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{{Short description|Anatomy of the equine tongue}} {{Short description|Anatomy of the equine tongue}}
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] ]
The '''horse tongue''', like that of most ] is pink in color and plays an important role in taste perception. With its long, narrow shape typical of ], it enables the horse to grasp its ] with the help of its lips and ]. This tongue is sensitive to pressure and temperature, and is involved in licking and chewing. Although a ] licks her ] for a long time immediately after birth, there is little research into the ] sensitivity of horses and the social use these animals make of their tongues. The '''horse tongue''', similar to that of most ]s, is pink and plays a significant role in taste perception. Its long, narrow shape, characteristic of ], allows the horse to grasp food effectively with the assistance of its lips and teeth. The tongue is sensitive to pressure and temperature and is involved in activities such as licking and chewing. While a ] licks her ] extensively immediately after birth, there is limited research on the ] sensitivity of horses and the social functions of their tongues.


The practice of ] by human beings involves potential contact of the horse tongue with a ], and so precautions must be taken to avoid possible ] to this sensitive, richly vascularized organ. In the event of compression due to unsuitable ] or handing, the horse tongue turns white or blue, which can ultimately compromise the animal's general health. In ], there is a controversial practice of tying up the tongue of racehorses. ] involves potential contact between the horse's tongue and a ], necessitating precautions to prevent injury to this sensitive, highly vascularized organ. Compression from inappropriate bitting can cause the horse's tongue to turn white or blue, which may adversely affect the animal's overall health. The practice of tying down the tongues of racehorses is a topic of ongoing debate.


== Anatomy == == Anatomy ==
] ]
Like all ] ], the horse has a narrow, elongated tongue.<ref name=":0">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=121}}</ref> ] and ] Michel-Antoine Leblanc estimates its length at an average of around 40 cm, its width at between 9,3 and 10,7 cm, and its weight at an average of 1.2 kg.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=121-122}}</ref> A horse tongue comprises more than a dozen ].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Aimi |date=2016 |title=14 facts you need to know about your horse's tongue |url=https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/features/horse-tongue-facts-533429 |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Horse & Hound}}</ref> It is attached to the rest of the tissues by the ], which enables the horse to chew.<ref name=":1" /> The whole organ is richly vascularized.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Laurent |first=Jacques |date=2014 |title=Comment se constitue le phénomène de la « langue bleue ? |url=https://www.cheval-savoir.com |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Cheval Savoir |language=fr}}</ref> The horse possesses a long, narrow tongue that typically measures approximately 40&nbsp;cm in length and 9.3 to 10.7 cm in width, with an average weight of around 1.2 kg.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=121-122}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=121}}</ref> The tongue is composed of over a dozen muscles and is connected to surrounding tissues by a membrane known as the ],<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Aimi |date=2016 |title=14 facts you need to know about your horse's tongue |url=https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/features/horse-tongue-facts-533429 |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Horse & Hound}}</ref> facilitating effective chewing. It is also richly supplied with blood vessels.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Laurent |first=Jacques |date=2014 |title=Comment se constitue le phénomène de la « langue bleue ? |url=https://www.cheval-savoir.com |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Cheval Savoir |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":1" />


The tongue is thick and ]. Its medio-dorsal structure, the dorsal lingual ], contains scattered skeletal ] and is rich in ]. The ] covering the ventral surface of the tongue is thin and keratinized.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Rezaian |first=M. |date=2006 |title=Absence of Hyaline Cartilage in the Tongue of 'Caspian Miniature Horse' |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0264.2005.00673.x |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=241–246 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0264.2005.00673.x |issn=1439-0264 |pmid=16836588 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> The lingual muscle nucleus is made up of transverse, longitudinal and perpendicular bundles of skeletal ].<ref name=":3" /> Structurally, the horse's tongue is thick and features a robust outer layer. The upper section, referred to as the dorsal lingual ], contains muscle cells and ], while the ventral surface is covered by a thinner layer.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Rezaian |first=M. |date=2006 |title=Absence of Hyaline Cartilage in the Tongue of 'Caspian Miniature Horse' |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0264.2005.00673.x |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=241–246 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0264.2005.00673.x |issn=1439-0264 |pmid=16836588 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> The arrangement of muscle fibers in the tongue allows for a variety of movements.<ref name=":3" />


The ], unlike other horse breeds whose tongues have been studied, has no ].<ref name=":3" /> Notably, the ] differs from other studied horse breeds in that it lacks ] in its tongue.<ref name=":3" />


=== Taste buds === === Taste buds ===
The horse tongue is covered with ] scattered over the entire back surface,<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=122}}</ref> mainly on the first two-thirds of the tongue.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=23}}</ref> Most of these taste buds have no gustatory function, only mechanical and/or tactile. Taste buds are therefore in the minority.<ref name=":4" /> Filiform taste buds are present on the dorsal and lateral parts of the tongue, but not on the ventral part.<ref name=":5">{{Harvtxt|Pfeiffer|Levin|Lopes|2000|p=37}}</ref> Their appearance is short and thin, with a general finger-like shape and terminations of variable form.<ref name=":5" /> Their very fine keratinized thread protrudes from the surface and is curved backwards.<ref name=":3" /> The horse's tongue features ]s primarily located on the upper two-thirds of its surface.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=122}}</ref> While these taste buds are present,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=23}}</ref> the majority serve mechanical or tactile functions rather than gustatory ones. Filiform taste buds, characterized by their short and thin,<ref name=":4" /> finger-like shape, are found on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the tongue but are absent on the ventral surface.<ref name=":5">{{Harvtxt|Pfeiffer|Levin|Lopes|2000|p=37}}</ref> These projections are equipped with fine keratinized threads that curve backward.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" />


Fungiform taste buds are scattered among the filiform ones, with a few taste buds, and covered by a keratinized squamous ]. Two very large circumvallate taste buds are present on the dorsum of the tongue, near its root. Foliate taste buds are found near the ], with a few taste buds papillae.<ref name=":3" /> Interspersed among the filiform taste buds are fungiform taste buds, which are fewer in number and covered by a keratinized layer. Additionally, two large circumvallate taste buds are situated at the back of the tongue, near its root, while foliate taste buds are located near the ].<ref name=":3" />


In 2000, researchers C. J. Pfeiffer, M. Levin and M. A. F. Lopes discovered that the horse tongue is characterized by a highly localized grouping of ] with an exceptionally high content of PAS-negative trichohyalin ] at the top of the dermal ridges and under the base of the filiform taste buds. These researchers hypothesized that these granule cells enhance structural strength, in relation to mechanical taste buds.<ref name=":5" /> Research conducted in 2000 by C. J. Pfeiffer, M. Levin, and M. A. F. Lopes identified localized groups of ] within the horse's tongue, notable for their high content of specific ]ic granules, which may contribute to structural strength in relation to mechanical taste buds.<ref name=":5" />


] of these taste buds suggests that the fine structure of the tongue in horses shows a more primitive pattern than in ] and ]: filiform taste buds in horses have a long, thin outer shape, whereas in goats and cattle the outer shape is thick; horses have two large circumvallate taste buds, whereas goats and cattle have 15 or more in the posterior area of the lingual prominence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kobayashi |first1=K. |last2=Jackowiak |first2=H. |last3=Frackowiak |first3=H. |last4=Yoshimura |first4=K. |date=2005 |title=Comparative morphological study on the tongue and lingual papillae of horses (Perissodactyla) and selected ruminantia (Artiodactyla) |url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/16101021 |journal=Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology = Archivio Italiano di Anatomia ed Embriologia |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=55–63 |issn=2038-5129 |pmid=16101021 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> Comparative anatomical studies indicate that the fine structure of the tongue in horses exhibits a more primitive pattern than that observed in goats and cattle. Specifically, horse filiform taste buds are long and thin, whereas those in goats and cattle are thicker. Additionally, horses possess two large circumvallate taste buds, while goats and cattle have 15 or more situated in the posterior region of the tongue.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kobayashi |first1=K. |last2=Jackowiak |first2=H. |last3=Frackowiak |first3=H. |last4=Yoshimura |first4=K. |date=2005 |title=Comparative morphological study on the tongue and lingual papillae of horses (Perissodactyla) and selected ruminantia (Artiodactyla) |url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/16101021 |journal=Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology = Archivio Italiano di Anatomia ed Embriologia |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=55–63 |issn=2038-5129 |pmid=16101021 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref>


