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''']''' (22 October 1729 – 9 December 1798) was a German Reformed pastor and naturalist. Born in ], ], ] (now Tczew, Poland), he attended school in Dirschau and ] before being admitted at the ] in Berlin in 1745. Skilled in classical and biblical languages, he studied theology at the ]. In 1753, he became a ] at a parish just south of ]. He married his cousin Justina Elisabeth Nicolai in 1754, and they had seven surviving children; the oldest child was ].

== Early life and education == == Early life and education ==
Johann Reinhold Forster was born on 22 October 1729 in ], ], ] (now Tczew, Poland).{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=3}} Forster's family was descended from a Yorkshire ancestor, George Forster, who had emigrated to the area to become a merchant in ] (Nowe) in the 1640s.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=1}} His father was Georg Reinhold Forster, who became mayor of Dirschau in 1733 (the third Forster to become mayor of Dirschau), and his mother was the widow Eva Plaht.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=3}} Georg Reinhold became an invalid in 1735 and had to retire as mayor.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=3–4}} Forster attended a Latin school in Dirschau, and then went to ] to attend the '']'' in 1743. Johann Reinhold Forster was born on 22 October 1729 in ], ], ] (now Tczew, Poland).{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=3}} Forster's family was descended from a Yorkshire-born ancestor, George Forster, a descendent of the Scottish Forrester family. He had emigrated from England as a supporter of the losing Royalist side in the ] and became a merchant in ] (Nowe) in the 1640s.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=1}} Forster's father was Georg Reinhold Forster, who became mayor of Dirschau in 1733 (the third Forster to become mayor of Dirschau), and his mother was the widow Eva Plaht.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=3}} Georg Reinhold became an invalid in 1735 and had to retire as mayor.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=3–4}} Forster attended a Latin school in Dirschau, and then went to ] (Kwidzyn) to attend the '']'' in 1743.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=4}}


] in Berlin in 1757]] ] in Berlin in 1757]]
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== Russian expedition == == Russian expedition ==
] ]
In 1765, Forster obtained leave from his pastoral offices and travelled to St Petersburg with ten-year old George, their expenses paid by Hans Wilhelm Rehbinder, a Russian in Danzig who recommended them to Count ], the favourite of ].{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=15}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=25–28}} Forster was given a commission to inspect the newly founded colonies near ] on the ], with the expectation that his report should show that the colonists were thriving and happy and to dispel rumours to the contrary that threatened to cut off the supply of willing ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=28–29}} Forster also made scientific plans for the journey, which the ] in St Petersburg supported by providing him with reference books and instruments.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=15–16}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=29–30}} The Forsters travelled from Moscow to Saratov in May 1765, continuing via Dmitriyevsk (now ]) to Tsaritsyn (now ]). They reached the ] and ] (where Forster studied the salt industry), and inspected further settlements along the Volga and some of its tributaries before returning to St Petersburg in October. During the {{convert|4000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}} journey, George collected hundreds of specimens of plants, helping his father with naming and identification.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=31}} <!-- In St P they lived in the house of Leopold Friedrich August Dilthey (Q60845267) --> Forster made contact with other scientists, and his scientific observations from the journey were read at the Academy of Sciences.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=32–33}} His report for the Russian government was critical of the conditions for the colonists and of the officials in Saratov. After it was received by Orlov and Catherine, Forster was asked to draft regulations for the colonies that would include improved governance and some degree of autonomy, and finished this work in May 1766.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=34}} Forster hoped for a government post, but when that did not come true, he asked for permission to leave Russia and payment of 2000 roubles for his time and as compensation for having lost his Nassenhuben post. When he was offered only 1000 roubles, he proudly refused, only receiving 500 roubles from the Russian government much later, in 1771.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=34–35}} The Forsters then traveled by boat from Kronstadt to London, where they arrived on 4 October 1766.{{sfn|Uhlig|2004|p=27}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=36}} In 1765, Forster obtained leave from his pastoral offices and travelled to St Petersburg with ten-year old George, their expenses paid by Hans Wilhelm Rehbinder, a Russian in Danzig who recommended them to Count ], the favourite of ].{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=15}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=25–28}} Forster was given a commission to inspect the newly founded colonies near ] on the ], with the expectation that his report should show that the colonists were thriving and happy and to dispel rumours to the contrary that threatened to cut off the supply of willing ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=28–29}} Forster also made scientific plans for the journey, which the ] in St Petersburg supported by providing him with reference books and instruments.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=15–16}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=29–30}} The Forsters travelled from Moscow to Saratov in May 1765, continuing via Dmitriyevsk (now ]) to Tsaritsyn (now ]). They reached the ] and ] (where Forster studied the salt industry), and inspected further settlements along the Volga and some of its tributaries before returning to St Petersburg in October. During the {{convert|4000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}} journey, George collected hundreds of specimens of plants, helping his father with naming and identification.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=31}} <!-- In St P they lived in the house of Leopold Friedrich August Dilthey (Q60845267) --> Forster made contact with other scientists, and his scientific observations from the journey were read in several sessions at the Academy of Sciences, introduced by the geologist ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=32–33}}{{sfn|Steiner|1968|p=257}} His report for the Russian government was critical of the conditions for the colonists and of the officials in Saratov. After it was received by Orlov and Catherine, Forster was asked to draft regulations for the colonies that would include improved governance and some degree of autonomy, and finished this work in May 1766.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=34}} Forster hoped for a government post, but when that did not come true, he asked for permission to leave Russia and payment of 2000 roubles for his time and as compensation for having lost his Nassenhuben post. When he was offered only 1000 roubles, he proudly refused, only receiving 500 roubles from the Russian government much later, in 1771.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=34–35}} The Forsters then traveled by boat from Kronstadt to London, where they arrived on 4 October 1766.{{sfn|Uhlig|2004|p=27}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=36}}


== England 1766–1772 == == Arrival in England and teaching at Warrington Academy ==
] ]
When Forster came to London, he knew very little English.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=37}} Based on letters of introduction and the recommendation of his friend Woide, the British Museum librarian ] introduced Forster to ], but was unable to help with employment.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=38–39}} Forster sold some items collected during the Russian expedition, including coins and fossils, and tried to find a salaried position in order to bring the rest of his family, who were living in Danzig from the sale of Forster's library and supported by relatives, to England.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Gordon|1975|pp=36–38}} He was introduced to the ] and elected an Honorary Member in January 1767.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=42–43}} Based on the observations from the voyage in Russia, he wrote {{lang|la|Specimen Historiae Naturalis Volgensis}}, an essay in Latin on the natural history of the Volga region that was translated into English and then read at the ] and published in the '']''.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Forster|1767}} When Forster came to London, he knew very little English.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=37}} He brought a letter of introduction from Friedrich Dilthey, a Reformed pastor in St Petersburg, to ], pastor of the German Reformed congregation in London and assistant librarian at the British Museum.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=32, 38–39}} Planta did not receive Forster as warmly as he had expected. Instead of an employment opportunity in England, Planta suggested a pastoral vacancy in North Carolina.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=38–39}}{{sfn|Mariss|2015|p=42}} Based on the recommendation of Forster's school friend Woide, Planta introduced Forster to the naturalist ], a disciple of ] who also worked at the British Museum.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=38}} Forster sold some items collected during the Russian expedition, including coins and fossils, and tried to find a salaried position in order to bring the rest of his family, who were living in Danzig from the sale of Forster's library and supported by relatives, to England.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Gordon|1975|pp=36–38}} He was introduced to the ] and elected an Honorary Member in January 1767.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=42–43}} Based on the observations from the voyage in Russia, he wrote {{lang|la|Specimen Historiae Naturalis Volgensis}}, an essay in Latin on the natural history of the Volga region that was translated into English and then read at the ] and published in the '']''.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Forster|1767}}


