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{{Short description|Ming dynasty official (1314–1390)}}
{{family name hatnote|]|lang=Chinese}}
{{Infobox officeholder {{Infobox officeholder
| name = Li Shanchang | name = Li Shanchang
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| predecessor = ''Office established'' | predecessor = ''Office established''
| successor = ] | successor = ]
| birth_date = 1314<br>Yanyou 1<br>(延祐元年) | birth_date = 1314<br>Yuan Yanyou 1<br>(元延祐元年)
| birth_place = ], ], Anfeng Lu, ] | birth_place = ], ], Anfeng Lu, ]
| death_date = {{death year and age|1390|1314}}<br>Hongwu 23<br>(洪武二十三年) | death_date = {{death year and age|1390|1314}}<br>Ming Hongwu 23<br>(明洪武二十三年)
| death_place = ] | death_place = ]
| spouse = | spouse =
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| occupation = Politician | occupation = Politician
}} }}
'''Li Shanchang''' ({{zh|c=|s=|t=李善長|p=Lǐ Shàncháng|w=Li Shan-ch'ang}}; 1314–1390) was a Chinese politician of the ], part of the West Huai (Huaixi) faction, and Duke of Han, one of the six founding dukes of the Ming Dynasty in 1370.<ref name=Taylor1963>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Romeyn |title=Social Origins of the Ming Dynasty 1351–1360 |journal=Monumenta Serica |date=1963 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–78 |doi=10.1080/02549948.1963.11731029 |jstor=40726467 }}</ref> Li Shanchang was one of ]'s associates during the war against the ] to establish the Ming dynasty.<ref name=Fan2016p94>{{cite book |last1=Fan |first1=C. Simon |title=Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-24183-6 |page=94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cwq4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 |doi=10.4324/9781315628707 }}</ref> '''Li Shanchang''' ({{zh|c=|s=|t=李善長|p=Lǐ Shàncháng|w=Li Shan-ch'ang}}; 1314–1390) was a Chinese official of the ], part of the West Huai (Huaixi) faction, and Duke of Han, one of the six founding dukes of the Ming dynasty in 1370.<ref name=Taylor1963>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Romeyn |title=Social Origins of the Ming Dynasty 1351–1360 |journal=Monumenta Serica |date=1963 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–78 |doi=10.1080/02549948.1963.11731029 |jstor=40726467 }}</ref> Li Shanchang was one of ]'s associates during the war against the ] to establish the Ming dynasty.<ref name=Fan2016p94>{{cite book |last1=Fan |first1=C. Simon |title=Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-24183-6 |page=94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cwq4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 |doi=10.4324/9781315628707 }}</ref> Deeply trusted by the Emperor,<ref>Anita M. Andrew, John A. Rapp 2000. p.161. Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors. https://books.google.com/books?id=YQOhVb5Fbt4C&pg=PA161</ref> Hongwu consulted Li on institutional matters,<ref>Jiang Yonglin, Yonglin Jiang 2005. p.xxxiv. The Great Ming Code: Da Ming lü. https://books.google.com/books?id=h58hszAft5wC</ref> but became "bored with Li's arrogance" in old age. Ultimately, the emperor purged and executed Li along with his extended family and thirty thousand others, accusing him of supporting ].<ref name=Andrew2000p161>{{cite book |last1=Andrew |first1=Anita M. |last2=Rapp |first2=John A. |title=Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu |date=2000 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=161 |isbn=978-0-8476-9580-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQOhVb5Fbt4C&pg=PA161 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu |date=2012 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80400-2 }}{{pn|date=August 2022}}</ref>


⚫ Li planned the organization of the six ministries, helped draft a new law code, and supervised the compiling of the '']'', being the Ancestral Instructions and the Ritual Compendium of the Ming Dynasty. He established salt and tea monopolies based on Yuan institutions, launched an anti-corruption campaign, restored minted currency, opened iron foundries, and instituted fish taxes. It is said that revenues were sufficient, yet the people were not oppressed.
The emperor was "bored with Li's arrogance" in old age. The Zhu family emperor then purged and executed Li along with his extended family and thirty thousand others, accusing him of supporting ].<ref name=Andrew2000p161>{{cite book |last1=Andrew |first1=Anita M. |last2=Rapp |first2=John A. |title=Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu |date=2000 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=161 |isbn=978-0-8476-9580-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQOhVb5Fbt4C&pg=PA161 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu |date=2012 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80400-2 }}{{pn|date=August 2022}}</ref>