=== Glands === === Glands ===
Groups of minor ] are present between the muscle fibers and the ]. Most lingual glands are mucous and most gustatory glands are serous.<ref name=":3" /> Groups of minor ]s are present between the muscle fibers and the ]. Most lingual glands are mucous and most gustatory glands are serous.<ref name=":3" />


== Physiology == == Physiology ==
{{See also|Equine nutrition}} {{See also|Equine nutrition}}


The mechanical functions of the horse tongue remain moderate, due to its prehensile and ].<ref name=":5" /> The front part of the tongue, in conjunction with the ] and ], can grasp vegetable food.<ref name=":1" /> In particular, the tongue enables the horse to bring food in grain form to its ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=48}}</ref> Horses can also partially clean their teeth with their tongue, dislodging stuck food. The horse's tongue is sensitive to pressure, pain and temperature.<ref name=":1" /> The mechanical functions of the horse's tongue are moderate, influenced by its prehensile nature.<ref name=":5" /> The anterior portion of the tongue works in conjunction with the incisors and lips to grasp vegetation.<ref name=":1" /> Additionally, the tongue assists in maneuvering food toward the ] for effective chewing.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=48}}</ref> Horses can also partially clean their teeth using their tongues, dislodging food particles that may become stuck. The horse's tongue is sensitive to pressure, pain, and temperature, further contributing to its functional capabilities.<ref name=":1" />


=== Taste perception === === Taste perception ===
]]] ]]]
The tongue enables the horse to experience the ].<ref name=":1" /> As with all mammals, its sense of taste also relies on ], enabling it to perceive what Michel-Antoine Leblanc calls "flaveurs".<ref name=":0" /> The tongue allows horses to experience the ].<ref name=":1" /> Similar to all mammals, this sense is closely linked to olfaction, enabling horses to perceive what Michel-Antoine Leblanc refers to as "flaveurs".<ref name=":0" />


The horse is reputed to have a highly sensitive sense of taste,<ref name=":5" /> although there is little research on this subject. However, it has been established that the presence of taste buds enables the horse to sense the taste of what it touches with its tongue.<ref name=":6">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=86}}</ref> Like many other mammals, horses are sensitive to ], salty, sweet, acidic and ] tastes,<ref name=":0" /> and to their concentration, which can trigger gustatory reactions.<ref name=":6" /> There is no evidence that sensitivity to acid, bitter, sweet and salty tastes is distributed in specific areas of the tongue.<ref name=":4" /> With its tongue, the horse is therefore able to taste various types of food, and spit out those that are not to its liking.<ref name=":6" /> Horses are reputed to possess a highly sensitive sense of taste,<ref name=":5" /> although research on this topic is limited. It has been established that the presence of taste buds allows horses to sense the flavors of substances they touch with their tongues.<ref name=":6">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=86}}</ref> Like many mammals, horses respond to ], salty, sweet, acidic, and ] tastes,<ref name=":0" /> as well as to their concentrations, which can trigger specific gustatory reactions.<ref name=":6" /> There is no evidence to suggest that sensitivity to these tastes is localized to specific areas of the tongue.<ref name=":4" /> Consequently, horses can taste various foods and may spit out those that are unpalatable.<ref name=":6" />


Sensitivity to flavors plays a role in enabling the horse to satisfy its needs.<ref name=":4" /> Like other animals, horses are sensitive to ], and particularly to ], which are an energy resource needed by their ]. They are also very sensitive to ], probably due to their vital need to replenish their ] reserves.<ref name=":4" /> There is evidence that horses may specifically seek out salty foods in case of deficiency. According to Leblanc, horses avoid strong acidity in order to preserve their teeth, and have an aversion to strong bitterness, which enables them to avoid ingesting ]. There is, however, a very wide range of taste sensitivities among individuals of this species.<ref name=":4" /> Ronald Randa and his colleagues have tested ] sensitivity to four basic flavors, without revealing any general trends in sensitivity and preference among these flavors.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=123}}</ref> Horses generally have a selective plant diet motivated by individual taste preferences.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=124}}</ref> It would also be possible to induce aversions to toxic foods in horses by taste association.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=125}}</ref> Finally, horses that have experienced negative biological effects following ingestion of a particular food could develop a rejection of specific flavors.<ref name=":0" /> Sensitivity to flavors is crucial for horses to meet their nutritional needs.<ref name=":4" /> Horses are particularly sensitive to sweet tastes, especially ], which provide essential energy for their brains. They also exhibit a strong sensitivity to salty tastes, likely due to their need to replenish ] reserves,<ref name=":4" /> with evidence indicating that horses may actively seek out salty foods in cases of deficiency. According to Leblanc, horses tend to avoid highly acidic substances to protect their teeth and show aversion to strong bitterness, helping them avoid potentially toxic plants. However, there is considerable variation in taste sensitivities among individual horses.<ref name=":4" /> Research by Ronald Randa and colleagues tested foals for sensitivity to four basic flavors and found no consistent trends in sensitivity or preference across these flavors.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=123}}</ref> Generally, horses exhibit selective dietary preferences influenced by individual tastes.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=124}}</ref> Additionally, it is possible to induce aversions to toxic foods in horses through taste association.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=125}}</ref> Horses that experience negative biological effects after consuming a particular food may develop an aversion to that specific flavor.<ref name=":0" />


=== Tongue usages === === Tongue usages ===
]ing]] ]
According to ethologists Gerry and Julia Karen Neugebauer, horses use their tongues for licking, chewing, submissive behavior, ] and ].<ref name=":7">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=202}}</ref> Unlike cattle, they do not generally use their tongues for mutual grooming.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=3}}</ref> During close exploration, horses examine a new object, sniff it, and if the smell pleases them, may touch and taste it using their ], ], teeth and ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=133}}</ref> According to ethologists Gerry and Julia Karen Neugebauer, horses utilize their tongues for various behaviors, including licking, chewing, submissive gestures, ]ing, and ].<ref name=":7">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=202}}</ref> Unlike cattle, horses typically do not use their tongues for mutual grooming.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=3}}</ref> During close exploration, horses investigate new objects by sniffing them; if the scent is appealing, they may use their lips, whiskers, teeth, and tongue to touch and taste the object.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=133}}</ref>


] ]
If a horse sticks its tongue out to the side, this behavior indicates discomfort of varying degrees.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=135}}</ref> With its mouth open, it may roll or stick out its tongue.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=188}}</ref> When a horse extends its tongue to the side, this behavior typically indicates discomfort of varying degrees.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=135}}</ref> Additionally, if a horse opens its mouth, it may roll or protrude its tongue.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=188}}</ref>


==== Licking ==== ==== Licking ====
Licking is a normal part of a horse's behavior, whether in the wild or in captivity, with other horses or people. The primary function of licking is to enable the absorption of ]. To lick, the horse opens its mouth and sticks out its tongue to touch either an object, a fellow horse or a person it knows.<ref name=":7" /> Licking is a common behavior among horses, both in the wild and in captivity. Its primary function is to facilitate the absorption of minerals. For example, horses that groom each other may lick one another to absorb water that has settled on their coats. If a horse licks a human, this behavior may indicate an expectation of food or a deficiency in ].<ref name=":7" />


⚫ Systematic licking of objects in the horse's environment, such as stable walls, feed ], or metal bars, may occur before or after feeding. According to the Neugebauers, this behavior may signal a lack of food or stimulation and can develop into a behavioral disorder.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=202-203}}</ref> Systematic licking is indicative of a stereotypy, or ],<ref name=":8">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=203}}</ref> and differs from normal licking in its repetitive nature, making it difficult to eradicate.<ref name=":9">{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=197}}</ref>
Horses that groom each other can lick each other, for example to absorb water that has settled on the ]. If a horse licks a human being, this behavior may indicate an expectation of food or a lack of ].<ref name=":7" />


