Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 09:48, 11 December 2024

This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The word Bhagavan (Sanskrit: भगवान्, romanized: Bhagavān; Pali: Bhagavā), also spelt as Bhagwan (sometimes translated in English as "Lord", "God"), is an epithet within Indian religions used to denote figures of religious worship. In Hinduism it is used to signify a deity or an avatar, particularly for Krishna and Vishnu in Vaishnavism, Shiva in Shaivism and Durga or Adi Shakti in Shaktism. In Jainism the term refers to the Tirthankaras, and in Buddhism to the Buddha.

In many parts of India and South Asia, Bhagavan represents the concept of a universal God or Divine to Hindus who are spiritual and religious but do not worship a specific deity.

In bhakti school literature, the term is typically used for any deity to whom prayers are offered. A particular deity is often the devotee's one and only Bhagavan. The female equivalent of Bhagavān is Bhagavati. To some Hindus, the word Bhagavan is an abstract, genderless concept of God.

In Buddhism's Pali and Sanskrit scriptures, the term is used to denote Gautama Buddha, referring him as Bhagavā or Bhagavān (translated with the phrase "Lord" or "The Blessed One"). The term Bhagavan is also found in Theravada, Mahayana and Tantra Buddhist texts.

Etymology and meaning

Bhagavān, nominative singular of the adjective Bhagavat, literally means "fortunate", "blessed" (from the noun bhaga, meaning "fortune", "wealth"), and hence "illustrious", "divine", "venerable", "holy", etc. Bhagavān is related to the root Bhaj (भज्, "to revere", "adore"), and implies someone "glorious", "illustrious", "revered", "venerable", "divine", "holy" (an epithet applied to gods, holy or respectable personages). The root Bhaj also means "share with", "partake of", "aportion". Clooney and Stewart state that this root, in Vaishnava traditions, implies Bhagavān as one perfect creator that a devotee seeks to partake from, share his place with, by living in god, in the way of god, the loving participation between the two being its own reward.

The Vishnu Purana defines Bhagavān as follows,

उत्पत्तिं प्रलयं चैव भूतानामागतिं गतिम् |
वेत्तिं विद्यामविद्यां च स वाच्यो भगवानिति ||
He who understands the creation and dissolution, the appearance and disappearance of beings, the wisdom and ignorance, should be called Bhagavān.

— Vishnu Purana, VI.5.78

The same text defines Bhaga and provides the etymological roots as follows as translated by Wilson,

Knowledge is of two kinds, that which is derived from scripture, and that which is derived from reflection. Brahma that is the word is composed of scripture; Brahma that is supreme is produced of reflection. Ignorance is utter darkness, in which knowledge, obtained through any sense (as that of hearing), shines like a lamp; but the knowledge that is derived from reflection breaks upon the obscurity like the sun. (...) That which is imperceptible, undecaying, inconceivable, unborn, inexhaustible, indescribable; which has neither form, nor hands, nor feet; which is almighty, omnipresent, eternal; the cause of all things, and without cause; permeating all, itself unpenetrated, and from which all things proceed; that is the object which the wise behold, that is Brahma, that is the supreme state, that is the subject of contemplation to those who desire liberation, that is the thing spoken of by the Vedas, the infinitely subtle, supreme condition of Vishnu.

That essence of the supreme is defined by the term Bhagavat. The word Bhagavat is the denomination of that primeval and eternal God: and he who fully understands the meaning of that expression is possessed of holy wisdom, the sum, and substance of the Vedas. The word Bhagavat is a convenient form to be used in the adoration of that supreme being, to whom no term is applicable; and therefore Bhagavat expresses that supreme spirit, which is individual, almighty, and the cause of causes of all things. The letter Bh implies the cherisher and supporter of the universe. By ga is understood the leader, impeller, or creator. The disyllable Bhaga indicates the six properties, dominion, might, glory, splendor, wisdom, and dispassion. The purport of the letter va is that elemental spirit in which all beings exist, and which exists in all beings. And thus this great word Bhagavan is the name of Vásudeva, who is one with the supreme Brahma, and of no one else. This word, therefore, which is the general denomination of an adorable object, is not used in reference to the supreme in a general, but a special signification. When applied to any other (thing or person) it is used in its customary or general import. In the latter case, it may purport one who knows the origin and end and revolutions of beings, and what is wisdom, what ignorance. In the former, it denotes wisdom, energy, power, dominion, might, glory, without end, and without defect.

— Vishnu Purana, VI.5

Buddha is referred to as Bhagavan in ancient and medieval Theravada, Mahayana and Tantra Buddhist texts, where it connotes, "Lord", "Blessed One", "Fortunate One".

