Acts'' (pre-645)}}
			{{main article\|Indonesian martial arts}}
			The Indonesian natives began to develop and formulate various style of combat and self-defence systems. Archaeological findings revealed that the origins of ] dates back to the sixth century, to the times of the ] empire on Sumatra and also the 13th century ] empire in East Java. Artifacts showed that this unique combat system had been used consistently through Indonesia’s history.<ref name="Wonderful">{{cite web \|title=Silek Harimau Minangkabau: the True Martial Art of West Sumatra \|publisher=Wonderful Indonesia \|url=http://www.indonesia.travel/en/destination/467/padang/article/74/silek-harimau-minangkabau-seni-bela-diri-minangkabau \|access-date=8 July 2015 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708113338/http://www.indonesia.travel/en/destination/467/padang/article/74/silek-harimau-minangkabau-seni-bela-diri-minangkabau \|archive-date=8 July 2015 }}</ref>

			==Philippines==
	Daoxuan adds more detail concerning Bodhidharma's origins, writing that he was "of South Indian ] stock" (南天竺婆羅門種 ''nán tiānzhú póluómén zhŏng''). <ref name=Dumoulin87>Dumoulin (2005), 87</ref>
			{{Main article\|Filipino martial arts}}
			Filipino martial arts are considered hybrid systems which incorporates elements from both ] and eastern martial arts. Its origins are Asian and come from a period wherein the various prehispanic Philippine states; ], ], ] and ]ates warred with each other, therefore producing a rich martial tradition with hundreds of schools as numerous as there are Filipino ethnic groups. It then incorporated Western elements when the Spaniards arrived from Mexico and they unified these prehispanic states unto one Filipino identity and thus, infused the Filipino martial arts with ] styles of combat.

			During the Spanish period, Chinese and Japanese converts<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.asianews.it/news-en/The-Japanese-Church-ready-to-celebrate-Takayama-Ukon,-samurai-of-Christ-28785.html\|title=The Japanese Church ready to celebrate Takayama Ukon, "samurai of Christ" - Asia News\|work=asianews.it}}</ref><references group="Notes" /> to Christianity who fled to the Philippines away from their homeland's persecution, also enriched Filipino martial arts with their own styles. The ] (Launched from India) and the ] also shaped Filipino martial arts up to a certain extent. Although the martial arts fell into disuse during the artillery-intensive ] and ], it became practical again during the ] especially to Guerillas.
	{{Quotation\|Bodhidharma of South Indian Brahman stock. <ref>{{cite book \| author=Dumoulin, Heinrich \| title=Zen Buddhism: A History, India and China \| location=Bloomington \| publisher=World Wisdom \| year=2005 \| id=ISBN 0-941532-89-5}}</ref>\|Daoxuan\|Xu Gaoseng Zhuan'' (645)}}

			==Vietnam==
	Broughton notes that Bodhidharma's royal pedigree implies that he was of the ] warrior ], <ref name=Broughton2>Broughton 2</ref> though South Indian inscriptions in the 4th and 5th centuries imply that the ] dynasty also had Brahmin ]; hence, they may have belonged to the caste of ''Braham-Kshatriya'' (Brahmin in origin and Kshatriya by profession). <ref>Mahajan 705–707</ref> Other Indian social groups, such as the ]s and the ]s, also adhere to more than one ].
			]
			{{Main article\|Vietnamese martial arts}}
			Vietnamese martial arts are influenced by efforts to defend the country from foreign threats . The most influential in the country's martial arts is China with its thousand-year occupation of Vietnam. But through thousands of years of internal, civil strife: dynastic changes (]), foreign conquests, warlordism and guerrilla tactics, the Vietnamese martial artists used what they learned from their neighbors and evolved a unique form of martial arts.

			The martial arts were used by Vietnamese kings to train their troops and to defend the country against enemies. In addition to the army, family clans and Buddhist temples cultivated a variety of styles to defend themselves.{{Citation needed\|date=January 2011}}
	===Bodhidharma's influence===
	] (1839-1892)]]
	] is credited with the establishment of the ] sect of ]. <ref>Manual of Zen Buddhism: NEW ED. By ]. Page 182. ISBN 0802130658</ref> Bodhidharma arrived in ] during the 5th century. He stayed and taught for several years in the Shaolin temple.