⚫ In addition to the ], taste may play a role in the bond between a ] and its ], as suggested by Belgian researcher Franck Ödberg.<ref name=":6" /> Immediately after birth, the mare licks her foal extensively, providing her with a gustatory experience of the foal's coat, which appears to strengthen their bond.<ref name=":6" /> During the breeding season, ]s may lick a mare's urine.<ref name=":7" />
⚫ Systematic licking of objects in the horse's immediate environment, such as ] walls, feed ] or metal bars, is possible before or after feeding; according to the Neugebauers, this behavior may reflect a lack of food or stimulation, and become a behavioral disorder.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=202-203}}</ref> Systematic licking is in fact the mark of a stereotypy, or ];<ref name=":8">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=203}}</ref> it differs from normal licking in its repetition and is difficult to eradicate.<ref name=":9">{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=197}}</ref>

⚫ In addition to ], taste may also play a role in the relationship between a ] and its ], according to Belgian researcher Franck Ödberg.<ref name=":6" /> Indeed, the mare ] its ] by giving it a long grooming just after birth, which provides the mare with a gustatory experience of its ] ] and seems to strengthen the bond between foal and mother.<ref name=":6" /> During the breeding season, ] ] their ]' urine.<ref name=":7" />


==== Chewing ==== ==== Chewing ====
Chewing is a combination of licking and mastication, during which the mouth is open and the tongue clearly visible, causing the horse to secrete ].<ref name=":8" /> This behavior can have many reasons and meanings, including submission, relaxation or well-being, but also discomfort. In its natural state, a horse chews when waiting for its turn to drink, when standing up and expressing relaxation after a rest, but also to soothe and show submission to a fellow horse.<ref name=":8" /> When relaxed, the horse may chew with light ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=117}}</ref> However, the horse may also yawn, chew and shake its head during ambivalent behaviors resulting from behavioral disorders.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=88-89}}</ref> Chewing in horses is a combination of licking and mastication, during which the mouth is open and the tongue is visible, leading to ] secretion.<ref name=":8" /> This behavior can serve multiple purposes and convey various meanings, including submission, relaxation, well-being, or discomfort. In their natural state, horses often chew while waiting for their turn to drink,<ref name=":8" /> when standing and expressing relaxation after a rest, or as a way to soothe themselves and display submission to another horse.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=117}}</ref> When relaxed, a horse may engage in light chewing movements.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=88-89}}</ref>


This behavior is difficult to interpret in the domestic state, when interacting with humans, due to its wide range of possible meanings, from submission to discomfort to relaxation.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=203-204}}</ref> Indeed, a horse may chew if its rider approaches it, if it sends contradictory signals, if it feels discomfort linked to its ],<ref name=":8" /> or even after a desired learning experience, with its mouth closed and eyes squinted.<ref name=":10">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=204}}</ref> In domestic settings, interpreting this behavior can be challenging due to its varied implications.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=203-204}}</ref> For example, a horse may chew when a rider approaches, when it receives contradictory signals, or when it experiences discomfort related to its ].<ref name=":8" /> Additionally, a horse might chew following a positive learning experience, exhibiting a closed mouth and squinted eyes.<ref name=":10">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=204}}</ref>


==== Snapping ==== ==== Snapping ====
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Snapping or clacking is a submissive signal in which the horse snaps its jaws and shows its tongue, with slight chewing movements.<ref name=":11">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=256}}</ref> It is often displayed by foals and young horses towards adult horses. The posture taken by the young horse evokes that of suckling its mother, producing sucking noises in rhythm with the clicking of its tongue on the roof of the mouth.<ref name=":11" /> This behavior is interpreted by Neugebauer ethologists as self-soothing and a call to play.<ref name=":12">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=257}}</ref> Snapping or clacking is a submissive signal in which a horse snaps its jaws and shows its tongue, accompanied by slight chewing movements.<ref name=":11">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=256}}</ref> This behavior is often exhibited by foals and young horses towards adult horses. The posture of the young horse resembles that of suckling, producing sucking noises in rhythm with the clicking of its tongue against the roof of its mouth.<ref name=":11" /> Ethologists Gerry and Julia Karen Neugebauer interpret this behavior as a form of self-soothing and an invitation to play.<ref name=":12">{{Harvtxt|Neugebauer|Neugebauer|2012|p=257}}</ref>


This behavior is not normally present in adult horses that have grown up surrounded by their congeners; on the other hand, it can persist and be manifested towards human beings by a domestic horse that has not previously learned all the social behaviors of its own species.<ref name=":12" /> This behavior is typically not present in adult horses that have been raised among their peers. However, it can persist in domestic horses that have not fully learned the social behaviors typical of their species and may be directed toward humans.<ref name=":12" />


== Diseases and tics == == Diseases and tics ==
The horse tongue can be affected by various illnesses, and can be mobilized during tics or stereotypies. The horse tongue can be affected by various illnesses and can be mobilized during tics or stereotypies.


=== Tics === === Tics ===
{{See also|Stable vices}} {{See also|Stable vices}}
Certain behaviors involving the tongue have no precise function, and as such are akin to ] or ], testifying to unsuitable living conditions and a need for care.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13">{{Harvtxt|Zeitler-Feicht|2003|p=141}}</ref> Among these tics is the one where the horse sticks its tongue out of its mouth and twirls it, while wearing a detached facial expression, expressing a lack of stimulation in its environment. There's also a tongue-pulling or hanging tic, with or without a bit in the mouth, which may express a hard hand from the rider.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13" /> These tics can also occur in horses with a bit in the mouth, and generally result in a strong commercial devaluation of the animal. In the case of tics with the bit, their existence does not a priori betray a physical health problem, such as an injury.<ref name=":9" /> Certain tongue-related behaviors in horses may lack specific functions and resemble ]s or ], indicating unsuitable living conditions and a need for care.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13">{{Harvtxt|Zeitler-Feicht|2003|p=141}}</ref> One such tic involves the horse extending its tongue out of its mouth and twirling it while displaying a detached facial expression, suggesting a lack of stimulation in its environment. Another tic involves tongue-pulling or hanging, which can occur with or without a bit in the mouth and may indicate the presence of heavy-handed riding.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13" /> These tics can also manifest in horses with a bit, often leading to a significant commercial devaluation of the animal. However, the presence of tics with a bit does not inherently indicate a physical health problem, such as an injury.<ref name=":9" />


In a study of 52 horses subject to tics, five were found to express lip and/or tongue stereotypies.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mills |first1=D. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiaLiE42W9UC&dq=horse+stereotype+with+tongue&pg=PA240 |title=Current Issues and Research in Veterinary Behavioral Medicine: Papers Presented at the Fifth Veterinary Behavior Meeting |last2=Levine |first2=Emily |last3=Landsberg |first3=Gary |publisher=Purdue University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55753-409-5}}</ref> In a study of 52 horses exhibiting tics, five were found to display lip and/or tongue stereotypies.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mills |first1=D. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiaLiE42W9UC&dq=horse+stereotype+with+tongue&pg=PA240 |title=Current Issues and Research in Veterinary Behavioral Medicine: Papers Presented at the Fifth Veterinary Behavior Meeting |last2=Levine |first2=Emily |last3=Landsberg |first3=Gary |publisher=Purdue University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55753-409-5}}</ref>


=== Diseases affecting the tongue === === Diseases affecting the tongue ===
An infection of a horse tongue by the bacterium ''Actinobacillus lignieresii'', which most commonly affects cattle, was described in 1984.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baum |first1=K. H. |last2=Shin |first2=S. J. |last3=Rebhun |first3=W. C. |last4=Patten |first4=V. H. |date=1984 |title=Isolation of Actinobacillus lignieresii from enlarged tongue of a horse |url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/6490508 |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=185 |issue=7 |pages=792–793 |issn=1943-569X |pmid=6490508 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> Infections of the horse's tongue can occur, such as one caused by the bacterium ''Actinobacillus lignieresii'', which most commonly affects cattle, as reported in 1984.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baum |first1=K. H. |last2=Shin |first2=S. J. |last3=Rebhun |first3=W. C. |last4=Patten |first4=V. H. |date=1984 |title=Isolation of Actinobacillus lignieresii from enlarged tongue of a horse |url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/6490508 |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=185 |issue=7 |pages=792–793 |issn=1943-569X |pmid=6490508 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref>