Hinduism

Literature

The Vedic texts neither mention nor provide a basis to explain the origin of the Bhagavān concept.

Upanishads

The root of "Bhagavan", "Bhaga" is mentioned in the Mundaka Upanishad, but it does not mean or imply "Bhagavan"':

शौनको ह वै महाशालोऽङ्गिरसं विधिवदुपसन्नः पप्रच्छ ।

कस्मिन्नु भगवो विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवतीति ॥ ३ ॥

Shaunaka asked: Can knowledge of the world's reality be so complete that all the many things we see are understood in it?

Can something so complete, excellent be found that knowing it, one knows everything?

— Mundaka Upanishad, I.1.3

The Mundaka Upanishad then answers this question in two parts over verses 1.1.4 through 3.2.11. These verses split knowledge into two sections: lower knowledge and higher knowledge. Lower knowledge includes Vedas, phonetics, grammar, etymology, meter, astronomy and ceremony rituals. The higher knowledge indicates, the Upanishad asserts, is Self-knowledge and realizing its oneness with Brahman—the one which cannot be seen, nor seized, which has no origin, no qualities, no hips, nor ears, no hands, nor feet, one that is the eternal, all-pervading, infinitesimal, imperishable. The word Bhagavan does not appear in the Mundaka Upanishad and other early or middle Upanishads.

The term Bhagavān appears in Shvetashvatara Upanishad verse 5.4:

सर्वा दिश ऊर्ध्वमधश्च तिर्यक्प्रकाशयन्भ्राजते यद्वनड्वान् ।

एवं स देवो भगवान्वरेण्यो योनिस्वभावानधितिष्ठत्येक: ॥

As the draft-ox shines, lighting up all the quarters, above, below, and across, so this God, blessed and adorable, alone rules over wombs and inherent natures.

— Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 5.4

Later and medieval era Upanishads mention Bhagavān. For example, the very first verse of the Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣhad uses the term, as follows,

द्वापरान्ते नारदो ब्रह्माणं जगाम कथं भगवन् गां पर्यटन् कलिं सन्तरेयमिति

At the start of the Dvapara Narada went to Brahma and asked, "O Lord, how shall I, roaming over the earth, be able to overcome the effects of Kali ?"

— Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad, 1.1

Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa, a minor Upanishad, then proceeds to disclose, among other things, two Bhagavan names in the Hare Krishna mantra in verse 2. This verse is sung by International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) devotees.

Purana

In Bhagavata Dharma, it denotes Narayana Vasudeva's four vyuha formations. Ishvara or God is called Bhagavan and the person dedicated to Bhagavan is called a Bhagavata. The Bhagavata Purana (I.iii.28) identifies Krishna as Narayana, Vāsudeva, Vishnu and Hari—Bhagavan present in human form. Bhagavan is the complete revelation of the Divine; Brahman, the impersonal Absolute, is unqualified and therefore, never expressed. Paramatman is Bhagavan in relation to Prakṛti and the Jiva. The Yoga of Devotion implies that if a Bhagavata, the devotee of Bhagavan, seeks and longs for Bhagavan, then Bhagavan too seeks his devotee in equal measure.

Bhagavad Gita

The term Bhagavan appears extensively in the Bhagavad Gita, as Krishna counsels Arjuna. For example,

श्रीभगवानुवाच। कुतस्त्वा कश्मलमिदं विषमे समुपस्थितम्। अनार्यजुष्टमस्वर्ग्यमकीर्तिकरमर्जुन॥ २-२॥

Shri Bhagavan said, "from where had this weakness arisen, at this inconvenient time?
It is not noble, neither will it lead you to heaven, nor will it earn you valor, O Arjuna.