⚫ A doubtful classicist, he was charged with drafting legal documents, mandates, and military communications. The '']'' biography states that his studies included ] writings. Most of his activities seem to have supported ]'s firm control of his regime. He was tasked with purging political opponents, anti-corruption, and rooting out disloyal military officers. His reward and punishment system was influenced by ], and Li Shanchang had a kind of ] in his service. At times he had charge of all civil and military officials in Nanjing.<ref name=Taylor1963/><ref name=Farmer1995p29>{{cite book |last1=Farmer |first1=Edward L. |title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule |date=1995 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10391-7 |page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA29 |doi=10.1163/9789004489158 }}</ref>
⚫ Li Shanchang organized ministries, helped draft a new law code, and helped compile the '']'' and the Ancestral Instructions and the Ritual Compendium of the Ming Dynasty. He helped established salt and tea monopolies based on Yuan institutions, launched an anti-corruption campaign to eliminate political opponents, restored minted currency, opened iron foundries, and instituted fish taxes. He made revenue by oppressing the people in the process.{{fact|date=August 2022}}

⚫ He was a doubtful classicist, and was still charged with drafting legal documents, mandates, and military communications. The '']'' biography states that his studies included ] writings. Most of his activities seem to have supported ]'s firm control of his regime. He was tasked with purging political opponents, anti-corruption, and rooting out disloyal military officers. His reward and punishment system was influenced by ], and Li Shanchang had a kind of ] in his service. At times he had charge of all civil and military officials in Nanjing.<ref name=Taylor1963/><ref name=Farmer1995p29>{{cite book |last1=Farmer |first1=Edward L. |title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule |date=1995 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10391-7 |page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA29 |doi=10.1163/9789004489158 }}</ref>


==Biography== ==Biography==
{{Chinese Legalism}}
Li was a marginal figure in ] until his recruitment by the Emperor Hongwu, who was passing through the area with his army. Li discussed history with him, namely, the qualities of the founding Han ], and the emperor invited Li to take over the secretarial and managerial duties of his field command. He proved able and energetic, often staying behind to transfer army provisions. He was given first rank among officers with the titles of Left Grand Councilor and "Duke of Han". Comparisons between the Emperor Hongwu and Gaozu became a theme of the Ming Court and its historians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mote |first1=Frederick W. |title=Imperial China, 900-1800 |date=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01212-7 |page=550 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&pg=PA550 }}</ref><ref name=Andrew2000p161/> Li was a marginal figure in ] until his recruitment by the Emperor Hongwu, who was passing through the area with his army. Li discussed history with him, namely, the qualities of the founding Han ], and the emperor invited Li to take over the secretarial and managerial duties of his field command. He proved able and energetic, often staying behind to transfer army provisions. He was given first rank among officers with the titles of Left Grand Councilor and "Duke of Han". Comparisons between the Emperor Hongwu and Gaozu became a theme of the Ming Court and its historians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mote |first1=Frederick W. |title=Imperial China, 900-1800 |date=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01212-7 |page=550 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&pg=PA550 }}</ref><ref name=Andrew2000p161/>


One history holds that, after the navy in ] surrendered to the emperor, Li urged ferrying the soldiers to capture the southern area of the ]. Then Li gave an advance notice to prevent the army from violating the military discipline. The duplicates of his notice were plastered everywhere in the occupied city, ]. Consequently, the troops garrisoned there in an orderly fashion.{{fact|date=August 2022}} One history holds that, after the navy in ] surrendered to the emperor, Li urged ferrying the soldiers to capture the southern area of the ]. Then Li gave an advance notice to prevent the army from violating the military discipline. The duplicates of his notice were plastered everywhere in the occupied city, ]. Consequently, the troops garrisoned there in an orderly fashion.{{fact|date=August 2022}}