The tongue can also develop ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=A. |last2=Tessier |first2=C. |last3=Gorgas |first3=D. |last4=Kircher |first4=P. |date=2010 |title=Magnetic resonance imaging features of a benign peripheral nerve sheath tumour with 'ancient' changes in the tongue of a horse |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00088.x |journal=Equine Veterinary Education |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=346–351 |doi=10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00088.x |issn=2042-3292 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> In exceptional cases, a vascular ], usually a benign growth, may develop.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brunson |first1=Brandon L. |last2=Taintor |first2=Jennifer |last3=Newton |first3=Joseph |last4=Schumacher |first4=John |date=2006 |title=Vascular hamartoma in the tongue of a horse |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0737080606002371 |journal=Journal of Equine Veterinary Science |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=275–277 |doi=10.1016/j.jevs.2006.04.010 |issn=0737-0806 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> A case of ], on the tongue of a five-year-old ] mare, was studied in 1993.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hanson |first1=P. D |last2=Frisbie |first2=D. D. |last3=Dubielzig |first3=R. R. |last4=Markel |first4=M. D. |date=1993 |title=Rhabdomyosarcoma of the tongue in a horse |url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/8496087 |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=202 |issue=8 |pages=1281–1284 |issn=1943-569X |pmid=8496087 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> In 2014, a first case of ], a malignant tumor that affected a third of the dorsal part of the tongue of an elderly horse, was cited in the scientific literature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laus |first1=Fulvio |last2=Rossi |first2=Giacomo |last3=Paggi |first3=Emanuele |last4=Bordicchia |first4=Matteo |date=2014 |title=Adenocarcinoma Involving the Tongue and the Epiglottis in a Horse |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jvms/76/3/76_13-0417/_article/-char/ja/ |journal=Journal of Veterinary Medical Science |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=467–470 |doi=10.1292/jvms.13-0417 |pmid=24284972 |access-date=29 October 2021|pmc=4013378 }}</ref> The tongue can also develop ],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=A. |last2=Tessier |first2=C. |last3=Gorgas |first3=D. |last4=Kircher |first4=P. |date=2010 |title=Magnetic resonance imaging features of a benign peripheral nerve sheath tumour with 'ancient' changes in the tongue of a horse |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00088.x |journal=Equine Veterinary Education |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=346–351 |doi=10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00088.x |issn=2042-3292 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> with rare cases of vascular ], typically benign growths.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brunson |first1=Brandon L. |last2=Taintor |first2=Jennifer |last3=Newton |first3=Joseph |last4=Schumacher |first4=John |date=2006 |title=Vascular hamartoma in the tongue of a horse |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0737080606002371 |journal=Journal of Equine Veterinary Science |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=275–277 |doi=10.1016/j.jevs.2006.04.010 |issn=0737-0806 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> A case of ], on the tongue of a five-year-old ] mare, was studied in 1993.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hanson |first1=P. D |last2=Frisbie |first2=D. D. |last3=Dubielzig |first3=R. R. |last4=Markel |first4=M. D. |date=1993 |title=Rhabdomyosarcoma of the tongue in a horse |url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/8496087 |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=202 |issue=8 |pages=1281–1284 |issn=1943-569X |pmid=8496087 |access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> In 2014, the first case of ], a malignant tumor that affected a third of the dorsal part of the tongue of an elderly horse, was cited in the scientific literature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laus |first1=Fulvio |last2=Rossi |first2=Giacomo |last3=Paggi |first3=Emanuele |last4=Bordicchia |first4=Matteo |date=2014 |title=Adenocarcinoma Involving the Tongue and the Epiglottis in a Horse |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jvms/76/3/76_13-0417/_article/-char/ja/ |journal=Journal of Veterinary Medical Science |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=467–470 |doi=10.1292/jvms.13-0417 |pmid=24284972 |access-date=29 October 2021|pmc=4013378 }}</ref>


A 5-year-old mare was examined with a soft mass on the dorsal left side of the tongue, then developed numerous similar, coalescing masses along this dorsal left side, all the way to the tip of its tongue. This proliferation of perineal cells remains a matter of conjecture as to its ] nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vashisht |first1=K. |last2=Rock |first2=R. W. |last3=Summers |first3=B. A. |date=2007 |title=Multiple Masses in a Horse's Tongue Resulting from an Atypical Perineurial Cell Proliferative Disorder |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=398–402 |doi=10.1354/vp.44-3-398 |issn=0300-9858 |doi-access=free |pmid=17491087 }}</ref> In one case, a five-year-old mare was examined for a soft mass on the dorsal left side of the tongue. Subsequently, numerous similar, coalescing masses developed along this area, extending to the tip of the tongue. The nature of this proliferation of perineal cells remains uncertain regarding its ] characteristics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vashisht |first1=K. |last2=Rock |first2=R. W. |last3=Summers |first3=B. A. |date=2007 |title=Multiple Masses in a Horse's Tongue Resulting from an Atypical Perineurial Cell Proliferative Disorder |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=398–402 |doi=10.1354/vp.44-3-398 |issn=0300-9858 |doi-access=free |pmid=17491087 }}</ref>


== Human intervention on the horse tongue == == Human intervention in the horse tongue ==
] ]
Grabbing a horse's tongue is a commonly recognized method for immobilizing the animal; however, care must be taken to avoid rough handling.<ref name=":14">{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=186}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Some authors suggest that stretching the tongue to the side can help desensitize it, while others caution against this practice due to the sensory issues it may cause.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Honnay |first=Melissa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRsMCwAAQBAJ&dq=Langue+du+cheval&pg=PT32 |title=Apprendre le cheval pour mieux le comprendre |publisher=Editions Edilivre |year=2015 |isbn=978-2-332-86389-8 |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Boudard |first=Jean-Michel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoYIEAAAQBAJ&dq=Langue+du+cheval&pg=PT229 |title=Le stretching pour votre cheval |publisher=Vog Vigot Maloine |year=2020 |isbn=978-2-7114-5194-4 |pages=115 |language=fr}}</ref>
Grabbing a horse tongue is a well-known method of immobilizing the animal,<ref name=":1" /> but care must be taken to avoid rough handling.<ref name=":14">{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=186}}</ref>


⚫ The horse tongue is highly sensitive, and therefore vulnerable to injury.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kitchener |first=Nicole |date=2019 |title=Everything You Need to Know About the Equine Tongue |url=https://horse-canada.com/magazine/health/horse-tongues-101/ |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Horse Canada}}</ref> The main cause of lingual injuries in horses is from mishandling or accidents related to a ].<ref name=":1" /> A horse's tongue may hang over the bit for various reasons, particularly if the rider's hand is too heavy or if the bit is ill-suited to the horse's mouth, leading to a lack of control. In such cases, the horse may allow its tongue to hang out to the side.<ref name=":15">{{Harvtxt|Zeitler-Feicht|2003|p=187}}</ref> This behavior is to be distinguished from tongue ], as its origin is not the same.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Zeitler-Feicht|2003|p=142}}</ref> To mitigate this issue, "snaffle" bits and anti-tongue breakers can be added to the mouthpiece.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ancelet |first=Catherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/421687899 |title=Les fondamentaux de l'équitation : galops 1 à 4 : programme officiel |publisher=Amphora |year=2006 |isbn=2-85180-707-2 |location=Paris |pages=336 |language=fr |oclc=421687899}}</ref>
Some authors suggest ] the horse tongue to the side, arguing that this helps to desensitize the tongue,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boudard |first=Jean-Michel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoYIEAAAQBAJ&dq=Langue+du+cheval&pg=PT229 |title=Le stretching pour votre cheval |publisher=Vog Vigot Maloine |year=2020 |isbn=978-2-7114-5194-4 |pages=115 |language=fr}}</ref> while others, on the contrary, recommend never pulling the horse tongue to the side, because of the sensory problems this causes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Honnay |first=Melissa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRsMCwAAQBAJ&dq=Langue+du+cheval&pg=PT32 |title=Apprendre le cheval pour mieux le comprendre |publisher=Editions Edilivre |year=2015 |isbn=978-2-332-86389-8 |language=fr}}</ref>