— Bhagavad Gita, 2.2

Vaishnavism

Part of a series on
Vaishnavism
Supreme deity Vishnu / Krishna / Rama
Important deities Dashavatara Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Vamana Parasurama Rama Balarama Krishna Buddha Kalki Other forms Dhanvantari Guruvayurappan Hayagriva Jagannath Mohini Nara-Narayana Prithu Shrinathji Venkateshvara Vithoba Consorts Lakshmi Bhumi Sita Radha Rukmini Alamelu Related Garuda Hanuman Shesha Shasta
Holy scriptures Vedas Upanishads Vaikhanasa Pancharatra Bhagavad Gita Mahabharata Ramayana Harivamsa Divya Prabandha Gita Govinda Puranas Vishnu Bhagavata Naradiya Garuda Padma Agni
Sampradayas Sri (Vishishtadvaita, Akshar Purushottam Darshan) Rudra (Śuddhādvaita) Kumara (Dvaitadvaita) Brahma (Tattvavada or (Dvaita)), Acintyabhedabheda) Others Ekasarana Dharma Mahanubhava Pranami Radha Vallabha Ramsnehi Sant Mat Vaishnava-Sahajiya Warkari
Teachers—acharyas Chaitanya Chakradhara Dadu Dayal Harivansh Jayatirtha Jiva Goswami Jñāneśvara Kabir Madhavdev Madhvacharya Manavala Mamunigal Namadeva Nammalvar Nathamuni Nimbarka Srinivasacharya Padmanabha Tirtha Pillai Lokacharya Purandara Dasa Raghuttama Tirtha Raghavendra Tirtha Ram Charan Ramananda Ramanuja Ravidas Satyanatha Tirtha Satyabhinava Tirtha Satyabodha Tirtha Satyadharma Tirtha Satyadhyana Tirtha Samarth Ramdas Sankardev Swaminarayan Sripadaraja Tukaram Tulsidas Vallabha Vedanta Desika Vidyapati Vishnuswami Viṭṭhalanātha Vyasatirtha Vadiraja Tirtha Yamunacharya
Related traditions Bhagavatism Vaikhanasas Pancharatra Tenkalai Vadakalai Munitraya Krishnaism Jagannathism Haridasa Sahajiya Baul Pushtimarg Gaudiya ISKCON Ramanandi Kapadi Balmiki Kabir panth Dadu panth Mahanam
v t e

The Bhagavata tradition of Hinduism invoke Bhagavan in the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata. The devotion to Vishnu (identified as Vasudeva in the Mahabharata) is elaborated to mean the ten incarnations of the deity. This tradition introduced the chaturvyuha concept and laid emphasis on the worship of the five Vrishni warriors, which reached the peak of its popularity during the Gupta Period.

Significance

In Hinduism, the word, Bhagavān, indicates the Supreme Being or Absolute Truth conceived as a Personal God. This personal feature indicated by the word Bhagavān differentiates its usage from other similar terms such as Brahman, the "Supreme Spirit" or "spirit", and thus, in this usage, Bhagavan is analogous to the Christian concept of God the Father. In Vaisnavism, a devotee of Bhagvān Krishna is called a Bhāgavata.

The Bhagavata Purana (1.2.11) states the definition of Bhagavān to mean the supreme being:

The Learned Know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance Brahman, Paramatma or Bhagavan.

Bhagavān used as a title of veneration is often directly used as Lord, as in Bhagavān Rama, Bhagavān Krishna, Bhagavān Shiva, etc. In Buddhism and Jainism, Gautama Buddha, Mahavira and other Tirthankaras, Buddhas and bodhisattvas are also venerated with this title. The feminine of Bhagavat is Bhagawatī and is an epithet of Durga and other goddesses. This title is also used by a number of contemporary spiritual teachers in India who claim to be Bhagavan or have realized impersonal Brahman.

Bhakti (devotion to God) consists of actions performed in dedication to the Paramatman, the individuated existence with free-will, and who is the final cause of the world; the Vedic Rishis describe the goals originating from God as Bhagavān, and the Ananda aspect of God where God has manifested His personality is called Bhagavān when consciousness (pure self-awareness) aligns with those goals to cause the unified existence and commencement of works follow.

Buddhism

Part of a series on
Buddhism
Glossary Index Outline
History Timeline The Buddha Pre-sectarian Buddhism Councils Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Decline in the Indian subcontinent Later Buddhists Buddhist modernism
Dharma Concepts Four Noble Truths Noble Eightfold Path Dharma wheel Five Aggregates Impermanence Suffering Not-self Dependent Origination Middle Way Emptiness Morality Karma Rebirth Saṃsāra Cosmology
Buddhist texts Buddhavacana Early Texts Tripiṭaka Mahayana Sutras Pāli Canon Sanskrit literature Tibetan canon Chinese canon Post-canon
Practices Three Jewels Buddhist Paths to liberation Five precepts Perfections Meditation Philosophical reasoning Devotional practices Merit making Recollections Mindfulness Wisdom Sublime abidings Aids to Enlightenment Monasticism Lay life Buddhist chant Pilgrimage Vegetarianism
Nirvāṇa Awakening Four Stages Arhat Pratyekabuddha Bodhisattva Buddha
Traditions Theravāda Pāli Mahāyāna Hinayana Chinese Vajrayāna Tibetan Navayana Newar
Buddhism by country Bhutan Brazil Cambodia China India Indonesia Japan Korea Laos Malaysia Mongolia Myanmar New Zealand Russia Singapore US Sri Lanka Taiwan Thailand Tibet Vietnam
Buddhism portal
v t e