]]] ]]]
In June 1767, Forster was appointed as a tutor at ], replacing ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=37,51}} He was able to reunite with his family, who came to Warrington in September 1767.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=53–54}} Forster taught French, German, and natural history, and published a textbook on mineralogy in 1768.{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=54}}{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=32}} The geologist and science historian ] described Forster's approach as "rather more scientific than some of his contemporaries" and giving a "sound grounding in the subject".{{sfn|Eyles|1969|pp=177,181}} Forster became a member of the committee of the ] and of the ] "Lodge of Lights No. 148 Warrington".{{sfn|Mahlke|Weiß|1998|p=28}} He made the acquaintance of other people interested in natural history, including ] and his daughter ] of ],{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=56–57}} to whom he read his lectures on ].{{sfn|Wystrach|1977|p=157}} He also struck up a friendship with the naturalist ], whom he visited at ] in the summer of 1768. Together with his son George, he began to translate the works of three of the ] into English: ]'s ''Travels into North America'', ]'s ''A voyage to China and the East Indies'', and ]'s ''Travels through Spain and Cumana in South America''.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=57–58,353–354}} Forster increasingly was in financial trouble, and started to teach French at the grammar school in ], sharing the duties with his son, who taught the less able pupils.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=59–60}}{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=60}} In early 1769, Forster's debts and a dispute about discipline and corporeal punishment caused a rift between him and his colleagues, especially ], and Forster was dismissed, leaving the Academy in June 1769.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|pp=38–39}} Religious differences may also have played a role in the dispute.{{sfn|Uhlig|2004|pp=30–31}}{{sfn|Mariss|2015|p=45}} Forster then taught languages at the ] in Warrington while continuing work on the translations.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=65}}{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=42}} In June 1767, Forster was appointed as tutor in modern languages and natural history at ], replacing ], with an annual salary of £60.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=37,51}} He was able to reunite with his family, who came to Warrington in September 1767.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=53–54}} Forster taught French, German, and natural history, and published a textbook on mineralogy in 1768.{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=54}}{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=32}} The geologist and science historian ] described Forster's approach as "rather more scientific than some of his contemporaries" and giving a "sound grounding in the subject".{{sfn|Eyles|1969|pp=177,181}} Forster became a member of the committee of the ] and of the ] "Lodge of Lights No. 148 Warrington".{{sfn|Mahlke|Weiß|1998|p=28}} He made the acquaintance of other people interested in natural history, including ] and his daughter ] of ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=56–57}} Forster helped Blackburne with the arrangement of her insect collection and presented his lectures on ] to her,{{sfn|Wystrach|1977|p=157}} while she provided him with access to the family library.{{sfn|Easterby-Smith|2017|p=88}} He also struck up a friendship with the naturalist ], whom he visited at ] in the summer of 1768. Together with his son George, he began to translate the works of three of the ] into English: ]'s ''Travels into North America'', ]'s ''A voyage to China and the East Indies'', and ]'s ''Travels through Spain and Cumana in South America''.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=57–58,353–354}} Forster increasingly was in financial trouble, and started to teach French at the grammar school in ], sharing the duties with his son, who taught the less able pupils.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=59–60}}{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=60}} In early 1769, Forster's debts and a dispute about discipline and corporeal punishment caused a rift between him and his colleagues, especially ], and Forster was dismissed, leaving the Academy in June 1769.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|pp=38–39}} Religious differences may also have played a role in the dispute.{{sfn|Uhlig|2004|pp=30–31}}{{sfn|Mariss|2015|p=45}} Forster then taught languages at the ] in Warrington while continuing work on the translations.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=65}}{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=42}}


== Translator and scholar in London ==
In the summer of 1770, Forster was invited to accompany ] on an ] expedition to ] and planned to take George with him as a midshipman. The family moved to London in November 1770, but the plans fell through when Dalrymple was dismissed from the project in March 1771.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=67}}{{sfn|Hoare|1982|pp=42–43}} Forster cultivated a friendship with the lawyer ], a close friend of Pennant who was vice president of the Society of Antiques and of the Royal Society.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=43}} The translations begun in Warrington started to appear and were successful, with those of Kalm and Osbeck printed in a second edition.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|pp=43–44}}{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=122}} Forster also translated ]'s ''Travels through that part of America formerly called Louisiana'' and his own contributions to North American zoology and botany, ''A Catalogue of the Animals of North America'' and ''Florae Americae Septentrionalis; or a Catalogue of the Plants of North America''.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=43}} In 1771, Forster started writing for '']'', contributing reviews of foreign books.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=68}} Commissioned by ], he started a translation of ]'s {{ill|Voyage autour du monde|fr|italic=yes}}, which appeared in 1772 as ''A Voyage Round the World''.{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=128}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=355}} On 14 November 1771, a number of ] headed by Barrington and including ] and David Solander, endorsed Forster's nomination as a Fellow, leading to his election on 27 February 1772.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=68}} In the summer of 1770, Forster was invited to accompany ] on an ] expedition to ] and planned to take George with him as a midshipman. The family moved to London in November 1770, but the plans fell through when Dalrymple was dismissed from the project in March 1771.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=67}}{{sfn|Hoare|1982|pp=42–43}} Forster cultivated a friendship with the lawyer ], a close friend of Pennant who was vice president of the Society of Antiques and of the Royal Society.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=43}} The translations begun in Warrington started to appear and were successful, with those of Kalm and Osbeck printed in a second edition.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|pp=43–44}}{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=122}} Forster also translated ]'s ''Travels through that part of America formerly called Louisiana'' and his own contributions to North American zoology and botany, ''A Catalogue of the Animals of North America'' and ''Florae Americae Septentrionalis; or a Catalogue of the Plants of North America''.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=43}} The ''Catalogue of the Animals'', described by ornithologist ] as "the first attempt to cover American fauna", contains a section with "Directions for Collecting, Preserving and Transporting all Kinds of Natural History Curiosities", a guide for field studies.{{sfn|Allen|1951|p=501}}{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=118}} In 1771, Forster started writing for '']'', contributing reviews of foreign books.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=68}} Commissioned by ], he started a translation of ]'s {{ill|Voyage autour du monde|fr|italic=yes}}, which appeared in 1772 as ''A Voyage Round the World''.{{sfn|Gordon|1975|p=128}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=355}} On 14 November 1771, a number of ] headed by Barrington and including ] and David Solander, endorsed Forster's nomination as a Fellow, leading to his election on 27 February 1772.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=68}} <!-- Besides translations and natural history, Forster worked on Egyptian languages and geography.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=70}} -->


] painted by ], 1773]]
Banks and Solander had returned to England in July 1771 from the ], and early plans for a ] started in August or September 1771.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=69}}<!-- add Beaglehole cites --> Forster attempted to ...
Banks and Solander had returned to England in July 1771 from the ], and early plans for a ] started in August or September 1771.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=69}} Forster attempted to ingratiate himself with Banks and Solander, for example by dedicating the ''Florae Americae Septentrionalis'' to Solander and directly suggested that he should accompany Banks on a further voyage when he dedicated his book ''Novae Species Insectorum'' to Banks.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=69}} Cook was officially commissioned in November,{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=72}} and when the First Lord of the Admiralty ] approached Banks about taking part, he agreed and started assembling an expedition party including scientist and artists as well as musicians.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1962a|pp=, }}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=72}} Forster was not chosen by Banks, but they were in regular contact and had an amicable relationship.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=72}}


== Appointment as naturalist for Cook's second voyage ==
== time in england ==
On Banks's suggestions and against the objections of ], the ], significant changes were made to the expedition ship, {{HMS|Resolution|1771|6}}, in order to accommodate Banks's large entourage and their equipment.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=}} Alterations included an additional deck and a "roundhouse" on top for the captain, as Banks was to occupy the great cabin.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=}} This made the ship so top-heavy that it was deemed unsafe, and the additions were removed again at ].{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|pp=}} When Banks saw the refitted ship on 24 May 1772, he was furious and soon after announced he would not take part in the expedition.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1962a|p=}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=72}} On 26 May, Forster received a visit from the naval surgeon and inventor ], who, according to Forster's journal, "in a very mysterious manner told me, that Mr Banks did not go in the Resolution to the South Seas, & asked whether I would go".{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=73}}{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=123}} Forster accepted on the only condition that his son George could accompany him as his assistant.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=73}}
warrington, cultivating friends, translating, FRS


The English parliament had not long before voted to spend £4,000 for a scientist to accompany Cook on the voyage, which was intended to go to ], whom Banks had chosen as a member of his party.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=73}}{{sfn|Beaglehole|1962a|p=}} Banks attempted to use his parliamentary contacts and to obtain an audience with the king in order to change the Admiralty's decision regarding the ship.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=73}} Lord Sandwich obtained the king's approval for Forster's appointment.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=73}} In a letter to the Prime Minister, ], Sandwich asked him to support Forster, writing "For these reasons I hope (if you have no objection of your own) that you will encourage Mr. Foster{{sic}} who from all hands is admitted to be one of the fittest persons in Europe for such an undertaking; he is ready to go at a moment's warning, is thoroughly satisfied of the safety of the ship and with her present accomodation, and having his son with him, who is a very able draughtsman and designer, will fully supply the chasm occasioned by Mr. Banks’ having withdrawn himself from the voyage.".{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=73}}{{sfn|Beaglehole|1962b|p=}} On 11 June 1772, the king authorised a payment of £1,795 to Forster from the ] to prepare for the voyage, which was received on 17 June.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=74}} After spending £1,500 on books and equipment, Forster went to ], where the expedition ship, {{HMS|Resolution|1771|6}}, arrived on 3 July.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=75,78}}
== voyage and aftermath ==


mention what Linnaeus said?
== halle ==

== Voyage around the world ==
], London 1780.{{sfnp|National Portrait Gallery}} The plant in the brim of the hat is a '']'' and the bird in Reinhold Forster's hand a ].{{sfnp|National Portrait Gallery}}]]
{{main|Second voyage of James Cook}}
The two expedition ships, ''Resolution'' and {{HMS|Adventure|1771|6}}, sailed from Plymouth on 11 July 1772.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=82}}{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=}} The first stop was ], where Forster and his servant Ernst Scholient collected plants that were then drawn by Georg.{{sfn|Williams|2013|p=99}} In November 1772, the expedition spent three weeks in the ] where Forster and the officers stayed with ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=86}} Forster met ], a disciple of Linnaeus, and employed him as his scientific assistant for a salary of £50 per year plus expenses.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=87}} From there they sailed south, making the first recorded crossing of the ] on 17 January 1773.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=87,90}}{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=}} They sailed to New Zealand and arrived in ] on 27 March after four months at sea.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=91}}{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=}} They stayed there for five weeks; while Forster complained it was not a good season for proper botany, he managed to describe at least 19 birds as well as several fishes and plants.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=91–92}} On an excursion, Forster found a lake that was later named "Lake Forster".{{sfn|Begg|Begg|1966|pp=44, 180}} After a stay in ], they visited the ] and the ] between June and October 1773.{{sfn|Mariss|2015|p=53}} After another tour to antarctic waters where the ship reached 71° 10′ southern latitude,{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=106}} they arrived at ] in February 1774. The southern hemisphere winter was spent in Polynesia, and in October 1774 Cook sailed from New Zealand to ], where he started a third attempt to sail into the Antarctic. They returned to the Cape of Good Hope in March 1775 and finally to Plymouth, arriving there on 29 July 1775.{{sfn|Mariss|2015|p=53}}

== Return to England and controversies ==
After their return to England, Forster and his family moved to 16 ], ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=153}} He was received by the King in August 1775 and presented some animal specimens to the Queen.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=154}} Forster started to publish the scientific results of the voyage. The first publication was on botany, the book {{lang|la|]}}, which appeared in 1775/76.{{sfn|Earp|2013}} It had been prepared on board and was rushed to publication while containing numerous errors, as Forster saw himself in competition with Banks and hoped to claim the discoveries of plant species for himself.{{sfn|Dawson|1973|pp=10–11}}{{sfn|Mariss|2019|p=125}}

In addition to the scientific publications, Forster also expected, based on promises made by Daines Barrington before the voyage, that he would write the official account of the voyage.{{sfn|Hoare|1982|p=69}} The report of Cook's first voyage, '']'', had been compiled by ] for a compensation of £6,000.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1974|p=}} However, Cook wanted to publish his own account.{{sfn|Edwards|2004|p=112}} A compromise was negotiated by ], the ] in April 1776. Cook was to write a first volume containing a narrative of the journey and the nautical observations, while Forster would contribute a second volume on natural history and ethnology. The ] would pay for ]s that should be distributed between the two books.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=159}} However, Forster's sample chapters did not satisfy Sandwich, and after further arguments, Cook worked on his own narrative, while Forster's diaries were used by his son George to write '']'', which appeared in March 1777, six weeks before Cook's account.{{sfn|Thomas|Berghof|2000|pp=xxvii–xxviii}}{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=169}} Forster by then was writing his '']'' as a separate publication.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=168}} Forster was spending lavishly and soon was in financial difficulties, having to sell George's drawings to Banks in August 1776 for 400 guineas.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=163–164}} The publication of ''A Voyage Round the World'' had not been successful financially, and by late 1777 Forster was so deeply in debt that he sold some of his library to avoid debtor's prison.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=169–170}}