⚫ The horse tongue is highly sensitive, and therefore vulnerable to injury.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kitchener |first=Nicole |date=2019 |title=Everything You Need to Know About the Equine Tongue |url=https://horse-canada.com/magazine/health/horse-tongues-101/ |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Horse Canada}}</ref> The main cause of lingual injuries in horses is man-made, and comes from wearing a ].<ref name=":1" /> A horse tongue may also hang over the bit for a variety of reasons, particularly if the rider's hand is too hard or if the bit is not adapted to the horse's mouthpiece, thus preventing the rider from controlling the horse. The horse may then let its tongue hang out to the side.<ref name=":15">{{Harvtxt|Zeitler-Feicht|2003|p=187}}</ref> This behavior is to be distinguished from tongue ], as its origin is not the same.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Zeitler-Feicht|2003|p=142}}</ref> To avoid this problem, there are "snaffle" bits and anti-tongue breakers to be added to the mouthpiece.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ancelet |first=Catherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/421687899 |title=Les fondamentaux de l'équitation : galops 1 à 4 : programme officiel |publisher=Amphora |year=2006 |isbn=2-85180-707-2 |location=Paris |pages=336 |language=fr |oclc=421687899}}</ref>


=== Tongue injuries and compressions caused by biting === === Tongue injuries and compressions caused by biting ===
{{See also|Bit (horse)}} {{See also|Bit (horse)}}
] in bridle ].]] ]
The main cause of tongue injuries in horses is the use of the ] during riding, whether due to the actions of the rider's hands or to unsuitable ].<ref name=":1" /> A minority of tongue injuries can result from contact with sharp molars, necessitating intervention by an ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=226}}</ref> The main cause of tongue injuries in horses is the use of the ] during riding, whether due to the actions of the rider's hands or to unsuitable ].<ref name=":1" /> A minority of tongue injuries can result from contact with sharp molars, necessitating intervention by an ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fraser|2010|p=226}}</ref>


When the vascularity of a horse tongue is compromised by its tack, the tongue changes color.<ref name=":2" /> When the vascularity of a horse's tongue is compromised by the bit, the tongue's color may change.<ref name=":2" /> Dr. Jacques Laurent identifies three possible forms of vascular changes in the horse's tongue:


⚫ * arterial compression, which results in a white coloration of the tongue;
Dr. Jacques Laurent identifies three possible forms of vascularization changes in the horse's tongue:
⚫ * venous compression, leading to a blue and swollen tongue;
⚫ * mixed compression, which is the most frequent.<ref name=":2" />


⚫ Laurent suggests that prolonged compromised vascularization can result in lingual ] and impaired sensitivity, both epi-critical and deep.<ref name=":2" />
⚫ * arterial compression alone, which gives the tongue a white color ;
⚫ * venous compression, which turns the tongue blue and swollen; and
⚫ * a mixed form, which is also the most frequent.<ref name=":2" />


⚫ Swedish dressage horse rider ] has been noted for riding horses whose tongues exhibited a blue coloration, specifically Akeem Foldager in 2014<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tsaag Valren |first1=Amélie |last2=Bataille |first2=Lætitia |title=Maltraitance : la langue bleue d'Akeem Foldager |url=http://www.cheval-savoir.com/1677-maltraitance-equine-langue-bleue-akeem-foldager |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Cheval Savoir |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Heath |first=Sophia |date=2015 |title=Andreas Helgstrand guilty of 'improper use of bit and bridle' |url=https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/andreas-helgstrand-guilty-improper-use-bit-bridle-blue-tongue-473300 |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=Horse & Hound}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=Heath |first=Sophia |date=2014 |title='Blue tongue' leads to social media outrage |url=https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/blue-tongue-leads-social-media-outrage-429324 |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=Horse & Hound}}</ref> and Watermill Scandic in 2009.<ref name=":16" /> The situation generated discussion within the equestrian community, although Kittel was subsequently cleared of any wrongdoing by the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tsaag Valren |first=Amélie |date=2014 |title=Aux JEM : une nouvelle affaire de langue bleue |url=http://www.cheval-savoir.com/1792-jem-nouvelle-affaire-langue-bleue |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Cheval Savoir |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=Patrick Kittel escapes disciplinary action by FEI over 'blue tongue' |url=https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/patrick-kittel-escapes-disciplinary-action-by-fei-over-blue-tongue-294320 |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=Horse & Hound}}</ref>
⚫ Jacques Laurent believes that, over time, compromised vascularization of the horse tongue leads to lingual ] and impaired epi-critical and deep sensitivity.<ref name=":2" />

⚫ Swedish dressage horse rider ] is controversial for repeatedly riding a horse whose tongue has turned blue: Akeem Foldager in 2014<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tsaag Valren |first1=Amélie |last2=Bataille |first2=Lætitia |title=Maltraitance : la langue bleue d'Akeem Foldager |url=http://www.cheval-savoir.com/1677-maltraitance-equine-langue-bleue-akeem-foldager |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Cheval Savoir |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Heath |first=Sophia |date=2015 |title=Andreas Helgstrand guilty of 'improper use of bit and bridle' |url=https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/andreas-helgstrand-guilty-improper-use-bit-bridle-blue-tongue-473300 |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=Horse & Hound}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=Heath |first=Sophia |date=2014 |title='Blue tongue' leads to social media outrage |url=https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/blue-tongue-leads-social-media-outrage-429324 |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=Horse & Hound}}</ref> and Watermill Scandic in 2009<ref name=":16" /> (a scandal for which he was cleared by the ]),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=Patrick Kittel escapes disciplinary action by FEI over 'blue tongue' |url=https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/patrick-kittel-escapes-disciplinary-action-by-fei-over-blue-tongue-294320 |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=Horse & Hound}}</ref> then again in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tsaag Valren |first=Amélie |date=2014 |title=Aux JEM : une nouvelle affaire de langue bleue |url=http://www.cheval-savoir.com/1792-jem-nouvelle-affaire-langue-bleue |access-date=2 November 2019 |website=Cheval Savoir |language=fr}}</ref>


=== Tongue-tying === === Tongue-tying ===
] ]
In ], it's common practice to tie a racehorse's tongue in order to gain better control over the horse,<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last1=Chalmers |first1=H. J. |last2=Farberman |first2=A. |last3=Bermingham |first3=A. |last4=Sears |first4=W. |date=2013 |title=The use of a tongue tie alters laryngohyoid position in the standing horse |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/evj.12056 |journal=Equine Veterinary Journal |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=711–714 |doi=10.1111/evj.12056 |pmid=24117933 |issn=2042-3306 |access-date=28 October 2021}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |last1=Franklin |first1=S. H. |last2=Naylor |first2=J. R. J. |last3=Lane |first3=J. G. |title=The effect of a tongue-tie in horses with dorsal displacement of the soft palate |journal=Equine Veterinary Journal |date=2010 |volume=34 |issue=34 |pages=430–433 |doi=10.1111/j.2042-3306.2002.tb05461.x |issn=2042-3306 |doi-access=free |pmid=12405729 }}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Harvtxt|Weller|Franklin|White|Shea|2021|p=622}}</ref> but also because of the widespread belief that this makes breathing easier.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /> The tongue tie is made with a ] stocking, an ] or a piece of ].<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last1=McGreevy |first1=Paul |last2=Franklin |first2=Samantha |date=2018 |title=Over 20% of Australian horses race with their tongues tied to their lower jaw |url=https://theconversation.com/over-20-of-australian-horses-race-with-their-tongues-tied-to-their-lower-jaw-99584 |access-date=29 October 2021 |website=The Conversation}}</ref> First, the horse tongue is grasped to place the tie, which is then fastened around the lower jaw. While some countries, such as Germany, prohibit the practice altogether, Australia allows it in racing. Around 20 % of Australian racehorses are affected.<ref name=":20" /> In racing, it is common practice to tie a racehorse's tongue to enhance control over the animal and due to the belief that this may facilitate easier breathing.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last1=Chalmers |first1=H. J. |last2=Farberman |first2=A. |last3=Bermingham |first3=A. |last4=Sears |first4=W. |date=2013 |title=The use of a tongue tie alters laryngohyoid position in the standing horse |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/evj.12056 |journal=Equine Veterinary Journal |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=711–714 |doi=10.1111/evj.12056 |pmid=24117933 |issn=2042-3306 |access-date=28 October 2021}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |last1=Franklin |first1=S. H. |last2=Naylor |first2=J. R. J. |last3=Lane |first3=J. G. |title=The effect of a tongue-tie in horses with dorsal displacement of the soft palate |journal=Equine Veterinary Journal |date=2010 |volume=34 |issue=34 |pages=430–433 |doi=10.1111/j.2042-3306.2002.tb05461.x |issn=2042-3306 |doi-access=free |pmid=12405729 }}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Harvtxt|Weller|Franklin|White|Shea|2021|p=622}}</ref> The tongue tie is typically made using materials such as nylon stockings, elastic bands, or pieces of leather.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last1=McGreevy |first1=Paul |last2=Franklin |first2=Samantha |date=2018 |title=Over 20% of Australian horses race with their tongues tied to their lower jaw |url=https://theconversation.com/over-20-of-australian-horses-race-with-their-tongues-tied-to-their-lower-jaw-99584 |access-date=29 October 2021 |website=The Conversation}}</ref> The procedure involves grasping the horse's tongue to position the tie, which is then fastened around the lower jaw. While some countries, such as Germany, have banned the practice altogether, it remains permitted in Australia, where approximately 20% of racehorses are affected.<ref name=":20" />


Tongue-tying causes injury to horses: more than half of users report a change in the color of the horse's tongue, 8.6 % have seen cuts on the tongue, and 2.9 % report that the horse's nerves have been irreparably damaged.<ref name=":19" /> There is no evidence that tying up the tongue of a racehorse with no health problems can make breathing easier, either at rest or under racing conditions.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |last1=Cornelisse |first1=Cornelis J. |last2=HolcombeS |first2=Susan J. |last3=Derksen |first3=Frederik J. |last4=Berney |first4=Cathy |date=2001 |title=Effect of a tongue-tie on upper airway mechanics in horses during exercise |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/ajvr/62/5/ajvr.2001.62.775.xml |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=775–778 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.775 |access-date=29 October 2021|doi-access=free |pmid=11341402 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cornelisse |first1=Cornelis J. |last2=Rosenstein |first2=Diana S. |last3=Derksen |first3=Frederik J. |last4=Holcombe |first4=Susan J. |date=2001 |title=Computed tomographic study of the effect of a tongue-tie on hyoid apparatus position and nasopharyngeal dimensions in anesthetized horses |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/ajvr/62/12/ajvr.2001.62.1865.xml |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=1865–1869 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.1865 |access-date=29 October 2021|doi-access=free |pmid=11763172 }}</ref> However, tongue-tying can cause injuries to horses. Reports indicate that over half of users observe a change in the color of the horse's tongue, with 8.6% noting cuts, and 2.9% reporting irreparable nerve damage.<ref name=":19" /> Importantly, there is no evidence that tying the tongue of a racehorse without pre-existing health issues improves breathing, either at rest or during racing.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |last1=Cornelisse |first1=Cornelis J. |last2=HolcombeS |first2=Susan J. |last3=Derksen |first3=Frederik J. |last4=Berney |first4=Cathy |date=2001 |title=Effect of a tongue-tie on upper airway mechanics in horses during exercise |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/ajvr/62/5/ajvr.2001.62.775.xml |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=775–778 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.775 |access-date=29 October 2021|doi-access=free |pmid=11341402 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cornelisse |first1=Cornelis J. |last2=Rosenstein |first2=Diana S. |last3=Derksen |first3=Frederik J. |last4=Holcombe |first4=Susan J. |date=2001 |title=Computed tomographic study of the effect of a tongue-tie on hyoid apparatus position and nasopharyngeal dimensions in anesthetized horses |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/ajvr/62/12/ajvr.2001.62.1865.xml |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=1865–1869 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.1865 |access-date=29 October 2021|doi-access=free |pmid=11763172 }}</ref>


A benefit is proven only in animals suffering from respiratory obstructions, such as dorsal displacement of the ] (DDSP).<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":21" /> Tongue attachment leads to a reduction in the depth of the thyroid cartilage and basihyoid bone, compared with the unharnessed position, demonstrating a significant effect on the positions of the basihyoid and thyroid cartilage in the horse, and thus with an effect on the structure of the ].<ref name=":17" /> However, there is no evidence that tongue attachment can alter ] mechanics after sternothyrohyoid myectomy (cutting of certain muscles) in clinically normal horses.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beard |first1=Warren L. |last2=Holcombe |first2=Susan J. |last3=Hinchcliff |first3=Kenneth W. |date=2001 |title=Effect of a tongue-tie on upper airway mechanics during exercise following sternothyrohyoid myectomy in clinically normal horses |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/ajvr/62/5/ajvr.2001.62.779.xml |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=779–782 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.779 |access-date=29 October 2021|doi-access=free |pmid=11341403 }}</ref> The practice may provide benefits for horses suffering from respiratory obstructions, such as dorsal displacement of the ] (DDSP).<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":21" /> Research indicates that a tied tongue can reduce the depth of the thyroid cartilage and basihyoid bone compared to an untied tongue, significantly affecting the positions of these structures and potentially impacting the ].<ref name=":17" /> However, there is no evidence that tongue attachment can alter ] mechanics after sternothyrohyoid myectomy (cutting of certain muscles) in clinically normal horses.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beard |first1=Warren L. |last2=Holcombe |first2=Susan J. |last3=Hinchcliff |first3=Kenneth W. |date=2001 |title=Effect of a tongue-tie on upper airway mechanics during exercise following sternothyrohyoid myectomy in clinically normal horses |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/ajvr/62/5/ajvr.2001.62.779.xml |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=779–782 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.779 |access-date=29 October 2021|doi-access=free |pmid=11341403 }}</ref>


A statistical analysis of racehorses in the ] suggests that racehorses with tongue-ties perform better than those without.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barakzai |first1=S. Z. |last2=Finnegan |first2=C. |last3=Boden |first3=L. A. |date=2009 |title=Effect of 'tongue tie' use on racing performance of Thoroughbreds in the United Kingdom |journal=Equine Veterinary Journal |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=812–816 |doi=10.2746/042516409X434134 |issn=2042-3306 |doi-access=free |pmid=20095231 }}</ref> Statistical analyses of racehorses in the United Kingdom suggest that those with tongue ties may perform better than those without.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barakzai |first1=S. Z. |last2=Finnegan |first2=C. |last3=Boden |first3=L. A. |date=2009 |title=Effect of 'tongue tie' use on racing performance of Thoroughbreds in the United Kingdom |journal=Equine Veterinary Journal |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=812–816 |doi=10.2746/042516409X434134 |issn=2042-3306 |doi-access=free |pmid=20095231 }}</ref>


== See also == == See also ==

* ] * ]