Literature

Bhagavān in Buddhist texts

In Pali Literature

Bhagava is the Pali word used for Bhagavan. Some Buddhist texts, such as the Pali suttas, use the word Bhagavā for the Buddha, meaning "the fortunate one". The term Bhagavā has been used in Pali Anussati or recollections as one of the terms that describes the "Tathāgata" as one full of good qualities, as arahant, sammā-sambuddho and sugato (Dīgha Nikāya II.93).

Bhagavan is one of the nine qualities of the Buddha. In the Buddha Anussati, Bhagavan is defined the following way:

Iti pi so Bhagavā Arahaṃ Sammā-sambuddho Vijjā-caraṇa sampanno Sugato Lokavidū Anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi Satthā deva-manusānaṃ Buddho Bhagavāti

Thus is the Buddha, deserving homage, perfectly awakened, perfect in true knowledge and conduct, well gone to Nibbana, knower of the worlds, incomparable leader (lit. charioteer) of persons to be tamed, teacher of gods and humans, awakened one and Blessed One.

In Sanskrit Literature

Several Tibetan Buddhist tantra texts use the word Bhagavān. For example, the Pradipoddyotana manuscript of Guhyasamāja tantra-Samdhivyakarana uses the word Bhagavān, which Alex Wayman translates as "Lord". The text, elsewhere refers to "Bhagavan Sarvatathagatakayavakcittadipatih", which John Campbell translates as "Lord, Master of the Vajras of Body, Speech, and Mind of all Buddhas." Elsewhere, it states,

Thereupon, having made offerings and bowing down to the Bhagavan,
The Lord of Body Speech and Mind of all Tathagatas,
All the Bhagavan Tathagatas spoke thus:
Glorious One, pray to explain the essence,
The unexcelled Bodhicitta,
The secret of all Tathagatas,
The supreme of Body Speech and Mind.

— Pradipoddyotana, II. 1

Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, a sutra of Mahāyāna Buddhism, for example, uses the word Bhagavān over three hundred times, which is either left untranslated by scholars, or translated as "Lord or Blessed One". The devotional meditational text Sukhavati Vyuhopadesa by Vasubandhu uses the term Bhagavān in its invocations.

Variants

Other variants of the term Bhagavan, such as Bhagavant and Bhagavata can also be found throughout Buddhist texts. For instance, it is used in the initial chant, which is recited before almost every Sutta chanting,

NamoTassa Bhagavato Arahato Samma-sambuddhassa
I honour to that Bhagavan, who is Arhat and a fully-enlightened Buddha

Significance

The term Bhagavān is found in liturgical practices of Theravada Buddhism, where it is used as an epithet that means the "Blessed One". Examples of such usage is found in Sri Lanka's Bodhi Puja (or Atavisi Buddha Puja, Worship of the Twenty Eight Buddhas).

The word Bhagavan is the most common word for the Buddhist texts to refer to the Buddha. For example, almost every sutra in Buddhist canonical and commentarial texts starts with the line like

Evaṃ me suttaṃ – ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā sāvatthiyaṃ viharati jetavane anāthapiṇḍikassa ārāme. (Pali)

evaṃ mayā śrutam | ekasmin samaye bhagavān śrāvastyāṃ viharati sma jetavane'nāthapiṇḍadasyārāme. (Sanskrit)

Thus have I heard - Once the Bhagavan was dwelling in Savatthi, at the Anathpindaka's monastery in Jetavana. (English Translation)

Inscriptions

Greek

A word derived from Bhagavan is documented epigraphically from around 100 BCE, such as in the inscriptions of the Heliodorus pillar; in which Heliodorus, an Indo-Greek ambassador from Taxila to the court of a Shunga king, addresses himself as a Bhagvatena (devotee) of Vishnu. ("Heliodorena Bhagavata", Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908-1909)):

This Garuda-standard of Vasudeva (Vishnu), the God of Gods was erected here by the Bhagavatena (devotee) Heliodoros, the son of Dion, a man of Taxila, sent by the Great Greek (Yona) King Antialcidas, as ambassador to King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, the Savior son of the princess from Benares, in the fourteenth year of his reign."

Buddhist vase

Sākamunisa bhagavato is recorded in the kharoshthi dedication of a vase placed in a Buddhist stupa by the Greek meridarch (civil governor of a province) named Theodorus:

"Theudorena meridarkhena pratithavida time sarira sakamunisa bhagavato bahu-Jana-stitiye":

"The meridarch Theodorus has enshrined relics of Lord Shakyamuni, for the welfare of the mass of the people"

– (Swāt relic vase inscription of the Meridarkh Theodoros)

Brass pillars and stupas

James Prinsep identified several engravings and inscriptions on ancient Buddhist artifacts that include the word Bhagavan and related words. For example,

Bhagawana-sarirahi Sri Tabachitrasa Khamaspada putrasa dana.

"(Casket) containing relics of Bhagwan, the gift of Sri Tabachitra, the son of Khamaspada

– The Tope of Manikyala

See also

• Acintya
• Bhagavad Gita
• Bhakti
• Ishvara
• Jnana
• Lord
• Narayana
• Om Tat Sat
• Para Brahman
• Svayam Bhagavan
• Turiya
• Yoga

Notes

1. vadanti tat tattva-vidas/ tattvam yaj jnanam advayam/ brahmeti paramatmeti/ bhagavan iti sabdyate
2. Original inscription:
   Devadevasa Va vasa Garudadhvajo ayam
   karito i Heliodorena bhaga-
   vatena Diyasa putrena Takhasilakena
   Yonadatena agatena maharajasa
   Amtalikitasa upata samkasam-rano
   Kasiputasa agabhadrasa tratarasa
   vasena dasena rajena vadhamanasa"

References

1. ^ James Lochtefeld (2000), "Bhagavan", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 94
2. ^ Friedhelm Hardy (1990), The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415058155, pages 79-83
3. Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 108.
4. Friedhelm Hardy (1990), The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415058155, page 84
5. Sarah Caldwell (1998), Bhagavati, in Devi: Goddesses of India (Editors: John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814912, pages 195-198
6. The latter term preferred by Bhikkhu Bodhi in his English translations of the Pali Canon
7. Ju-Hyung Rhi (1994), From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 54, No. 3/4, pages 207-225
8. ^ John Campbell (2009), Vajra hermeneutics: A study of Vajrayana scholasticism in the "Pradipoddyotana", PhD Thesis accepted by Columbia University (Advisor: Robert Thurman), page 355
   Christian K. Wedemeyer, Aryadeva's Lamp that Integrates the Practices (Caryamelapakapradlpa): The Gradual Path of Vajraydna Buddhism According to the Esoteric Community Noble Tradition, ed. Robert A. F. Thurman, Treasury of the Buddhist Sciences series (New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies at Columbia University, 2007), ISBN 978-0975373453
9. ^ Peter Harvey, Buddhism, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0826453501, page 4
10. Macdonell Sanskrit-English dictionary
11. V.S.Apte (1957). The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Digital Dictionaries of South Asia. p. 118. Archived from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
12. bhaj, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne
13. Francis Clooney and Tony Stewart, in S Mittal and GR Thursby (Editors): The Hindu World, Routledge, ISBN 0-415215277, pages 163-178
14. Clooney, Francis; Stewart, Tony (2007). "Chapter Eight: Vaisnava". In Mittal, Sushil (ed.). The Hindu world. Routledge worlds. New York: Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-415-77227-3.
15. Alain Daniélou, The Myths and Gods of India, Princeton/Bollingen Paperbacks, ISBN 978-0892813544, page 36
16. ^ The Vishnu Purana HH Wilson (Translator)
17. D Keown (2008), A Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192800626, page 31
18. ^ Alex Wayman (1974), Two Traditions of India: Truth and Silence Philosophy East and West, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct., 1974), pages 389-403, for the original verse see footnote 13 on page 402, for Wayman's translation, see page 391
19. World's Religions. Routledge. 14 January 2004. p. 611. ISBN 9781136851858.
20. R.D.Ranade (1926). A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 45.
21. Ananda Wood (1996), Interpreting the Upanishads, pages 31-32
22. Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Mundaka Upanishad, Oxford University Press
23. Vedic, Heritage. "Upanishad history". Upanishad heritage. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
24. Olivelle, Patrick, ed. (1998). The early Upanisads: annotated text and translation. South Asia research (in English and Sanskrit). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 426–427. ISBN 978-0-19-512435-4.
25. ^ Sanskrit: कलि-सण्टारण उपनिषद् Wikisource;
    English Translation: KN Aiyar, Thirty Minor Upanishads, Madras (1914), Reprinted in 1980 as ISBN 978-0935548006
26. Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare
    Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare
27. Dennis Hudson (25 September 2008). The Body of God. Oxford University Press. pp. 578, 33, 34. ISBN 9780199709021.
28. David R.Kinsley (1995). The Sword and the Flute-Kali and Krsna. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 69. ISBN 9788120813151.
29. Sri Aurobindo (1992). The Synthesis of Yoga. Lotus Press. p. 32. ISBN 9780941524667.
30. GK Marballi (2013), Journey Through The Bhagavad Gita, ISBN 978-1304558480, page 26
31. Optional Indian History – Ancient India. Upkar Prakashan. p. 65.
32. Who is Krishna? "God the person, or Bhagavan"
33. Bhag-P 1.2.11 Archived 26 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine "Learned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this the non-dual "Brahman", "Paramatmān " or "Bhagavān"
34. Ashish Dalela (December 2008). Vedic Creationism. iUniverse. p. 337. ISBN 9780595525737.
35. David J. Kalupahana (1992). A History of Buddhist Philosophy. University of Hawaii Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780824814021.
36. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Routledge. 16 December 2013. p. 94. ISBN 9781136985881.
37. John Campbell (2009), Vajra hermeneutics: A study of Vajrayana scholasticism in the "Pradipoddyotana", PhD Thesis accepted by Columbia University (Advisor: Robert Thurman), page 210
38. English Translation: Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Mahayana Lankavatara Sutra Archived 14 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Ohio State University;
    Sanskrit: Lankavatara Sutra Archived original at a Buddhist Library in Russia
39. Minoru Kiyota (2009), Mahāyāna Buddhist Meditation: Theory and Practice, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807600, pages 274-275
40. Frank Reynolds and Jason A. Carbine (2000), The Life of Buddhism, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520223370, pages 179-187
41. PP Behera, The Pillars of Homage to Lord Jagannatha Archived 9 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine Orissa Review, June 2004, page 65
42. John Irvin (1973-1975), Aśokan Pillars: A Reassessment of the Evidence, The Burlington Magazine. v. 115, pages 706-720; v. 116, pages 712-727; v. 117, pages 631-643; v. 118, pages 734-753; OCLC 83369960
43. The Greeks in Bactria and India, W.W. Tarn, Cambridge University Press, page 391
44. The Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project Archived 12 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Washington
45. ^ James Prinsep and Henry Thoby Prinsep, Essays on Indian Antiquities, p. 107, at Google Books, Volume 1, page 107