	The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for it's proximity with ]. <ref>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)</ref> In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga, the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblences. <ref> Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (Page xviii) </ref> The melding of Yoga with Buddhism -- a process that continued through the centuries-- represents a landmark on the path of Yoga through the ]. This phenomenon merits special attention since the Yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation. Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular - <ref>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13)</ref>

	Grandmaster ], 4th generation successor of the Southern Shaolin Monastery writes <ref name=Kit>The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by ]</ref>:-

	<blockquote>
	It was during this time that the Venerable Bodhidharma came from India to China to spread Buddhism. In 527 CE he settled down in the Shaolin monastery in Henan province, and inspired the development of Shaolin Kung Fu. This marked a watershed in the history of Kung Fu, because it led to a change of course, as Kung Fu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense.
	</blockquote>

	Chinese martial arts, like martial arts of ] and India, have existed before the arrival of Bodhidharma. Bodhidharma's status in martial arts is due to his role in the ''institutionalization'' of Chinese martial arts, presumably by introducing exercises, meditation, discipline, newer techniques etc. to the native fighting methods during his tenure at the Shaolin monastery. <ref name=Kit/>

	In addition to being a master of ], Bodhidharma is also related to ] (Sanskrit: "Practice of Yoga " <ref></ref> ). He is described as a "master of the Lankavatara Sutra", and an early history of Zen in China is titled "Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Lankavatara Sutra" (Chin. Leng-ch'ieh shih-tzu chi).

	It has been suggested that these techniques which are the foundation for many martial arts today were never originally intended to be utilized as methods of fighting but were a manner in which the monks could attain enlightenment while preserving their bodies' health. <ref></ref><ref> </ref> ] writes that during lectures on Buddhism, a number of Bodhidharma's followers succumbed to exhaustion. Daruma then presented method of developing the mind and body.<ref name=Ginchin>
	Karate-dō kyōhan: the master text By ] ("Although the way of Buddha is preached for the soul, the body and the soul are inseparable. As I look now, I think it is likely you will not complete your training because of your exhaustion. For this reason, I shall give you a method by which you can develop your physical strength enough to enable yourselves to attain the essence of the way of Buddha." - page 6)
	</ref> The method is contained in the Ekkin Kyo (Ekkin ]). With it, the monks were able to recover their spiritual and physical strength. <ref name=Ginchin/>

	==Similarities==
	''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> Shown here is the '']'' pose.]]
	Historians have noted foreign influences on aspects of Chinese culture, such as mythology (] and ], which were influenced by ] and ] respectively <ref></ref> ) and architecture (] influenced by Buddhist ]) <ref></ref> in the past.

	The similarities between arts of India and Chinese martial arts have also been noted by martial arts practitioners, historians and news organisations. <ref></ref>

	Around the 3rd century BC, ] wrote the '']'', which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various ] finger movements were taught in ] Buddhism. These ] elements, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts. <ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref>
	<ref>The Bodhisattva warriors : the origin, inner philosophy, history, and symbolism of the Buddhist martial art within India and China by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: York Beach, Me. ISBN 0877287856 </ref><ref></ref><ref></ref>

	References to martial arts are found in early ]. The ''Lotus Sutra'' also categorized combat techniques as ], ], ], and ],<ref></ref> and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called ''Nara''.<ref>Tim Steinwachs. </ref> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and archer before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>