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{{reflist}} {{reflist}}


== Bibliography == === Sources ===


* {{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Andrew Ferguson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4Z3ctLEVMcC |title=The Behaviour and Welfare of the Horse |publisher=CABI |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84593-629-7}} * {{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Andrew Ferguson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4Z3ctLEVMcC |title=The Behaviour and Welfare of the Horse |publisher=CABI |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84593-629-7}}
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* {{Cite book |last1=Neugebauer |first1=Gerry M. |title=Le comportement du cheval |last2=Neugebauer |first2=Julia Karen |publisher=Delachaux et Niestlé |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-603-01847-7 |language=fr}} * {{Cite book |last1=Neugebauer |first1=Gerry M. |title=Le comportement du cheval |last2=Neugebauer |first2=Julia Karen |publisher=Delachaux et Niestlé |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-603-01847-7 |language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zeitler-Feicht |first=Margit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mUFZDwAAQBAJ&dq=horse+stereotype+with+tongue&pg=PA141 |title=Horse Behaviour Explained: Origins, Treatment and Prevention of Problems |publisher=CRC Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4822-2113-8}} * {{Cite book |last=Zeitler-Feicht |first=Margit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mUFZDwAAQBAJ&dq=horse+stereotype+with+tongue&pg=PA141 |title=Horse Behaviour Explained: Origins, Treatment and Prevention of Problems |publisher=CRC Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4822-2113-8}}
⚫ * {{Cite journal |last1=Gargiulo |first1=A. M. |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8588703/ |title=A lectin histochemical study of gustatory (von Ebner's) glands of the horse tongue |last2=Pedini |first2=V. |last3=Ceccarelli |first3=P. |last4=Lorvik |first4=S. |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |year=1995 |volume=24 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0264.1995.tb00022.x |issn=0340-2096 |pmid=8588703 |access-date=29 October 2021 |issue=2|pages=123–126 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Pfeiffer |first1=C. J. |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1439-0264.2000.00232.x |title=Ultrastructure of the Horse Tongue: Further Observations on the Lingual Integumentary Architecture |last2=Levin |first2=M. |last3=Lopes |first3=M. a. F. |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |year=2000 |volume=29 |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0264.2000.00232.x |issn=1439-0264 |access-date=28 October 2021 |issue=1|pages=37–44 |pmid=10820901 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Pfeiffer |first1=C. J. |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1439-0264.2000.00232.x |title=Ultrastructure of the Horse Tongue: Further Observations on the Lingual Integumentary Architecture |last2=Levin |first2=M. |last3=Lopes |first3=M. a. F. |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |year=2000 |volume=29 |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0264.2000.00232.x |issn=1439-0264 |access-date=28 October 2021 |issue=1|pages=37–44 |pmid=10820901 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=Dominic |title=The Reported Use of Tongue-Ties and Nosebands in Thoroughbred and Standardbred Horse Racing—A Pilot Study |last2=Franklin |first2=Samantha |last3=White |first3=Peter |last4=Shea |first4=Glenn |journal=Animals |volume=11 |doi=10.3390/ani11030622 |issue=3|year = 2021 |page=622 |doi-access=free |pmid=33652950 |pmc=7996875 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=Dominic |title=The Reported Use of Tongue-Ties and Nosebands in Thoroughbred and Standardbred Horse Racing—A Pilot Study |last2=Franklin |first2=Samantha |last3=White |first3=Peter |last4=Shea |first4=Glenn |journal=Animals |volume=11 |doi=10.3390/ani11030622 |issue=3|year = 2021 |page=622 |doi-access=free |pmid=33652950 |pmc=7996875 }}

== Further reading ==
{{Commons category|Horse tongues}}
⚫ * {{Cite journal |last1=Gargiulo |first1=A. M. |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8588703/ |title=A lectin histochemical study of gustatory (von Ebner's) glands of the horse tongue |last2=Pedini |first2=V. |last3=Ceccarelli |first3=P. |last4=Lorvik |first4=S. |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |year=1995 |volume=24 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0264.1995.tb00022.x |issn=0340-2096 |pmid=8588703 |access-date=29 October 2021 |issue=2|pages=123–126 }}


] ]

Latest revision as of 07:33, 22 November 2024

Anatomy of the equine tongue
Horse sticking out its tongue

The horse tongue, similar to that of most mammals, is pink and plays a significant role in taste perception. Its long, narrow shape, characteristic of herbivorous animals, allows the horse to grasp food effectively with the assistance of its lips and teeth. The tongue is sensitive to pressure and temperature and is involved in activities such as licking and chewing. While a mare licks her foal extensively immediately after birth, there is limited research on the gustatory sensitivity of horses and the social functions of their tongues.

Equestrianism involves potential contact between the horse's tongue and a bit, necessitating precautions to prevent injury to this sensitive, highly vascularized organ. Compression from inappropriate bitting can cause the horse's tongue to turn white or blue, which may adversely affect the animal's overall health. The practice of tying down the tongues of racehorses is a topic of ongoing debate.

Anatomy

Horse tongue anatomy

The horse possesses a long, narrow tongue that typically measures approximately 40 cm in length and 9.3 to 10.7 cm in width, with an average weight of around 1.2 kg. The tongue is composed of over a dozen muscles and is connected to surrounding tissues by a membrane known as the frenulum, facilitating effective chewing. It is also richly supplied with blood vessels.

Structurally, the horse's tongue is thick and features a robust outer layer. The upper section, referred to as the dorsal lingual cartilage, contains muscle cells and adipose tissue, while the ventral surface is covered by a thinner layer. The arrangement of muscle fibers in the tongue allows for a variety of movements.

Notably, the Caspian horse differs from other studied horse breeds in that it lacks hyaline cartilage in its tongue.

Taste buds

The horse's tongue features taste buds primarily located on the upper two-thirds of its surface. While these taste buds are present, the majority serve mechanical or tactile functions rather than gustatory ones. Filiform taste buds, characterized by their short and thin, finger-like shape, are found on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the tongue but are absent on the ventral surface. These projections are equipped with fine keratinized threads that curve backward.

Interspersed among the filiform taste buds are fungiform taste buds, which are fewer in number and covered by a keratinized layer. Additionally, two large circumvallate taste buds are situated at the back of the tongue, near its root, while foliate taste buds are located near the palatoglossus muscle.

Research conducted in 2000 by C. J. Pfeiffer, M. Levin, and M. A. F. Lopes identified localized groups of epidermal cells within the horse's tongue, notable for their high content of specific cytoplasmic granules, which may contribute to structural strength in relation to mechanical taste buds.

Comparative anatomical studies indicate that the fine structure of the tongue in horses exhibits a more primitive pattern than that observed in goats and cattle. Specifically, horse filiform taste buds are long and thin, whereas those in goats and cattle are thicker. Additionally, horses possess two large circumvallate taste buds, while goats and cattle have 15 or more situated in the posterior region of the tongue.

Glands

Groups of minor salivary glands are present between the muscle fibers and the lamina propria. Most lingual glands are mucous and most gustatory glands are serous.

Physiology

See also: Equine nutrition

The mechanical functions of the horse's tongue are moderate, influenced by its prehensile nature. The anterior portion of the tongue works in conjunction with the incisors and lips to grasp vegetation. Additionally, the tongue assists in maneuvering food toward the molars for effective chewing. Horses can also partially clean their teeth using their tongues, dislodging food particles that may become stuck. The horse's tongue is sensitive to pressure, pain, and temperature, further contributing to its functional capabilities.

Taste perception

A horse licking a salt stone

The tongue allows horses to experience the sense of taste. Similar to all mammals, this sense is closely linked to olfaction, enabling horses to perceive what Michel-Antoine Leblanc refers to as "flaveurs".

Horses are reputed to possess a highly sensitive sense of taste, although research on this topic is limited. It has been established that the presence of taste buds allows horses to sense the flavors of substances they touch with their tongues. Like many mammals, horses respond to bitter, salty, sweet, acidic, and umami tastes, as well as to their concentrations, which can trigger specific gustatory reactions. There is no evidence to suggest that sensitivity to these tastes is localized to specific areas of the tongue. Consequently, horses can taste various foods and may spit out those that are unpalatable.

Sensitivity to flavors is crucial for horses to meet their nutritional needs. Horses are particularly sensitive to sweet tastes, especially soluble carbohydrates, which provide essential energy for their brains. They also exhibit a strong sensitivity to salty tastes, likely due to their need to replenish sodium reserves, with evidence indicating that horses may actively seek out salty foods in cases of deficiency. According to Leblanc, horses tend to avoid highly acidic substances to protect their teeth and show aversion to strong bitterness, helping them avoid potentially toxic plants. However, there is considerable variation in taste sensitivities among individual horses. Research by Ronald Randa and colleagues tested foals for sensitivity to four basic flavors and found no consistent trends in sensitivity or preference across these flavors. Generally, horses exhibit selective dietary preferences influenced by individual tastes. Additionally, it is possible to induce aversions to toxic foods in horses through taste association. Horses that experience negative biological effects after consuming a particular food may develop an aversion to that specific flavor.

Tongue usages

Yawning

According to ethologists Gerry and Julia Karen Neugebauer, horses utilize their tongues for various behaviors, including licking, chewing, submissive gestures, yawning, and drinking. Unlike cattle, horses typically do not use their tongues for mutual grooming. During close exploration, horses investigate new objects by sniffing them; if the scent is appealing, they may use their lips, whiskers, teeth, and tongue to touch and taste the object.

A horse sticks its tongue out to the side in discomfort

When a horse extends its tongue to the side, this behavior typically indicates discomfort of varying degrees. Additionally, if a horse opens its mouth, it may roll or protrude its tongue.

Licking

Licking is a common behavior among horses, both in the wild and in captivity. Its primary function is to facilitate the absorption of minerals. For example, horses that groom each other may lick one another to absorb water that has settled on their coats. If a horse licks a human, this behavior may indicate an expectation of food or a deficiency in mineral salts.

Systematic licking of objects in the horse's environment, such as stable walls, feed troughs, or metal bars, may occur before or after feeding. According to the Neugebauers, this behavior may signal a lack of food or stimulation and can develop into a behavioral disorder. Systematic licking is indicative of a stereotypy, or stable vice, and differs from normal licking in its repetitive nature, making it difficult to eradicate.

In addition to the sense of smell, taste may play a role in the bond between a foal and its mother, as suggested by Belgian researcher Franck Ödberg. Immediately after birth, the mare licks her foal extensively, providing her with a gustatory experience of the foal's coat, which appears to strengthen their bond. During the breeding season, stallions may lick a mare's urine.

Chewing

Chewing in horses is a combination of licking and mastication, during which the mouth is open and the tongue is visible, leading to saliva secretion. This behavior can serve multiple purposes and convey various meanings, including submission, relaxation, well-being, or discomfort. In their natural state, horses often chew while waiting for their turn to drink, when standing and expressing relaxation after a rest, or as a way to soothe themselves and display submission to another horse. When relaxed, a horse may engage in light chewing movements.

In domestic settings, interpreting this behavior can be challenging due to its varied implications. For example, a horse may chew when a rider approaches, when it receives contradictory signals, or when it experiences discomfort related to its riding equipment. Additionally, a horse might chew following a positive learning experience, exhibiting a closed mouth and squinted eyes.

Snapping

Snapping behavior
External video
video icon Demonstration of a foal clacking

Snapping or clacking is a submissive signal in which a horse snaps its jaws and shows its tongue, accompanied by slight chewing movements. This behavior is often exhibited by foals and young horses towards adult horses. The posture of the young horse resembles that of suckling, producing sucking noises in rhythm with the clicking of its tongue against the roof of its mouth. Ethologists Gerry and Julia Karen Neugebauer interpret this behavior as a form of self-soothing and an invitation to play.

This behavior is typically not present in adult horses that have been raised among their peers. However, it can persist in domestic horses that have not fully learned the social behaviors typical of their species and may be directed toward humans.

Diseases and tics

The horse tongue can be affected by various illnesses and can be mobilized during tics or stereotypies.

Tics

See also: Stable vices

Certain tongue-related behaviors in horses may lack specific functions and resemble tics or stereotypies, indicating unsuitable living conditions and a need for care. One such tic involves the horse extending its tongue out of its mouth and twirling it while displaying a detached facial expression, suggesting a lack of stimulation in its environment. Another tic involves tongue-pulling or hanging, which can occur with or without a bit in the mouth and may indicate the presence of heavy-handed riding. These tics can also manifest in horses with a bit, often leading to a significant commercial devaluation of the animal. However, the presence of tics with a bit does not inherently indicate a physical health problem, such as an injury.

In a study of 52 horses exhibiting tics, five were found to display lip and/or tongue stereotypies.

Diseases affecting the tongue

Infections of the horse's tongue can occur, such as one caused by the bacterium Actinobacillus lignieresii, which most commonly affects cattle, as reported in 1984.

The tongue can also develop tumors, with rare cases of vascular hamartoma, typically benign growths. A case of rhabdomyosarcoma, on the tongue of a five-year-old Quarter Horse mare, was studied in 1993. In 2014, the first case of adenocarcinoma, a malignant tumor that affected a third of the dorsal part of the tongue of an elderly horse, was cited in the scientific literature.

In one case, a five-year-old mare was examined for a soft mass on the dorsal left side of the tongue. Subsequently, numerous similar, coalescing masses developed along this area, extending to the tip of the tongue. The nature of this proliferation of perineal cells remains uncertain regarding its neoplastic characteristics.

Human intervention in the horse tongue

A horse tongue extended and held by a human hand.

Grabbing a horse's tongue is a commonly recognized method for immobilizing the animal; however, care must be taken to avoid rough handling. Some authors suggest that stretching the tongue to the side can help desensitize it, while others caution against this practice due to the sensory issues it may cause.

The horse tongue is highly sensitive, and therefore vulnerable to injury. The main cause of lingual injuries in horses is from mishandling or accidents related to a bit. A horse's tongue may hang over the bit for various reasons, particularly if the rider's hand is too heavy or if the bit is ill-suited to the horse's mouth, leading to a lack of control. In such cases, the horse may allow its tongue to hang out to the side. This behavior is to be distinguished from tongue stereotypies, as its origin is not the same. To mitigate this issue, "snaffle" bits and anti-tongue breakers can be added to the mouthpiece.

Tongue injuries and compressions caused by biting

See also: Bit (horse)
Horse showing severe discomfort with this bit

The main cause of tongue injuries in horses is the use of the bit during riding, whether due to the actions of the rider's hands or to unsuitable equipment. A minority of tongue injuries can result from contact with sharp molars, necessitating intervention by an equine dentist.

When the vascularity of a horse's tongue is compromised by the bit, the tongue's color may change. Dr. Jacques Laurent identifies three possible forms of vascular changes in the horse's tongue:

  • arterial compression, which results in a white coloration of the tongue;
  • venous compression, leading to a blue and swollen tongue;
  • mixed compression, which is the most frequent.

Laurent suggests that prolonged compromised vascularization can result in lingual amyotrophy and impaired sensitivity, both epi-critical and deep.

Swedish dressage horse rider Patrik Kittel has been noted for riding horses whose tongues exhibited a blue coloration, specifically Akeem Foldager in 2014 and Watermill Scandic in 2009. The situation generated discussion within the equestrian community, although Kittel was subsequently cleared of any wrongdoing by the Fédération Équestre Internationale.

Tongue-tying

Tongue tie of a racehorse at the Josselin racecourse, France, in 2019

In racing, it is common practice to tie a racehorse's tongue to enhance control over the animal and due to the belief that this may facilitate easier breathing. The tongue tie is typically made using materials such as nylon stockings, elastic bands, or pieces of leather. The procedure involves grasping the horse's tongue to position the tie, which is then fastened around the lower jaw. While some countries, such as Germany, have banned the practice altogether, it remains permitted in Australia, where approximately 20% of racehorses are affected.

However, tongue-tying can cause injuries to horses. Reports indicate that over half of users observe a change in the color of the horse's tongue, with 8.6% noting cuts, and 2.9% reporting irreparable nerve damage. Importantly, there is no evidence that tying the tongue of a racehorse without pre-existing health issues improves breathing, either at rest or during racing.

The practice may provide benefits for horses suffering from respiratory obstructions, such as dorsal displacement of the soft palate (DDSP). Research indicates that a tied tongue can reduce the depth of the thyroid cartilage and basihyoid bone compared to an untied tongue, significantly affecting the positions of these structures and potentially impacting the upper respiratory tract. However, there is no evidence that tongue attachment can alter upper respiratory tract mechanics after sternothyrohyoid myectomy (cutting of certain muscles) in clinically normal horses.

Statistical analyses of racehorses in the United Kingdom suggest that those with tongue ties may perform better than those without.

See also

References

  1. Leblanc (2019, p. 121-122)
  2. ^ Leblanc (2019, p. 121)
  3. ^ Clark, Aimi (2016). "14 facts you need to know about your horse's tongue". Horse & Hound. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  4. ^ Laurent, Jacques (2014). "Comment se constitue le phénomène de la « langue bleue ?". Cheval Savoir (in French). Retrieved 2 November 2019.
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