The emperor asked Li to assume responsibility for administrative affairs in 1353,<ref name=Farmer1995p29/><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Massey |first1=Thomas Pierce |title=Chu Yuan-Chang and the Hu-Lan Cases of the Early Ming Dynasty (China) |date=1983 |id={{ProQuest|303275367}} |hdl=2027.42/159429 |hdl-access=free }}{{pn|date=August 2022}}</ref> granting him overall institutional authority long before codification work started. Li's petitioning Emperor Hongwu to eliminate collective prosecution reportedly initiated the drafting. Hongwu ordered Li and others to create the basic law code in 1367, appointing him Left Councilor and chief legislator in a commission of 30 ministers. Hongwu emphasized the importance of simplicity and clarity, and noted that the ] and ] had fully developed criminal statutes, ignored by the ]. Li memorialized that all previous codes were based on the Han code, synthesized under the Tang, and based their institutions on the '']''.<ref name=Farmer1995p37>{{cite book |last1=Farmer |first1=Edward L. |title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule |date=1995 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10391-7 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA37 |doi=10.1163/978900448915 |doi-broken-date=31 December 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu |date=2012 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80400-2 }}{{pn|date=August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zhang |first1=Jinfan |title=The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law |date=2014 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-23266-4 |page=282 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOu5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-23266-4 }}</ref> The emperor asked Li to assume responsibility for administrative affairs in 1353,<ref name=Farmer1995p29/><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Massey |first1=Thomas Pierce |title=Chu Yuan-Chang and the Hu-Lan Cases of the Early Ming Dynasty (China) |date=1983 |id={{ProQuest|303275367}} |hdl=2027.42/159429 |hdl-access=free }}{{pn|date=August 2022}}</ref> granting him overall institutional authority long before codification work started. Li's petitioning Emperor Hongwu to eliminate collective prosecution reportedly initiated the drafting. Hongwu ordered Li and others to create the basic law code in 1367, appointing him Left Councilor and chief legislator in a commission of 30 ministers.


Hongwu noted that the ] and ] had fully developed criminal statutes, ignored by the ]. Li memorialized that all previous codes were based on the Han code, synthesized under the Tang, and based their institutions on the '']''. Emphasizing the importance of simplicity and clarity, he mandated that it be concise and intelligible.<ref>
⚫ Following the drafting of the code, Li personally oversaw any new stipulations,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zhang |first1=Jinfan |title=The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law |date=2014 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-23266-4 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOu5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-23266-4 }}</ref> including a system of fixed statutes made to combat corruption.<ref name=Farmer1995p37/> He joined with Hu Weiyong against ], another chancellor. Their efforts contributed to Yang's death, making Li the most powerful figure next to the emperor at the court in 1370. He quarreled with the great classical scholar ], causing the latter to resign from public office.<ref name=Taylor1963/>
* Fan, C. Simon (2016). Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character. Routledge. p. 94.
https://books.google.com/books?id=cwq4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94
* Farmer, Edward L. (1995). Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL. p. 37. doi:10.1163/978900448915 ISBN 978-90-04-10391-7.
https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA37
* The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu. University of Washington Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-295-80400-2.
* Zhang, Jinfan (2014). The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 282. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-23266-4. ISBN 978-3-642-23266-4.
https://books.google.com/books?id=AOu5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282
Examining 08/01/23</ref>

⚫ Following the drafting of the code, Li personally oversaw any new stipulations,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zhang |first1=Jinfan |title=The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law |date=2014 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-23266-4 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOu5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-23266-4 }}</ref> including a system of fixed statutes made to combat corruption.<ref name=Farmer1995p37>{{cite book |last1=Farmer |first1=Edward L. |title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule |date=1995 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10391-7 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA37 |doi=10.1163/978900448915 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref> He joined with Hu Weiyong against ], another chancellor. Their efforts contributed to Yang's death, making Li the most powerful figure next to the emperor at the court in 1370. He quarreled with the great classical scholar ], causing the latter to resign from public office.<ref name=Taylor1963/>


=== Execution of Li and his family === === Execution of Li and his family ===
In old age, he retired as the emperor's distaste grew for his arrogance, but would still be called upon to deliberate military and dynastic affairs. Other councilors like Guangyang, remembered his carefulness, generosity, honesty, uprightness and seriousness, was demoted several times. A lack of division of powers between the Emperor and his councilors resulted in conflicts, and the grand councilors (four total) gave up on state affairs, following prevailing affairs or doing nothing. Appointed to right councilor, Li gave himself over to drinking. He was ultimately implicated in 1390 in a decade-long conspiracy<ref>{{cite book |last1=Farmer |first1=Edward L. |title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule |date=1995 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10391-7 |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA58 |doi=10.1163/978900448915 |doi-broken-date=31 December 2022 }}</ref> and purged along with his extended family and thirty thousand others.<ref name=Andrew2000p161/> He was executed largely on the basis of his awareness and non-reporting of treason.<ref name=Fan2016p94/> The post of councilor (or prime minister) was abolished following his execution.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tong |first1=James |title=Disorder Under Heaven: Collective Violence in the Ming Dynasty |date=1992 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-6676-0 |page=230 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnPQ25Oh2yUC&pg=PA230 }}</ref> In old age, Li retired as the emperor's distaste grew for his arrogance, but was still recalled to deliberate military and dynastic affairs. Another councilor, Guangyang, remembered his carefulness, generosity, honesty, uprightness and seriousness, was demoted several times. A lack of division of powers between the Emperor and his councilors resulted in conflicts, and the four grand councilors gave up on state affairs, following prevailing affairs or doing nothing. Appointed to right councilor, Li gave himself over to drinking. He was ultimately implicated in 1390 in a decade-long conspiracy<ref>{{cite book |last1=Farmer |first1=Edward L. |title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule |date=1995 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10391-7 |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA58 |doi=10.1163/978900448915 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref> and purged along with his extended family and thirty thousand others.<ref name=Andrew2000p161/> He was executed largely on the basis of his awareness and non-reporting of treason.<ref name=Fan2016p94/> The post of councilor (or prime minister) was abolished following his execution.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tong |first1=James |title=Disorder Under Heaven: Collective Violence in the Ming Dynasty |date=1992 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-6676-0 |page=230 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnPQ25Oh2yUC&pg=PA230 }}</ref>