Sources

• Thomas Mcevilley (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-1-58115-203-6.
• Baij Nath Puri (1987). Buddhism In Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Pub. ISBN 978-81-208-0372-5.

Further reading

• Richard Gombrich, "A New Theravadin Liturgy Archived 7 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine," Journal of the Pali Text Society, 9 (1981), pages 47–73.

v t e    Topics in Buddhism
Outline Glossary Index
Foundations	Four Noble Truths Three Jewels Buddha Dharma Sangha Noble Eightfold Path Nirvana Middle Way
The Buddha	Tathāgata Birthday Four sights Eight Great Events Great Renunciation Physical characteristics Life of Buddha in art Footprint Relics Iconography in Laos and Thailand Films Miracles Family Suddhodāna (father) Māyā (mother) Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother) Yaśodharā (wife) Rāhula (son) Ānanda (cousin) Devadatta (cousin) Places where the Buddha stayed Buddha in world religions
Bodhisattvas	Avalokiteśvara Guanyin Mañjuśrī Mahāsthāmaprāpta Ākāśagarbha Kṣitigarbha Samantabhadra Vajrapāṇi Skanda Tārā Metteyya/Maitreya
Disciples	Kaundinya Assaji Sāriputta Mahamoggallāna Ānanda Mahākassapa Aṅgulimāla Anuruddha Mahākaccana Nanda Subhūti Puṇṇa Mantānīputta Upāli Mahapajapati Gotamī Khema Uppalavanna Asita Channa Yasa
Key concepts	Avidyā (Ignorance) Bardo Bodhicitta Buddha-nature Dhamma theory Dharma Enlightenment Five hindrances Indriya Karma Kleshas Mental factors Mindstream Parinirvana Pratītyasamutpāda Rebirth Saṃsāra Saṅkhāra Skandha Śūnyatā Taṇhā (Craving) Tathātā Ten Fetters Three marks of existence Anicca Dukkha Anattā Two truths doctrine
Cosmology	Ten spiritual realms Six Paths Deva realm Human realm Asura realm Hungry Ghost realm Animal realm Naraka Three planes of existence
Branches	Mahayana Zen Chinese Chan Japanese Zen Korean Seon Vietnamese Thiền Pure Land Tiantai Huayan Risshū Nichiren Madhyamaka Yogachara Vajrayana Tibetan Buddhism Chinese Esoteric Buddhism Shingon Dzogchen Theravada Navayana Early Buddhist schools Pre-sectarian Buddhism Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism
Practices	Bhavana Bodhipakkhiyādhammā Brahmavihara Mettā Karuṇā Mudita Upekkha Buddhābhiṣeka Dāna Devotion Deity yoga Dhyāna Faith Five Strengths Iddhipada Meditation Mantras Kammaṭṭhāna Recollection Smarana Anapanasati Samatha-vipassanā (Vipassana movement) Shikantaza Zazen Tukdam Koan Ganana Mandala Tonglen Tantra Tertön Terma Merit Mindfulness Mindful Yoga Satipatthana Nekkhamma Nianfo Pāramitā Paritta Puja Offerings Prostration Music Refuge Sādhu Satya Sacca Seven Factors of Enlightenment Sati Dhamma vicaya Pīti Passaddhi Śīla Five precepts Eight precepts Bodhisattva vow Pratimokṣa Threefold Training Śīla Samadhi Prajñā Vīrya Four Right Exertions Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar
Nirvana	Bodhi Bodhisattva Buddhahood Pratyekabuddhayāna Four stages of awakening Sotāpanna Sakadagami Anāgāmi Arhat
Monasticism	Bhikkhu Bhikkhunī Śrāmaṇera Śrāmaṇerī Anagārika Ajahn Sayadaw Zen master Rōshi Lama Rinpoche Geshe Tulku Western tulku Kappiya Donchee Householder Upāsaka and Upāsikā Achar Śrāvaka Ten principal disciples Shaolin Monastery
Major figures	The Buddha Nagasena Aśvaghoṣa Nagarjuna Asanga Vasubandhu Kumārajīva Buddhaghosa Buddhapālita Dignāga Bodhidharma Zhiyi Emperor Wen of Sui Songtsen Gampo Xuanzang Shandao Padmasambhava Saraha Atiśa Naropa Karmapa Hōnen Shinran Dōgen Nichiren Shamarpa Dalai Lama Panchen Lama Ajahn Mun B. R. Ambedkar Ajahn Chah Thích Nhất Hạnh
Texts	Early Buddhist texts Tripiṭaka Mahayana sutras Pali Canon Chinese Buddhist canon Tibetan Buddhist canon Dhammapada Sutra Vinaya Madhyamakālaṃkāra Abhidharmadīpa
Countries	Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan Cambodia China India Indonesia Japan Korea Laos Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Philippines Russia Buryatia Kalmykia Tuva (ru) Singapore Sri Lanka Taiwan Thailand Tibet Vietnam Africa Senegal South Africa Central Asia Uzbekistan Middle East Iran Saudi Arabia Western countries Argentina Australia Brazil Canada Costa Rica Czech Republic France Germany Italy Mexico New Zealand Norway Poland Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom United States Venezuela
History	Timeline Ashoka Kanishka Buddhist councils History of Buddhism in India Decline of Buddhism in India Huichang persecution of Buddhism Greco-Buddhism Gandharan Buddhism Texts Menander I Buddhism and the Roman world Buddhism in the West Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Persecution of Buddhists In Afghanistan In Vietnam Rimé movement Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal Dalit Buddhist movement Chinese invasion of Tibet 1959 Tibetan uprising Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism Buddhist modernism Vipassana movement 969 Movement Engaged Buddhism Women in Buddhism
Philosophy	Abhidharma Atomism Buddhology Creator Buddhism and democracy Economics Eight Consciousnesses Engaged Buddhism Eschatology Ethics Evolution Humanism Logic Reality Secular Buddhism Socialism The unanswerable questions
Culture	Architecture Temple Vihāra Kyaung Wat Ordination hall Stupa Pagoda Burmese pagoda Candi Dzong architecture List of Buddhist architecture in China Japanese Buddhist architecture Buddhist temples in Korea Thai temple art and architecture Tibetan Buddhist architecture Art Greco-Buddhist Bodhi Tree Budai Buddha in art Calendar Cuisine Funeral Holidays Vesak Uposatha Māgha Pūjā Asalha Puja Vassa Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Kasaya Mahabodhi Temple Mantra Om mani padme hum Mudra Music Pilgrimage Lumbini Maya Devi Temple Bodh Gaya Sarnath Kushinagar Poetry Prayer beads Hama yumi Prayer wheel Symbolism Dharmachakra Flag Bhavacakra Swastika Thangka Temple of the Tooth Vegetarianism
Miscellaneous	Abhijñā Amitābha Brahmā Dharma talk Hinayana Iddhi Kalpa Koliya Lineage Māra Siddhi Sacred languages Pāḷi Sanskrit
Comparison	Baháʼí Faith Christianity Influences Comparison East Asian religions Gnosticism Hinduism Jainism Judaism Psychology Science Theosophy Violence Western philosophy
Lists	Bodhisattvas Buddhas Buddhists Suttas Sutras Temples Festivals
Category Buddhism portal

v t e Hinduism topics
Glossary Index Timeline
Philosophy	Concepts Brahman Om Ishvara Atman Maya Karma Saṃsāra Puruṣārthas Dharma Artha Kama Moksha Niti Ahimsa Asteya Aparigraha Brahmacharya Satya Dāna Damah Dayā Akrodha Schools Āstika: Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Mīmāṃsā Vedanta Dvaita Advaita Vishishtadvaita Nāstika: Charvaka
Texts	Classification Śruti Smṛti Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishads Aitareya Kaushitaki Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Katha Maitrayaniya Shvetashvatara Chandogya Kena Mundaka Mandukya Prashna Upavedas Ayurveda Dhanurveda Natyaveda Sthapatyaveda Vedanga Shiksha Chandas Vyākaraṇa Nirukta Kalpa Jyotisha Other Bhagavad Gita Agamas Itihasas Ramayana Mahabharata Puranas Minor Upanishads Arthashastra Nitisara Dharmaśāstra Manusmriti Nāradasmṛti Yājñavalkya Smṛti Sutras Stotras Subhashita Tantras Yoga Vasistha Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Sangam literature Tirumurai Divya Prabandham Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai Thiruppugal Thirukkural Kamba Ramayanam Five Great Epics Eighteen Greater Texts Eighteen Lesser Texts Athichudi Iraiyanar Akapporul Abhirami Antati Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam Vinayagar Agaval Vedarthasamgraha
Deities	Gods Trimurti Brahma Vishnu Shiva Agni Dattatreya Ganesha Hanuman Indra Kartikeya Krishna Rama Surya Varuna Vayu more Goddesses Tridevi Saraswati Lakshmi Parvati Bhumi Durga Kali Mahavidya Matrika Radha Rukmini Sati Shakti Shashthi Sita more
Practices	Worship Temple Murti Puja Bhakti Japa Bhajan Naivedhya Yajna Homa Tapas Dhyāna Tirthatana Sanskaras Garbhadhana Pumsavana Simantonayana Jatakarma Namakarana Nishkramana Annaprashana Chudakarana Karnavedha Vidyarambha Upanayana Keshanta Ritushuddhi Samavartanam Vivaha Antyeshti Varnashrama Varna Brahmin Kshatriya Vaishya Shudra Ashrama Brahmacharya Grihastha Vanaprastha Sannyasa Festivals Diwali Holi Shivaratri Raksha Bandhan Navaratri Durga Puja Ramlila Vijayadashami Ganesh Chaturthi Rama Navami Janmashtami Onam Pongal Makar Sankranti New Year Bihu Gudi Padwa Pahela Baishakh Puthandu Vaisakhi Vishu Ugadi Kumbh Mela Haridwar Nashik Prayag Ujjain Ratha Yatra Teej Vasant Panchami Others Other Svādhyāya Namaste Bindi Tilaka
Related	Hindus Etymology List Denominations Law Calendar Anti-Hindu sentiment Criticism Hindu gurus and sants Hindu studies Iconography Mythology Nationalism Hindutva Persecution Pilgrimage sites India Relations with other religions Baháʼí Buddhism Islam Jainism Judaism Sikhism Theosophy Glossary Hinduism by country Hindu temples List Architecture
Outline Category Portal WikiProject

v t e Avatars of Vishnu
Dashavatara (for example)	Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Vamana Parashurama Rama Balarama Krishna Buddha Kalki
Other avatars	Four Kumaras Narada Nara-Narayana Kapila Dattatreya Yajna Rishabha Prithu Dhanvantari Mohini Vyasa Prsnigarbha Hayagriva Hamsa
The list of the "ten avatars" varies regionally. Two substitutions involve Balarama, Krishna, and Buddha. Krishna is almost always included; in exceptions, he is considered the source of all avatars.

• Epithets of Gautama Buddha
• Hindu given names
• Hindu philosophical concepts
• Names of God in Hinduism
• Vedanta