	Knowledge of the Indian arts was carried into China by Buddhist monks. <ref></ref> Joyotpaul Chaudhuri notes that far too much attention is given to the Bodhidharma alone. Buddhist monks were active in China before Bodhidharma. <ref name=Jyotpaul>
	</ref>
	], showing ] in combat]]
	The Lankavatara Sutra repeatedly refers to the 108 steps. The 108 of the Yang long form and ], taught by ] having 108 movements are noted in this regard. The similarities between the posture of the ''"]"'' and bong sau and bong gurk in one hand and one foot position are also noted. <ref name=Jyotpaul/> The Chinese school of martial arts agrees with the ] school of martial arts on the principle of 108 pressure points.<ref>{{cite book \| last = Subramaniam Phd. \| first = P., (general editors) Dr. Shu Hikosaka, Asst. Prof. Norinaga Shimizu, & Dr. G. John Samuel, (translator) Dr. M. Radhika \| title = Varma Cuttiram வர்ம சுத்திரம்: A Tamil Text on Martial Art from Palm-Leaf Manuscript \| year = 1994 \| publisher = Institute of Asian Studies \| location = Madras \| pages = 90 & 91}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last = Reid Phd. \| first = Howard, Michael Croucher \| title = The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts \| year = 1991 \| publisher = Outlook Press \| location = New York \| id = ISBN 0879514337\| pages = 58 - 85}}</ref>

	The foreign connection with China's martial heritage is marked visually in several ways within the Shaolin temple. A significant aspect in this respect is the Shaolin wall painting. The painting depicts Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spirtual edification. ], the founder of ], has described the paintings as his main inspiration. <ref>Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Aesthetics Form in Japan By Rupert A. Cox, ] (page 157)</ref><ref></ref><ref> Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).</ref><ref> The symbol of Shorinji Kempo is an commonly seen Buddhist symbol of Indian origin, and great antiquity. In Japan it is used to denote a Buddhist temple, on maps and the symbol itself is displayed in and around the temples. The religious device is composed of four Ls at right angles to each other similar to, but not to be confused with the swastika used in Nazi Germany which is its mirror image. Another form of the Manji in Shorinji Kempo is two flowing lines within a circle, somewhat similar to a double yin-yang symbol. This modified symbol commonly used in Shorinji Kempo dojos in the West. </ref>

	The pavillion named after Bodhidharma is in the main building of the Shaolin monastary, the First patricarch temple built in his honor still stands in the monastary complex some distance from the main building, and the cave behind the building is still called the Bodhidharma cave. <ref>The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment By Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit (page 186)</ref> The ] "What is the intention of the first patriarch coming from the west?" was frequently used to test the student' development in Zen cultivation. <ref>Complete Book of Zen by ]</ref>

	Historians have also noted that Indian works of art and particularly in temple sculptures show warriors in positions similar to modern day East Asian martial arts. <ref></ref>

	] and Chinese martial arts have division into Northern and Southern styles, separation of systems and techniques into "external" and "internal" categories, medical tradition (]), vital points discipline, spiritual aspect and weapons training tradition. In some systems the empty hand arts are secondary - as in some South-East Asian martial disciplines. <ref></ref>

	Similarities were also recorded by the ] in a television documentary in 1981 titled ''"Kalari, the Indian way"'' which noted that a ] practitioner performed martial arts identical to one found in a branch lineage from the Wong-Hon-Wing line of Tibetan Hop-Gar Kung-Fu.

	The ] also notes ''"Possibly the oldest martial art in the world, ] is still being practiced widely today in the Indian state of Kerala. Shaolin chuan is said to have evolved from Kalarippayattu."'' <ref> Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel</ref>

	==Views from the martial arts community==
	The foreign influence is noted in the works of prominent figures across the martial arts community, including Charles C. Goodin, <ref></ref> Hidetaka Nishiyama, <ref> Karate: The Art of Empty-Hand Fighting
	By Richard C. Brown, Hidetaka Nishiyama </ref> Simmone Kuo, <ref> Long Life, Good Health Through Tai-Chi Chuan by Simmone L. Kuo</ref><ref> Yin-Yang in Tai-Chi Chuan and Daily Life by Simmone Kuo</ref> Lawrence Galante,
	<ref></ref> Robert Scaglione, <ref></ref> George A. Kirby,
	<ref></ref> and George E. Mattson.
	<ref></ref>

	Academic authors related to martial arts, including Bruce A. Haines, <ref></ref> Joyotpaul Chaudhari, <ref> 108 STEPS: The Sino-Indian Connection in the Martial Arts by Joyotpaul Chaudhuri
	</ref> ], <ref> The Book of Soft Martial Arts: Finding Personal Harmony with Chi Kung, Hsing I, Pa Kua and T'ai Ch'i by Danny Connor and Howard Reid</ref> ] <ref> So Many Paths. Which Shaolin Is Real? The Reply: Yes. by Howard W. French</ref> and Christopher Wren <ref name="NYTIMES"></ref> have noted the foreign influence. ] <ref> Concise Encyclopedia Brittanica Article on Bodhidharma</ref> and ] <ref> D.T. Suzuki's The Zen Doctrine
	of No-Mind</ref><ref></ref> note the Indian foundation of ]/].

	The foreign influence has been recognized by legendary martial arts practitioners and authorities, including Steve De Masco, <ref> An American's Journey to the Shaolin Temple by Steve De Masco</ref> Dr. William Durbin, <ref> The History of Teaching Methods used in the Martial Arts by Dr. William Durbin</ref> Jhoon Rhee, <ref></ref> Doshin So, <ref></ref> ], <ref> Breathing In and Breathing Out
	In Accordance With "Go" and "Ju": A Miscellaneous Essay on Karate by Chojun Miyagi
	</ref> ], <ref> Okinawa Kata Classification: An Historical Overview by Mario McKenna</ref> ], <ref>The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit</ref><ref> Grandmaster ]'s Homepage</ref> ], <ref>Karate: Technique and Spirit by Tadashi Nakamura</ref> ], <ref> Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net</ref> ] <ref>]'s official website]</ref> and ]. <ref> History of Jiu-Jitsu</ref>

	Reputed organizations such as the ], <ref>Documentary used: 1981 Television documentary titled "Kalari, the Indian way"</ref><ref> How Hong Kong took Hollywood- BBC</ref> the ], <ref> So Many Paths. Which Shaolin Is Real? The Reply: Yes. by Howard W. French</ref><ref> Of Monks and martial arts by Christopher Wren. Published: September 11, 1983</ref> ] <ref> Journey to self-discovery</ref><ref> Art most ancient by Karthi Sekar </ref><ref> The story of Bodhidharma</ref><ref> Zen and the art of storytelling</ref> and the ] <ref> Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel</ref> to name a few, have also taken a note of the foreign influence.

	Claims that that Chinese martial arts are independent of any foreign influence have been rejected by prestigious martial arts institutions, <ref> Phoenix International
	Academy of Mixed Martial Arts</ref> including the ], <ref></ref><ref>]'s official website]</ref><ref> Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net</ref><ref> History of Jiu-Jitsu</ref> ], <ref> The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu at Gracie Barra</ref> ], <ref> The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation</ref> ] <ref> The beginning: Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu</ref> and the Shaolin temple. <ref> History Facts: The Founder Of Shaolinsi</ref>

	In addition, journalists and writers, including June Lordi, <ref> Tai Chi by June Lordi</ref> Cezar Borkowski, <ref> The Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts
	By Cezar Borkowski, Marion Manzo</ref> Annellen M Simpkins and C Alexander Simpkins, <ref> Zen in Ten: Easy Lessons for Spiritual Growth by C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins</ref> Bruce Thomas, <ref> Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit: A Biography by Bruce Thomas</ref> Thomas D. Seabourne and Yeon Hwan Park, <ref> Tae Kwon Do Techniques & Tactics by Thomas D. Seabourne, Yeon Hwan Park</ref> Stephen Kuei, <ref> Beginning Qigong: Chinese secrets for health and longevity by Stephen Kuei, Stephen Comee</ref> Pat Zukeran, <ref> Martial Arts by Pat Zukeran</ref><ref>Patrick Zukeran: The Origins and Popularity of the Martial Arts</ref>
	Ervin de Castro, BJ Oropeza and Ron Rhodes, <ref>Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the martial arts phenomenon. Part I: The historical-philosophical backdrop by Ervin de Castro, BJ Oropeza and Ron Rhodes</ref> Prof. J. Roe, <ref> Our Martial Arts History and Tradition... by Prof. J. Roe</ref> P. E. Katzer, <ref>History of Shotokan Karate by P. E. Katzer</ref>
	Jess O'Brien <ref></ref>
	and Tony Sims <ref> Kempo Jitsu – Pre 1900 Martial Art System by Tony Sims</ref> have noted the foreign influence on Chinese martial arts.

	==Opposing theories==
	{{see\|Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection}}

	Most accounts of martial arts history have credited the foreign influence. <ref> A Historical Prespective: The Origins of Kwon Bup, Chuan Fa, Kempo, Kuntao by Ian A. Cyrus, 9th Dan, Headmaster, Choson Kwon Bup International Chosondo Federation</ref> Given the long history of cultural exchange between China and her neighbors, claiming an absolute lack of foreign influence within the Chinese martial arts may be extreme -- though the extent and manner of influence is subject to debate.

	A number of martial arts historians have conducted independent research on this matter and have reached separate conclusions. Some criticisms of the "Foreign Influence" theory have included:
	* Questions on whether Bodhidharma provided more than simply religious influence upon China.
	* Questions on whether Bodhidharma was simply a legendary character.
	* Disputes over the dating of texts supposedly written by Bodhidharma.

	Of note, these historians are not without criticism either. For example, historian Matsuda Ryuchi dates the Yi Jin Jing, a text often associated with Bodhidharma, to 1827. <ref>{{cite book \| author = Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 \| authorlink = Ryuchi Matsuda \| title = Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 \| year = 1986 \| publisher = Danqing tushu \| location = Taipei 臺北 \| language = Chinese}}</ref> Another historian however, Lin Boyuan, dates it to over two centuries earlier in 1624. <ref>Lin 1996:183</ref> Ling Tingkan concluded that the author of the Yì Jīn Jīng must have been an ''"ignorant village master."'' This claim has also been rejected by Lin Boyuan who attributes the ''Yì Jīn Jīng'' to the ] priest Zining writing in 1624. <ref>Lin 1996:183</ref> Historian Paul Pelliot presents a version claiming that Bodhidharma did not exist at all, he is an entirely fictional creation, a proposal which conflicts with results of research conducted by Matsuda Ryuchi, Lin Boyuan and Ling Tingkan. <ref>In his "Notes on some artists of the Six Dynasties and the Tang," ] asserts that all accounts of Bodhidharma are legendary.</ref>

	==References==		==References==
			{{reflist}}
	<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
			{{martial arts}}
	<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"><references /></div>

	== Further reading ==
	<div class="references-small">
	*Introduction of Red Pine, translator; The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma. North Point Press, New York. (1987)
	*
	*
	*
	*
	* - An interview with the ] of ]
	* - Journal of the ], Vol. 107, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1987), pp. 125-126
	*
	*The Bodhisattva warriors: the origin, inner philosophy, history, and symbolism of the Buddhist martial art within India and China by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: York Beach, Me. ISBN 0877287856
	*
	*
	*
	* The five holy mountains
	</div>

	==See also==
	*]
	*]

			{{DEFAULTSORT:Origins of Asian martial arts}}
	]
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Latest revision as of 05:01, 21 December 2024

The origins of Asian martial arts are diverse and scattered, having roots in various regions of Asia. Various Asian martial arts reference the study of animal movements as inspiration for martial arts techniques.

Prehistory

The evolution of the martial arts has been described by historians in the context of countless historical battles. Building on the work of Laughlin (1956, 1961), Rudgley argues that Mongolian wrestling, as well as the martial arts of the Chinese, Japanese and Aleut peoples, all have "roots in the prehistoric era and to a common Mongoloid ancestral people who inhabited north-eastern Asia."

India

Further information: Indian martial arts

Dhanurveda, a section found in the Vedas (1700 BC - 1100 BC) contains references to martial arts. Around the 3rd century BC, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These elements of yoga, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.

Indian martial arts were an important influence in the development of a number of modern Asian martial arts, particularly within the Indian cultural sphere (countries outside India influenced by Indian culture and religion) of Southeast Asia. Examples include Indo-Malay silat, Burmese banshay, naban and bando, Filipino escrima and kali, Thai krabi krabong and Cambodian bokator. Indian martial arts also influenced the various forms of Indochinese kickboxing, namely Muay Thai from Thailand, Muay Lao from Laos, Tomoi from Malaysia, Pradal Serey from Cambodia and Lethwei from Myanmar.

China

Main article: Chinese martial arts

Chinese boxing can be reliably traced back to the Zhou dynasty (1122-255 BC). During the Spring and Autumn period, the literature mentions displays of archery, fencing and wrestling by nobles. Warfare between rival states was conducted according to Confucian chivalry (deference to rank, attacking in turn, food sent to hungry enemies). During the Warring States period, warfare grew bloodier and common men were expected to have skill in personal attack (chi-chi).

Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Huiguang and Sengchou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma. The martial arts Shuāi Jiāo and Sun Bin Quan predate the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery by centuries as does shǒubó (手搏).

Indian martial arts may have spread to China via the transmission of Buddhism in the early 5th or 6th centuries of the common era and thus influenced Shaolin Kungfu. Elements from Indian philosophy, like the Nāga, Rakshasa, and the fierce Yaksha were syncretized into protectors of Dharma; these mythical figures from the Dharmic religions figure prominently in Shaolinquan, Chang quan and staff fighting. The religious figures from Dharmic religions also figure in the movement and fighting techniques of Chinese martial arts. Various styles of kung fu are known to contain movements that are identical to the Mudra hand positions used in Hinduism and Buddhism, both of which derived from India. Similarly, the 108 pressure points in Chinese martial arts are believed by some to be based on the marmam points of Indian varmakalai.

The predominant telling of the diffusion of the martial arts from India to China involves a 5th-century prince turned into a monk named Bodhidharma who is said to have traveled to Shaolin, sharing his own style and thus creating Shaolinquan. According to Wong Kiew Kit, the Monk's creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a watershed in the history of kungfu, because it led to a change of course, as kungfu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense."

Main gate of the Shaolin temple in Henan.

The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts is attributed to Bodhidharma's own Yi Jin Jing, though its authorship has been disputed by several modern historians such as Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi. The oldest known available copy of the Yi Jin Jing was published in 1827 and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624. According to Matsuda, none of the contemporary texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method or Zhang Kongzhao's Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods, mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The association of Bodhidharma with the martial arts only became widespread after the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.

The discovery of arms caches in the monasteries of Chang'an during government raids in 446 AD suggests that Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery in 497. Moreover, Chinese monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in many ways were effectively large landed estates, that is, sources of considerable wealth which required protection that had to be supplied by the monasteries' own manpower.

Japan

Main article: Japanese martial arts

The historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in the warrior traditions of the samurai and the caste system that restricted the use of weapons by members of the non-warrior classes. Originally, samurai were expected to be proficient in many weapons, as well as unarmed combat, and attain the highest possible mastery of combat skills, for the purpose of glorifying either themselves or their lord. Over time, this purpose gave way to a philosophy of achieving spiritual goals by striving to perfect their martial skills.

Korea

Main article: Korean martial arts

Wrestling, called Ssireum, and Taekkyon are the oldest forms of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, these were also popular among villagers during festivals, for dancing, mask performance and sport-fighting. The ancient Koreans did develop their own comprehensive system of unarmed weapon-based combat, but they had a preference for bows and arrows. It appears that during the Goguryeo dynasty, (37 BC – 668 AD) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, bow and arrow, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced.

In 1593, Korea received help from China to win back Pyongyang from the Japanese. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled Ji Xiao Xin Shu (紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist Qi Jiguang. King Seonjo (1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the Muyejebo (무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the Muyesinbo (Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).

In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated Muyedobotongji (Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to Taekkyon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on.

Indonesia

Main article: Indonesian martial arts

The Indonesian natives began to develop and formulate various style of combat and self-defence systems. Archaeological findings revealed that the origins of Pencak Silat dates back to the sixth century, to the times of the Srivijaya empire on Sumatra and also the 13th century Majapahit empire in East Java. Artifacts showed that this unique combat system had been used consistently through Indonesia’s history.

Philippines

Main article: Filipino martial arts

Filipino martial arts are considered hybrid systems which incorporates elements from both western and eastern martial arts. Its origins are Asian and come from a period wherein the various prehispanic Philippine states; Rajahnates, Kingdoms, Sultanates and Lakanates warred with each other, therefore producing a rich martial tradition with hundreds of schools as numerous as there are Filipino ethnic groups. It then incorporated Western elements when the Spaniards arrived from Mexico and they unified these prehispanic states unto one Filipino identity and thus, infused the Filipino martial arts with European styles of combat.

During the Spanish period, Chinese and Japanese converts to Christianity who fled to the Philippines away from their homeland's persecution, also enriched Filipino martial arts with their own styles. The British Occupation of Manila (Launched from India) and the Moro Wars also shaped Filipino martial arts up to a certain extent. Although the martial arts fell into disuse during the artillery-intensive Philippine Revolution and Philippine–American War, it became practical again during the Japanese occupation especially to Guerillas.

Vietnam

Main article: Vietnamese martial arts

Vietnamese martial arts are influenced by efforts to defend the country from foreign threats . The most influential in the country's martial arts is China with its thousand-year occupation of Vietnam. But through thousands of years of internal, civil strife: dynastic changes (dynasties), foreign conquests, warlordism and guerrilla tactics, the Vietnamese martial artists used what they learned from their neighbors and evolved a unique form of martial arts.

The martial arts were used by Vietnamese kings to train their troops and to defend the country against enemies. In addition to the army, family clans and Buddhist temples cultivated a variety of styles to defend themselves.

References

Rudgley, Richard (2000) . The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. Simon & Schuster.
Laughlin, William S. (1961). "Acquisition of Anatomical Knowledge by Ancient Man". In Washburn, Sherwood L (ed.). Social Life of Early Man. London: Routledge (published 2004). pp. 150–175..
Marsh, Gordon H.; Laughlin, William S. (1956). "Human Anatomical Knowledge among the Aleutian Islanders". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. Vol. 12, no. 1. pp. 38–78.
] harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREF (help)
Phillip B. Zarrilli; Peter Hulton. Psychophysical Acting: An Intercultural Approach After Stanislavski. Routledge. p. 66.
Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York. Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Psychology press. p. 182.
J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
The Bodhisattva Warriors : The Origin, Inner Philosophy, History, and Symbolism of the Buddhist Martial Art within India and China, by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: Yorkindo Beach, Me. ISBN 0877287856
The Spiritual Legacy of Shaolin Temple: Buddhism, Daoism, and the Energetic Arts - Page 78 by Andy James. Published 2004. Wisdom Publications. 179 pages. ISBN 0861713524
Draeger, Donn F. (1992). Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. pg 23. Tuttle Publishing
Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.
Mark V. Wiley (1994). Filipino Martial Arts: Serrada Escrima pg21. Tuttle Publishing
^ Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. Kodansha International.
^ Draeger & Smith (1969). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-87011-436-6.
Canzonieri, Salvatore (February–March 1998). "History of Chinese Martial Arts: Jin Dynasty to the Period of Disunity". Han Wei Wushu. 3 (9).
Canzonieri, Salvatore. "The Emergence of the Chinese Martial Arts". Han Wei Wushu (23).
Wells, Marnix, and Naizhou Chang. Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou's Theory of Internal Martial Arts and the Evolution of Taijiquan. Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books, 2004, p. 23
Wells, Scholar Boxer, p. 200
Johnson, Nathan J. Barefoot Zen: The Shaolin Roots of Kung Fu and Karate. York Beach, Me: S. Weiser, 2000, p. 48
Subramaniam Phd., P., (general editors) Dr. Shu Hikosaka, Asst. Prof. Norinaga Shimizu, & Dr. G. John Samuel, (translator) Dr. M. Radhika (1994). Varma Cuttiram வர்ம சுத்திரம்: A Tamil Text on Martial Art from Palm-Leaf Manuscript. Madras: Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 90 & 91. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Reid Phd., Howard, Michael Croucher (1991). The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts. New York: Outlook Press. pp. 58–85. ISBN 0879514337.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Cephas, Shawn (Winter 1994). "The Root of Warrior Priests in the Martial Arts". Kung Fu Magazine.
Wong, Kiew Kit. The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense Health and Enlightenment. Tuttle martial arts. Boston, Mass: Tuttle, 2002, p. 13
Tang Hao 唐豪 (1968) . Shàolín Wǔdāng kǎo 少林武當考 (in Chinese). Hong Kong 香港: Qílín tushu.
^ Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 (1986). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 (in Chinese). Taipei 臺北: Danqing tushu.
Henning, Stanley (1994). "Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan" (PDF). Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii. 2 (3): 1–7. Archived from the original on June 21, 2007..
^ Henning, Stanley (1999b). "Martial Arts Myths of Shaolin Monastery, Part I: The Giant with the Flaming Staff". Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii. 5 (1).
Suler, John. Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Eastern Thought. Suny press. p. 169.
Kim, Wee-hyun. "Muyedobo T'ongji: Illustrated Survey of the Martial arts." Korea Journal 26:8 (August 1986): 42-54.
"Silek Harimau Minangkabau: the True Martial Art of West Sumatra". Wonderful Indonesia. Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
"The Japanese Church ready to celebrate Takayama Ukon, "samurai of Christ" - Asia News". asianews.it.

Martial arts

Classification

Regional origin	China Europe India Indonesia Italian Ireland Japan Okinawa Korea Mainland Southeast Asia Philippines Russia Vietnam
Unarmed techniques	Arm strikes Chokehold Punch Elbow strike Clinch Ground Headbutt Leg strikes Footwork Kick Flying Knee strike Stomp Grappling Hold Joint lock Sweep Takedown Throw Stand-up
Weapons	Duel Melee weapons Knife fighting Stick-fighting Swordsmanship Archery Shooting
Training	Kata Boxing glove Practice weapon Punching bag Pushing hands Randori Sparring
Grappling	Barróg Brazilian jiu-jitsu Judo (Para judo) Jujutsu Luta Livre esportiva Malla-yuddha Pehlwani Sambo Shuai jiao Sumo Wrestling catch Cornish folk freestyle Greco-Roman Mongolian oil shoot
Striking	Bando Boxing Capoeira Chess boxing Choi Kwang Do Dambe Karate Kickboxing Kun Khmer Lethwei Muay Thai Northern Praying Mantis Russian boxing Sanda Shaolin kung fu Shoot boxing Savate Taekwondo Tang Soo Do Tien Shan Pai Vovinam Wudangquan Yoshukai Karate
Internal	Aikido Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu Baguazhang Tai chi Xingyiquan
Full contact / combat sports	Professional boxing Kickboxing Full contact karate Mixed martial arts Pankration Shootfighting Submission wrestling Vale Tudo
Self-defense / combatives	Arnis Bartitsu Hapkido Kajukenbo Jieitaikakutōjutsu Krav Maga MCMAP Pencak silat Pencak Silat Harimau Suffrajitsu Systema Taekkyon To-Shin Do Wing Chun Silat Melayu
Eclectic / hybrids	American Kenpo Angampora Chun Kuk Do Hokutoryu Ju-Jutsu Jeet Kune Do Shooto Shorinji Kempo Unifight Qwan Ki Do
Battlefield	Banshay Bokator Historical European martial arts Huiyen Lallong Jujutsu Kalaripayattu Krabi–krabong Krav Maga Mardani khel Marine Corps Martial Arts Program Pencak Silat Harimau
Entertainment	Fighting game Martial arts film (Chanbara) Professional wrestling Stage combat Tricking Wuxia

International games

Martial arts at the Summer Olympics	Boxing Fencing Judo Karate Taekwondo Wrestling (freestyle, Greco-Roman) Demonstration sports Budō Pistol dueling Glima Savate
Martial arts at the World Games	Ju-jitsu Karate Kickboxing Muay Thai Sumo Former official sports Sambo Taekwondo Invitational sports Aikido Wushu
Martial arts at the Pan American Games	Boxing Fencing Judo Karate Taekwondo Wrestling
Martial arts at the Asian Games	Boxing Judo Jujutsu Karate Taekwondo Wrestling Wushu 2018 Only Kurash Pencak silat Sambo
Martial arts at the African Games	Boxing Fencing Judo Karate Taekwondo Wrestling
Martial arts at the European Games	Boxing Fencing Judo Karate Muaythai Sambo Taekwondo Wrestling

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