== See also ==

* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


==References== == References ==
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}


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{{s-break}} {{s-break}}
{{s-non|reason=Position established}} {{s-non|reason=Ming dynasty established}}
{{s-ttl|title=Left ]|years=1368–1371}} {{s-ttl|title=Left ]|years=1368–1371}}
{{s-aft|after=]}} {{s-aft|after=]}}
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{{Authority control}} {{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Shanchang, Li}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Li, Shanchang}}
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] ]
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] ]
]

Latest revision as of 06:05, 17 November 2024

Ming dynasty official (1314–1390) In this Chinese name, the family name is Li.
Li Shanchang
李善長
A Qing dynasty illustration of Li Shanchang in the Wanxiaotang Huanchuan, by Shangguan Zhou
Left Grand Councilor
In office
1368–1371
Preceded byOffice established
Succeeded byXu Da
Personal details
Born1314
Yuan Yanyou 1
(元延祐元年)
Dingyuan County, Hao Prefecture, Anfeng Lu, Henan Jiangbei Province
Died1390 (aged 75–76)
Ming Hongwu 23
(明洪武二十三年)
Yingtian Prefecture
ChildrenLi Qi (son)
Li Fang (grandson)
Li Mao (grandson)
OccupationPolitician

Li Shanchang (Chinese: 李善長; pinyin: Lǐ Shàncháng; Wade–Giles: Li Shan-ch'ang; 1314–1390) was a Chinese official of the Ming dynasty, part of the West Huai (Huaixi) faction, and Duke of Han, one of the six founding dukes of the Ming dynasty in 1370. Li Shanchang was one of Emperor Hongwu's associates during the war against the Yuan dynasty to establish the Ming dynasty. Deeply trusted by the Emperor, Hongwu consulted Li on institutional matters, but became "bored with Li's arrogance" in old age. Ultimately, the emperor purged and executed Li along with his extended family and thirty thousand others, accusing him of supporting treason.

Li planned the organization of the six ministries, helped draft a new law code, and supervised the compiling of the History of Yuan, being the Ancestral Instructions and the Ritual Compendium of the Ming Dynasty. He established salt and tea monopolies based on Yuan institutions, launched an anti-corruption campaign, restored minted currency, opened iron foundries, and instituted fish taxes. It is said that revenues were sufficient, yet the people were not oppressed.

A doubtful classicist, he was charged with drafting legal documents, mandates, and military communications. The History of Ming biography states that his studies included Chinese Legalist writings. Most of his activities seem to have supported Hongwu Emperor's firm control of his regime. He was tasked with purging political opponents, anti-corruption, and rooting out disloyal military officers. His reward and punishment system was influenced by Han Feizi, and Li Shanchang had a kind of secret police in his service. At times he had charge of all civil and military officials in Nanjing.

Biography

Li was a marginal figure in Dingyuan County until his recruitment by the Emperor Hongwu, who was passing through the area with his army. Li discussed history with him, namely, the qualities of the founding Han Emperor Gaozu of Han, and the emperor invited Li to take over the secretarial and managerial duties of his field command. He proved able and energetic, often staying behind to transfer army provisions. He was given first rank among officers with the titles of Left Grand Councilor and "Duke of Han". Comparisons between the Emperor Hongwu and Gaozu became a theme of the Ming Court and its historians.