In 1778, ], the astronomer on board the ''Resolution'', published a ''Remarks on Mr Forster's Account of Captain Cook's last Voyage round the World'', attacking Forster (whom he regarded as the true author of ''Voyage'') and accused him of lies and misrepresentations.{{sfn|Thomas|Berghof|2000|p=xxviii}}{{sfn|Mariss|2019|p=3}} Georg Forster defended his father with a ''Reply to Mr Wales's Remarks'' containing some factual corrections as well as attacks on Wales and Sandwich.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=179}} In June 1778, this was followed up by a further attack on Sandwich and his mistress, ], the ''Letter to the Right Honourable the Earl of Sandwich''.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=179–180}} After this publication, there was no more possibility of reconciliation with the Admiralty, and the Forsters worked on plans to move to Germany.{{sfn|Uhlig|2004|p=103}} The family moved to less pricey lodgings in summer of 1778, and George travelled to Germany to obtain a position for his father, but only obtained a professorship of natural history at the ] in ] for himself, which was insufficient to support his father's large family.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=189–191}}

== Professor in Halle ==
In February 1779, Forster was appointed professor of natural history and mineralogy at the ] by ], the minister of education of the ]. The appointment was part of an attempt to raise the profile of the university and was supported by King ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=193–194, 210}} The remaining difficulty was that Forster's debts amounted to almost £800. George worked in Germany on securing money to help his father and family leave England, succeeding with the help of ] and various ]. Only Forster's debt to Banks remained, but he did not pursue the matter at the time.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=196–197}} Forster and his family left London for Germany in July 1780.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=203}} On his way to Halle, Forster spent some time in Berlin, where he was granted an audience with the king, who gave him the title of {{lang|de|]}}, approved an increase of his salary in Halle and supported his travel expenses.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=213}}

In September 1780, Forster was introduced to the Senate of the University and given the title of ] {{lang|la|]}} to make up for his lack of teaching credentials.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=216–217}} He was made responsible for ], which was run by Philipp Kaspar Junghans who was employed as demonstrator in botany.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=209,217–218}}{{sfn|Kümmel|1973|pp=374–375}} When Forster's supervision ended in 1788, he had added (in his own estimation) 2700 plants to the garden by using his international connections, for example those to ] in Uppsala and ] at ].{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=218}}{{sfn|Kümmel|1973|p=377}}

Forster was made professor of medicine and received the degree of ], also {{lang|la|honoris causa}}, in 1781.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=219}} He lectured on natural history, but was at first not successful with the students when he based his lectures on his own research.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=220}} Possibly influenced by his son-in-law ], Forster began to teach universal history, geography and statistics using more established teaching texts.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|pp=223–224}} He was more successful in terms of student attendance when he lectured in agriculture, and started publishing essays on cultivation, husbandry and general technology.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=225}} Forster also taught mineralogy from the works of ] and translated ]'s mineralogical tables into German. The first edition of 750 copies sold completely and Forster followed it up with an improved second edition.{{sfn|Hoare|1976|p=225}}


== scientific output and legacy == == scientific output and legacy ==


Forster has been generally overshadowed by his more famous son.{{sfn|Hoare|1967|p=215}} Forster has been generally overshadowed by his more famous son.{{sfn|Hoare|1967|p=215}}

Antipathy of Beaglehole:{{sfn|Edmond|2001|p=367}} use Philips story of the voyage here. Also use Hoare's article "Die beiden Forster und die pazifische Wissenschaft" in GF colloquium volume.{{sfn|Hoare|1994}}

== personality ==

"a clever, but a litigious quarelsom fellow"


== works == == works ==


== refs == == refs ==
{{reflist}} {{reflist|20em}}


== sources == == sources ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Allen |first=Elsa Guerdrum|authorlink=Elsa Guerdrum Allen |date=1951 |title=The History of American Ornithology before Audubon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1005629 |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=387–591 |doi=10.2307/1005629 |issn=0065-9746}}
*{{Cite book |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bea01Bank.html |title=The Endeavour journal of Joseph Banks 1768–1771 |last=Beaglehole |first=J. C|authorlink=John Beaglehole |date=1962a |publisher=Trustees of Public Library of N.S.W. in association with Angus and Robertson |location=Sydney |language=English |oclc=222980498|volume=1}}
*{{cite book|url=https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bea02Bank.html |title=The Endeavour journal of Joseph Banks 1768–1771 |last=Beaglehole |first=J. C|authorlink=John Beaglehole |date=1962b |publisher=Trustees of Public Library of N.S.W. in association with Angus and Robertson |location=Sydney |language=English |oclc=686620387|volume=2}}
*{{Cite book |last=Beaglehole |first=John C.|author-link=John Beaglehole |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bea04Cook.html |title=The Life of Captain James Cook |date=1974 |publisher=Adam & Charles Black |location=London |language=English |oclc=480115019}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Begg|first1=A. Charles |last2=Begg |first2=Neil C. |url=https://archive.org/details/duskybay0000acha |title=Dusky Bay |date=1966 |publisher=Barnes & Noble|location=New York |language=English}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Dawson |first=Ruth |title=Georg Forster's Reise um die Welt. A Travelogue in its Eighteenth-Century Context |date=1973 |degree=PhD |publisher=]|oclc=65229601}}
*{{cite ADB|7|166|172|Forster, Reinhold|Dove, Alfred|ADB:Forster, Reinhold|mode=cs1|ref={{sfnref|Dove|1877}}}} *{{cite ADB|7|166|172|Forster, Reinhold|Dove, Alfred|ADB:Forster, Reinhold|mode=cs1|ref={{sfnref|Dove|1877}}}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Earp |first=C. |date=1 December 2013 |title=The date of publication of the Forsters' Characteres Generum Plantarum revisited |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0028825X.2013.806935 |journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=252–263 |doi=10.1080/0028825X.2013.806935 |bibcode=2013NZJB...51..252E |s2cid=85352282 |issn=0028-825X}}
*{{Cite book |last=Easterby-Smith |first=Sarah |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cultivating-commerce/amateur-botany/2A4494D6756B280309C649A3BB660614 |title=Cultivating Commerce: Cultures of Botany in Britain and France, 1760–1815 |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-12684-8 |series=Science in History |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/9781316411339.004}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Edmond |first=Rod |date=2001 |title=Review of The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2661231 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=366–368 |issn=1359-0987}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4-Beq7fldc0C&pg=PA115 |title=The Story of the Voyage: Sea-Narratives in Eighteenth-Century England |last=Edwards |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Edwards (academic) |date=20 May 2004|publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-60426-0 |language=en}}
*{{Cite conference |last=Eyles |first=Victor|authorlink=Victor Eyles |date=1969 |work=Toward a history of geology|title=The extent of geological knowledge in the eighteenth century, and the methods by which it was diffused *{{Cite conference |last=Eyles |first=Victor|authorlink=Victor Eyles |date=1969 |work=Toward a history of geology|title=The extent of geological knowledge in the eighteenth century, and the methods by which it was diffused
|url=http://archive.org/details/towardhistoryofg0000newh |conference=New Hampshire Inter-disciplinary Conference on the History of Geology (1967 : Rye Beach) |location=Cambridge |publisher=M.I.T. Press |pages=159–183 |isbn=978-0-262-19058-9}} |url=http://archive.org/details/towardhistoryofg0000newh |conference=New Hampshire Inter-disciplinary Conference on the History of Geology (1967 : Rye Beach) |location=Cambridge |publisher=M.I.T. Press |pages=159–183 |isbn=978-0-262-19058-9}}
*{{Cite thesis |last=Gordon |first=Joseph Stuart |title=Reinhold and Georg Forster in England, 1766-1780 |date=1975 |publisher=Duke University |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/reinhold-and-georg-forster-in-england-1766-1780/oclc/732713365 |place=Ann Arbor |language=English}} *{{Cite thesis |last=Gordon |first=Joseph Stuart |title=Reinhold and Georg Forster in England, 1766-1780 |date=1975 |publisher=Duke University |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/reinhold-and-georg-forster-in-england-1766-1780/oclc/732713365 |place=Ann Arbor |language=English|degree =PhD}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Hoare |first=Michael Edward |date=1967 |title=Johann Reinhold Forster: The Neglected 'Philosopher' of Cook's Second Voyage (1772-1775) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25167919 |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |volume=2 |pages=215–224 |issn=0022-3344}} *{{Cite journal |last=Hoare |first=Michael Edward |date=1967 |title=Johann Reinhold Forster: The Neglected 'Philosopher' of Cook's Second Voyage (1772-1775) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25167919 |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |volume=2 |pages=215–224 |issn=0022-3344}}
*{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hcYLAQAAIAAJ&q=%2522Cook+told+his%2522 |title=The Tactless Philosopher: Johann Reinhold Forster (1729-98) |last=Hoare |first=Michael Edward |date=1976 |publisher=Hawthorne Press |isbn=9780725601218 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/tactlessphilosop0000hoar |title=The Tactless Philosopher: Johann Reinhold Forster (1729-98) |last=Hoare |first=Michael Edward |date=1976 |publisher=Hawthorne Press |isbn=9780725601218 |language=en}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hoare |first=Michael Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8EMAAAAYAAJ |title=The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster, 1772–1775 |date=1982 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-904180-10-7 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Hoare |first=Michael Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8EMAAAAYAAJ |title=The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster, 1772–1775 |date=1982 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-904180-10-7 |language=en}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Die beiden Forster und die pazifische Wissenschaft|trans-title=The Two Forsters and Pacific Science |encyclopedia=Georg Forster in interdisziplinärer Perspektive: Beiträge des Internationalen Georg-Forster-Symposions in Kassel, 1. bis 4. April 1993 |publisher=Akademie Verlag |location=Berlin|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783050070315-006/html |last=Hoare |first=Michael E. |date=1994 |pages=29–42 |language=de |doi=10.1515/9783050070315-006/html |isbn=978-3-05-007031-5|editor-last=Klenke|editor-first=Claus-Volker |translator-last=Klenke|translator-first=Claus-Volker}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Kümmel |first=Fritz |date=1973 |title=Zur Geschichte des Botanischen Gartens der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Willenberg in Halle im Zeitraum von 1698 bis 1817 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/publikation_articles.php?id=313589 |journal=Hercynia |volume=10 |pages=366–393|lang=de}}
*{{Cite book |last=Mahlke |first=Regina |title=Faszination Forschung: Johann Reinhold Forster (1729-1798) |last2=Weiß |first2=Ruth |date=1998 |publisher=Ludwig Reichert Verlag |isbn=978-3-89500-096-6 |series=Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin—Preußischer Kulturbesitz. Ausstellungskataloge, Neue Folge |volume=31 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |oclc=231767346}} *{{Cite book |last=Mahlke |first=Regina |title=Faszination Forschung: Johann Reinhold Forster (1729-1798) |last2=Weiß |first2=Ruth |date=1998 |publisher=Ludwig Reichert Verlag |isbn=978-3-89500-096-6 |series=Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin—Preußischer Kulturbesitz. Ausstellungskataloge, Neue Folge |volume=31 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |oclc=231767346}}
*{{Cite book |last=Mariss |first=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie4rCwAAQBAJ&newbks=0 |title=A world of new things: Praktiken der Naturgeschichte bei Johann Reinhold Forster |date=2015-12-10 |publisher=Campus Verlag |isbn=978-3-593-50477-3 |language=de}} *{{Cite book |last=Mariss |first=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie4rCwAAQBAJ&newbks=0 |title=A world of new things: Praktiken der Naturgeschichte bei Johann Reinhold Forster |date=2015-12-10 |publisher=Campus Verlag |isbn=978-3-593-50477-3 |language=de}}
*{{Cite book |last=Mariss |first=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIirDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0 |title=Johann Reinhold Forster and the Making of Natural History on Cook's Second Voyage, 1772–1775 |date=2019-09-09 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5615-6 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Mariss |first=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIirDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0 |title=Johann Reinhold Forster and the Making of Natural History on Cook's Second Voyage, 1772–1775 |date=2019-09-09 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5615-6 |language=en}}
*{{Cite web |url=http://www.portrait.gov.au/portraits/2009.55/portrait-of-dr-johann-reinhold-forster-and-his-son-george-forster/ |title=Portrait of Dr Johann Reinhold Forster and his son George Forster, c. 1780 |author=National Portrait Gallery|website=National Portrait Gallery collection |access-date=8 March 2020}}
*{{Cite book |last=Pantenius |first=Michael|place=Halle|publisher=Hasenverlag |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/johann-reinhold-forster-von-tahiti-an-die-saale/oclc/1282186844 |title=Johann Reinhold Forster. Von Tahiti an die Saale |date=2021 |isbn=978-3-945377-78-9 |language=German |oclc=1282186844}} *{{Cite book |last=Pantenius |first=Michael|place=Halle|publisher=Hasenverlag |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/johann-reinhold-forster-von-tahiti-an-die-saale/oclc/1282186844 |title=Johann Reinhold Forster. Von Tahiti an die Saale |date=2021 |isbn=978-3-945377-78-9 |language=German |oclc=1282186844}}
*{{Cite book |last=Salmond|first=Anne|authorlink=Anne Salmond |url=http://archive.org/details/trialofcannibald0000anne |title=Trial of the Cannibal Dog: Captain Cook in the South Seas |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin Group New Zealand, Limited |isbn=978-0-14-102133-1}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Graßhoff|editor-first=Helmut |editor2-last=Lehmann|editor2-first=Ulf|last=Steiner|first=Gerhard|title=Johann Reinhold Forsters und Georg Forsters Beziehungen zu Rußland| encyclopedia=Studien zur Geschichte der russischen Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts|volume=2 |location=Berlin|publisher=Akademie-Verlag|year=1968 |pages=245–311, 430–450|oclc=174778052}}
*{{Cite book |last=Steiner |first=Gerhard |url=https://archive.org/details/georgforster0000stei |title=Georg Forster |date=1977 |publisher=J.B. Metzler |isbn=978-3-476-10156-3 |location=Stuttgart |language=German |oclc=462099778}} *{{Cite book |last=Steiner |first=Gerhard |url=https://archive.org/details/georgforster0000stei |title=Georg Forster |date=1977 |publisher=J.B. Metzler |isbn=978-3-476-10156-3 |location=Stuttgart |language=German |oclc=462099778}}
* {{Cite book |title=A voyage round the world |last=Forster|first=George |author-link=Georg Forster |date=2000 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8248-6130-8 |location=Honolulu |oclc=70765538|editor1-last=Thomas |editor1-first=Nicholas |editor1-link=Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist) |editor2-last=Berghof |editor2-first=Oliver |contribution=Introduction|contributor1-last=Thomas |contributor1-first=Nicholas |contributor1-link=Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist) |contributor2-last=Berghof |contributor2-first=Oliver |pages=xix–xliii}}
*{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/georgforsterlebe0000uhli |url-access=registration |title=Georg Forster: Lebensabenteuer eines gelehrten Weltbürgers (1754-1794) |last=Uhlig |first=Ludwig |date=2004 |place=Göttingen|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9783525367315 |language=de}} *{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/georgforsterlebe0000uhli |url-access=registration |title=Georg Forster: Lebensabenteuer eines gelehrten Weltbürgers (1754-1794) |last=Uhlig |first=Ludwig |date=2004 |place=Göttingen|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9783525367315 |language=de}}
*{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalistsatsea0000will |title=Naturalists at Sea: Scientific Travellers from Dampier to Darwin |last=Williams |first=Glyn|author-link=Glyndwr Williams |date=22 October 2013 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-300-18073-2 |language=en|url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Wystrach |first=V. P. |date=May 1977 |title=Anna Blackburne (1726-1793)–a neglected patroness of natural history |url=https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/jsbnh.1977.8.2.148 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=148–168 |doi=10.3366/jsbnh.1977.8.2.148 |issn=0037-9778}} *{{Cite journal |last=Wystrach |first=V. P. |date=May 1977 |title=Anna Blackburne (1726-1793)–a neglected patroness of natural history |url=https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/jsbnh.1977.8.2.148 |journal=Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=148–168 |doi=10.3366/jsbnh.1977.8.2.148 |issn=0037-9778}}
{{refend}}

*https://archive.org/details/warringtonacadem0000will/page/28/mode/2up?q=planta
*https://archive.org/details/LichtenbergSchriftenUndBriefeBd4/page/n247/mode/2up?q=forste
*https://archive.org/details/banksletterscale1958bank/page/334/mode/2up?q=forster
*] https://www.bergbau-gr.ch/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/bk/bk_71.pdf
*https://www.jstor.org/stable/41045103?seq=7
*https://www.jstor.org/stable/25168099
*https://archive.org/details/biostor-162802/page/n1/mode/2up


== works == == works ==

Latest revision as of 21:15, 3 January 2025

Johann Reinhold Forster (22 October 1729 – 9 December 1798) was a German Reformed pastor and naturalist. Born in Dirschau, Pomeranian Voivodeship, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (now Tczew, Poland), he attended school in Dirschau and Marienwerder before being admitted at the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium in Berlin in 1745. Skilled in classical and biblical languages, he studied theology at the University of Halle. In 1753, he became a parson at a parish just south of Danzig. He married his cousin Justina Elisabeth Nicolai in 1754, and they had seven surviving children; the oldest child was Georg Forster.

Early life and education

Johann Reinhold Forster was born on 22 October 1729 in Dirschau, Pomeranian Voivodeship, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (now Tczew, Poland). Forster's family was descended from a Yorkshire-born ancestor, George Forster, a descendent of the Scottish Forrester family. He had emigrated from England as a supporter of the losing Royalist side in the English Civil War and became a merchant in Neuenburg (Nowe) in the 1640s. Forster's father was Georg Reinhold Forster, who became mayor of Dirschau in 1733 (the third Forster to become mayor of Dirschau), and his mother was the widow Eva Plaht. Georg Reinhold became an invalid in 1735 and had to retire as mayor. Forster attended a Latin school in Dirschau, and then went to Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) to attend the gymnasium in 1743.

The Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium in Berlin in 1757

In May 1745, Forster was admitted at the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium in Berlin, a reputable institution. His teachers included Johann Philipp Heinius [de], the school rector, who taught theology, Hebrew, Roman antiquity and philosophy, and Friedrich Muzel [de], the school librarian, who taught history, literature, Latin and natural philosophy. Forster quickly became skilled in classical and biblical languages including Coptic and fluent in Latin. He graduated in 1748 together with Karl Franz von Irwing [de], who became a lifelong friend. Other friends and acquaintances included Louis de Beausobre, August Friedrich Pallas [de] and Carl Gottfried Woide. Forster also sought out the friendship of foreign students to improve his knowledge of modern languages, especially French.

After his time at the gymnasium, Forster wanted to study medicine at the University of Halle. However, his father wanted him to study law instead. As a compromise, Forster studied theology in Halle. Little is known about his student days. His academic teachers included theologian Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten and orientalist Christian Benedikt Michaelis [de].

St Peter and Paul church, Danzig

By July 1751, Forster had arrived in Danzig (Gdańsk), where he was a candidate for ordination at the Reformed church of St Peter and Paul [de; pl]. He had only a meagre income, and his preaching workload did not allow him to pursue his scholarly interests. His sermons won praise, and his superiors contemplated sending him abroad for additional training. Possibly to please his father by obtaining a permanent position, Forster, who was ordained in Königsberg in August 1753, accepted the post of parson of the Hochzeit-Nassenhuben parish just south of Danzig, starting there on 23 September 1753.

Marriage and work as pastor

The Mottlau (Motława) river between Hochzeit (Wiślina) and Nassenhuben (Mokry Dwór)

Forster had courted his cousin Justina Elisabeth Nicolai since 1751. However, he was unable to marry her on his income at the time. His father died on 15 November 1753, not long after Forster obtained the post in Nassenhuben, and Forster sold the family house in Dirschau soon after, in 1754. He married Justina Elisabeth on 26 February 1754 at St Peter and Paul in Danzig. Between 1754 and 1765, they had seven children who survived childbirth, including the eldest son, Johann George Adam Forster, also known as Georg Forster.

Forster started to spend some of his inheritance on his library, collecting thousands of books. He started to concentrate on scholarly work (especially Egyptian languages like Coptic) to the detriment of his duties as a pastor. Sometimes he fell asleep during the church service only to be woken to deliver his sermon. Forster hoped for a better post in Danzig, which was a usual step after the Nassenhuben position, but this did not materialise. In 1757, he wrote to the mathematician Leonhard Euler in an attempt to find a position at the new Imperial Moscow University; while he obtained a recommendation, nothing came of it because of the intensifying Seven Years' War. Russian troops occupied the area surrounding Danzig in May 1758, including the Hochzeit-Nassenhuben parish. Forster did not leave for the relative safety of Danzig, but stayed with his parishioners and protected them against excesses of the occupying Russian troops by directly making demands of the Russian commander-in-chief, William Fermor.

Forster's son George was interested in the study of nature from an early age, and so Reinhold, to satisfy his son's curiosity, bought Carl Linnaeus' Systema Naturae and other books, learned natural history from them and then taught his son. Other subjects of this instruction were Latin, French and religion as well as writing and arithmetic.

Russian expedition

Shore of Lake Elton

In 1765, Forster obtained leave from his pastoral offices and travelled to St Petersburg with ten-year old George, their expenses paid by Hans Wilhelm Rehbinder, a Russian in Danzig who recommended them to Count Grigory Orlov, the favourite of Catherine the Great. Forster was given a commission to inspect the newly founded colonies near Saratov on the Volga River, with the expectation that his report should show that the colonists were thriving and happy and to dispel rumours to the contrary that threatened to cut off the supply of willing German colonists. Forster also made scientific plans for the journey, which the Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg supported by providing him with reference books and instruments. The Forsters travelled from Moscow to Saratov in May 1765, continuing via Dmitriyevsk (now Kamyshin) to Tsaritsyn (now Volgograd). They reached the Kalmyk Steppe and Lake Elton (where Forster studied the salt industry), and inspected further settlements along the Volga and some of its tributaries before returning to St Petersburg in October. During the 4,000 km (2,500 mi) journey, George collected hundreds of specimens of plants, helping his father with naming and identification. Forster made contact with other scientists, and his scientific observations from the journey were read in several sessions at the Academy of Sciences, introduced by the geologist Johann Gottlieb Lehmann. His report for the Russian government was critical of the conditions for the colonists and of the officials in Saratov. After it was received by Orlov and Catherine, Forster was asked to draft regulations for the colonies that would include improved governance and some degree of autonomy, and finished this work in May 1766. Forster hoped for a government post, but when that did not come true, he asked for permission to leave Russia and payment of 2000 roubles for his time and as compensation for having lost his Nassenhuben post. When he was offered only 1000 roubles, he proudly refused, only receiving 500 roubles from the Russian government much later, in 1771. The Forsters then traveled by boat from Kronstadt to London, where they arrived on 4 October 1766.

Arrival in England and teaching at Warrington Academy

Warrington Academy

When Forster came to London, he knew very little English. He brought a letter of introduction from Friedrich Dilthey, a Reformed pastor in St Petersburg, to Andrew Planta, pastor of the German Reformed congregation in London and assistant librarian at the British Museum. Planta did not receive Forster as warmly as he had expected. Instead of an employment opportunity in England, Planta suggested a pastoral vacancy in North Carolina. Based on the recommendation of Forster's school friend Woide, Planta introduced Forster to the naturalist Daniel Solander, a disciple of Linnaeus who also worked at the British Museum. Forster sold some items collected during the Russian expedition, including coins and fossils, and tried to find a salaried position in order to bring the rest of his family, who were living in Danzig from the sale of Forster's library and supported by relatives, to England. He was introduced to the Society of Antiquaries and elected an Honorary Member in January 1767. Based on the observations from the voyage in Russia, he wrote Specimen Historiae Naturalis Volgensis, an essay in Latin on the natural history of the Volga region that was translated into English and then read at the Royal Society and published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.

Thomas Pennant, oil painting by Thomas Gainsborough

In June 1767, Forster was appointed as tutor in modern languages and natural history at Warrington Academy, replacing Joseph Priestley, with an annual salary of £60. He was able to reunite with his family, who came to Warrington in September 1767. Forster taught French, German, and natural history, and published a textbook on mineralogy in 1768. The geologist and science historian Victor Eyles described Forster's approach as "rather more scientific than some of his contemporaries" and giving a "sound grounding in the subject". Forster became a member of the committee of the Warrington Circulating Library and of the masonic lodge "Lodge of Lights No. 148 Warrington". He made the acquaintance of other people interested in natural history, including John Blackburne and his daughter Anna Blackburne of Orford Hall. Forster helped Blackburne with the arrangement of her insect collection and presented his lectures on entomology to her, while she provided him with access to the family library. He also struck up a friendship with the naturalist Thomas Pennant, whom he visited at Downing Hall in the summer of 1768. Together with his son George, he began to translate the works of three of the apostles of Linnaeus into English: Pehr Kalm's Travels into North America, Pehr Osbeck's A voyage to China and the East Indies, and Pehr Löfling's Travels through Spain and Cumana in South America. Forster increasingly was in financial trouble, and started to teach French at the grammar school in Winwick, sharing the duties with his son, who taught the less able pupils. In early 1769, Forster's debts and a dispute about discipline and corporeal punishment caused a rift between him and his colleagues, especially John Seddon, and Forster was dismissed, leaving the Academy in June 1769. Religious differences may also have played a role in the dispute. Forster then taught languages at the Boteler Grammar School in Warrington while continuing work on the translations.

Translator and scholar in London

In the summer of 1770, Forster was invited to accompany Alexander Dalrymple on an East India Company expedition to Balambangan and planned to take George with him as a midshipman. The family moved to London in November 1770, but the plans fell through when Dalrymple was dismissed from the project in March 1771. Forster cultivated a friendship with the lawyer Daines Barrington, a close friend of Pennant who was vice president of the Society of Antiques and of the Royal Society. The translations begun in Warrington started to appear and were successful, with those of Kalm and Osbeck printed in a second edition. Forster also translated Jean Bernard Bossu's Travels through that part of America formerly called Louisiana and his own contributions to North American zoology and botany, A Catalogue of the Animals of North America and Florae Americae Septentrionalis; or a Catalogue of the Plants of North America. The Catalogue of the Animals, described by ornithologist Elsa Guerdrum Allen as "the first attempt to cover American fauna", contains a section with "Directions for Collecting, Preserving and Transporting all Kinds of Natural History Curiosities", a guide for field studies. In 1771, Forster started writing for The Critical Review, contributing reviews of foreign books. Commissioned by Thomas Davies, he started a translation of Louis Antoine de Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde  [fr], which appeared in 1772 as A Voyage Round the World. On 14 November 1771, a number of Fellows of the Royal Society headed by Barrington and including Joseph Banks and David Solander, endorsed Forster's nomination as a Fellow, leading to his election on 27 February 1772.

Joseph Banks painted by Benjamin West, 1773

Banks and Solander had returned to England in July 1771 from the first voyage of James Cook, and early plans for a second voyage started in August or September 1771. Forster attempted to ingratiate himself with Banks and Solander, for example by dedicating the Florae Americae Septentrionalis to Solander and directly suggested that he should accompany Banks on a further voyage when he dedicated his book Novae Species Insectorum to Banks. Cook was officially commissioned in November, and when the First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Sandwich approached Banks about taking part, he agreed and started assembling an expedition party including scientist and artists as well as musicians. Forster was not chosen by Banks, but they were in regular contact and had an amicable relationship.

Appointment as naturalist for Cook's second voyage

On Banks's suggestions and against the objections of Hugh Palliser, the Comptroller of the Navy, significant changes were made to the expedition ship, HMS Resolution, in order to accommodate Banks's large entourage and their equipment. Alterations included an additional deck and a "roundhouse" on top for the captain, as Banks was to occupy the great cabin. This made the ship so top-heavy that it was deemed unsafe, and the additions were removed again at Sheerness Dockyard. When Banks saw the refitted ship on 24 May 1772, he was furious and soon after announced he would not take part in the expedition. On 26 May, Forster received a visit from the naval surgeon and inventor Charles Irving, who, according to Forster's journal, "in a very mysterious manner told me, that Mr Banks did not go in the Resolution to the South Seas, & asked whether I would go". Forster accepted on the only condition that his son George could accompany him as his assistant.

The English parliament had not long before voted to spend £4,000 for a scientist to accompany Cook on the voyage, which was intended to go to James Lind, whom Banks had chosen as a member of his party. Banks attempted to use his parliamentary contacts and to obtain an audience with the king in order to change the Admiralty's decision regarding the ship. Lord Sandwich obtained the king's approval for Forster's appointment. In a letter to the Prime Minister, Lord North, Sandwich asked him to support Forster, writing "For these reasons I hope (if you have no objection of your own) that you will encourage Mr. Foster [sic] who from all hands is admitted to be one of the fittest persons in Europe for such an undertaking; he is ready to go at a moment's warning, is thoroughly satisfied of the safety of the ship and with her present accomodation, and having his son with him, who is a very able draughtsman and designer, will fully supply the chasm occasioned by Mr. Banks’ having withdrawn himself from the voyage.". On 11 June 1772, the king authorised a payment of £1,795 to Forster from the civil list to prepare for the voyage, which was received on 17 June. After spending £1,500 on books and equipment, Forster went to Plymouth, where the expedition ship, HMS Resolution, arrived on 3 July.

mention what Linnaeus said?

Voyage around the world

Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster, by John Francis Rigaud, London 1780. The plant in the brim of the hat is a Forstera sedifolia and the bird in Reinhold Forster's hand a New Zealand bellbird.
Main article: Second voyage of James Cook

The two expedition ships, Resolution and HMS Adventure, sailed from Plymouth on 11 July 1772. The first stop was Madeira, where Forster and his servant Ernst Scholient collected plants that were then drawn by Georg. In November 1772, the expedition spent three weeks in the Cape Colony where Forster and the officers stayed with Christoffel Brand. Forster met Anders Sparrman, a disciple of Linnaeus, and employed him as his scientific assistant for a salary of £50 per year plus expenses. From there they sailed south, making the first recorded crossing of the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773. They sailed to New Zealand and arrived in Dusky Sound on 27 March after four months at sea. They stayed there for five weeks; while Forster complained it was not a good season for proper botany, he managed to describe at least 19 birds as well as several fishes and plants. On an excursion, Forster found a lake that was later named "Lake Forster". After a stay in Queen Charlotte Sound, they visited the Society Islands and the Friendly Islands between June and October 1773. After another tour to antarctic waters where the ship reached 71° 10′ southern latitude, they arrived at Easter Island in February 1774. The southern hemisphere winter was spent in Polynesia, and in October 1774 Cook sailed from New Zealand to Tierra del Fuego, where he started a third attempt to sail into the Antarctic. They returned to the Cape of Good Hope in March 1775 and finally to Plymouth, arriving there on 29 July 1775.

Return to England and controversies

After their return to England, Forster and his family moved to 16 Percy Street, St Pancras. He was received by the King in August 1775 and presented some animal specimens to the Queen. Forster started to publish the scientific results of the voyage. The first publication was on botany, the book Characteres generum plantarum, which appeared in 1775/76. It had been prepared on board and was rushed to publication while containing numerous errors, as Forster saw himself in competition with Banks and hoped to claim the discoveries of plant species for himself.

In addition to the scientific publications, Forster also expected, based on promises made by Daines Barrington before the voyage, that he would write the official account of the voyage. The report of Cook's first voyage, An Account of the Voyages, had been compiled by John Hawkesworth for a compensation of £6,000. However, Cook wanted to publish his own account. A compromise was negotiated by Lord Sandwich, the First Lord of the Admiralty in April 1776. Cook was to write a first volume containing a narrative of the journey and the nautical observations, while Forster would contribute a second volume on natural history and ethnology. The British Admiralty would pay for engravings that should be distributed between the two books. However, Forster's sample chapters did not satisfy Sandwich, and after further arguments, Cook worked on his own narrative, while Forster's diaries were used by his son George to write A Voyage Round the World, which appeared in March 1777, six weeks before Cook's account. Forster by then was writing his Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World as a separate publication. Forster was spending lavishly and soon was in financial difficulties, having to sell George's drawings to Banks in August 1776 for 400 guineas. The publication of A Voyage Round the World had not been successful financially, and by late 1777 Forster was so deeply in debt that he sold some of his library to avoid debtor's prison.

In 1778, William Wales, the astronomer on board the Resolution, published a Remarks on Mr Forster's Account of Captain Cook's last Voyage round the World, attacking Forster (whom he regarded as the true author of Voyage) and accused him of lies and misrepresentations. Georg Forster defended his father with a Reply to Mr Wales's Remarks containing some factual corrections as well as attacks on Wales and Sandwich. In June 1778, this was followed up by a further attack on Sandwich and his mistress, Martha Ray, the Letter to the Right Honourable the Earl of Sandwich. After this publication, there was no more possibility of reconciliation with the Admiralty, and the Forsters worked on plans to move to Germany. The family moved to less pricey lodgings in summer of 1778, and George travelled to Germany to obtain a position for his father, but only obtained a professorship of natural history at the Collegium Carolinum in Kassel for himself, which was insufficient to support his father's large family.

Professor in Halle

In February 1779, Forster was appointed professor of natural history and mineralogy at the University of Halle by Karl Abraham von Zedlitz, the minister of education of the Kingdom of Prussia. The appointment was part of an attempt to raise the profile of the university and was supported by King Frederick the Great. The remaining difficulty was that Forster's debts amounted to almost £800. George worked in Germany on securing money to help his father and family leave England, succeeding with the help of Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and various Freemasons. Only Forster's debt to Banks remained, but he did not pursue the matter at the time. Forster and his family left London for Germany in July 1780. On his way to Halle, Forster spent some time in Berlin, where he was granted an audience with the king, who gave him the title of Geheimrat, approved an increase of his salary in Halle and supported his travel expenses.

In September 1780, Forster was introduced to the Senate of the University and given the title of Doctor of Philosophy honoris causa to make up for his lack of teaching credentials. He was made responsible for the university's botanical garden, which was run by Philipp Kaspar Junghans who was employed as demonstrator in botany. When Forster's supervision ended in 1788, he had added (in his own estimation) 2700 plants to the garden by using his international connections, for example those to Carl Peter Thunberg in Uppsala and William Aiton at Kew.

Forster was made professor of medicine and received the degree of Doctor of Medicine, also honoris causa, in 1781. He lectured on natural history, but was at first not successful with the students when he based his lectures on his own research. Possibly influenced by his son-in-law Matthias Christian Sprengel, Forster began to teach universal history, geography and statistics using more established teaching texts. He was more successful in terms of student attendance when he lectured in agriculture, and started publishing essays on cultivation, husbandry and general technology. Forster also taught mineralogy from the works of August Ferdinand von Veltheim and translated Tiberius Cavallo's mineralogical tables into German. The first edition of 750 copies sold completely and Forster followed it up with an improved second edition.

scientific output and legacy

Forster has been generally overshadowed by his more famous son.

Antipathy of Beaglehole: use Philips story of the voyage here. Also use Hoare's article "Die beiden Forster und die pazifische Wissenschaft" in GF colloquium volume.

personality

"a clever, but a litigious quarelsom fellow"

works

refs

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sources

works