One history holds that, after the navy in Chaohu surrendered to the emperor, Li urged ferrying the soldiers to capture the southern area of the Yangtze River. Then Li gave an advance notice to prevent the army from violating the military discipline. The duplicates of his notice were plastered everywhere in the occupied city, Taiping. Consequently, the troops garrisoned there in an orderly fashion.

The emperor asked Li to assume responsibility for administrative affairs in 1353, granting him overall institutional authority long before codification work started. Li's petitioning Emperor Hongwu to eliminate collective prosecution reportedly initiated the drafting. Hongwu ordered Li and others to create the basic law code in 1367, appointing him Left Councilor and chief legislator in a commission of 30 ministers.

Hongwu noted that the Tang dynasty and Song dynasty had fully developed criminal statutes, ignored by the Yuan dynasty. Li memorialized that all previous codes were based on the Han code, synthesized under the Tang, and based their institutions on the Tang Code. Emphasizing the importance of simplicity and clarity, he mandated that it be concise and intelligible.

Following the drafting of the code, Li personally oversaw any new stipulations, including a system of fixed statutes made to combat corruption. He joined with Hu Weiyong against Yang Xian, another chancellor. Their efforts contributed to Yang's death, making Li the most powerful figure next to the emperor at the court in 1370. He quarreled with the great classical scholar Liu Bowen, causing the latter to resign from public office.

Execution of Li and his family

In old age, Li retired as the emperor's distaste grew for his arrogance, but was still recalled to deliberate military and dynastic affairs. Another councilor, Guangyang, remembered his carefulness, generosity, honesty, uprightness and seriousness, was demoted several times. A lack of division of powers between the Emperor and his councilors resulted in conflicts, and the four grand councilors gave up on state affairs, following prevailing affairs or doing nothing. Appointed to right councilor, Li gave himself over to drinking. He was ultimately implicated in 1390 in a decade-long conspiracy and purged along with his extended family and thirty thousand others. He was executed largely on the basis of his awareness and non-reporting of treason. The post of councilor (or prime minister) was abolished following his execution.

See also

References

  1. ^ Taylor, Romeyn (1963). "Social Origins of the Ming Dynasty 1351–1360". Monumenta Serica. 22 (1): 1–78. doi:10.1080/02549948.1963.11731029. JSTOR 40726467.
  2. ^ Fan, C. Simon (2016). Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character. Routledge. p. 94. doi:10.4324/9781315628707. ISBN 978-1-317-24183-6.
  3. Anita M. Andrew, John A. Rapp 2000. p.161. Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors. https://books.google.com/books?id=YQOhVb5Fbt4C&pg=PA161
  4. Jiang Yonglin, Yonglin Jiang 2005. p.xxxiv. The Great Ming Code: Da Ming lü. https://books.google.com/books?id=h58hszAft5wC
  5. ^ Andrew, Anita M.; Rapp, John A. (2000). Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-8476-9580-5.
  6. The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu. University of Washington Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-295-80400-2.
  7. ^ Farmer, Edward L. (1995). Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL. p. 29. doi:10.1163/9789004489158. ISBN 978-90-04-10391-7.
  8. Mote, Frederick W. (1999). Imperial China, 900-1800. Harvard University Press. p. 550. ISBN 978-0-674-01212-7.
  9. Massey, Thomas Pierce (1983). Chu Yuan-Chang and the Hu-Lan Cases of the Early Ming Dynasty (China) (Thesis). hdl:2027.42/159429. ProQuest 303275367.
    • Fan, C. Simon (2016). Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character. Routledge. p. 94.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=cwq4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94
    • Farmer, Edward L. (1995). Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL. p. 37. doi:10.1163/978900448915 ISBN 978-90-04-10391-7.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA37
    • The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu. University of Washington Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-295-80400-2.
    • Zhang, Jinfan (2014). The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 282. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-23266-4. ISBN 978-3-642-23266-4.
    https://books.google.com/books?id=AOu5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 Examining 08/01/23
  11. Zhang, Jinfan (2014). The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 168. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-23266-4. ISBN 978-3-642-23266-4.
  12. Farmer, Edward L. (1995). Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL. p. 37. doi:10.1163/978900448915 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISBN 978-90-04-10391-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  13. Farmer, Edward L. (1995). Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL. p. 58. doi:10.1163/978900448915 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISBN 978-90-04-10391-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  14. Tong, James (1992). Disorder Under Heaven: Collective Violence in the Ming Dynasty. Stanford University Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-8047-6676-0.
Political offices
Ming dynasty established Left Grand Councilor
1368–1371 		Succeeded byXu Da
Categories: