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Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu (CKP) or historically and commonly known as Chandraseniya Prabhu or just Prabhu is a caste mainly found in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Historically, they made equally good warriors, statesmen as well as writers. They held the posts such as Deshpande and Gadkari according to the historian, B.R. Sunthankar, produced prominent warriors in Maharashtrian history.

Traditionally, in Maharashtra, the caste structure was headed by the Deshasthas, Chitpawans, Karhade, Saraswats and the CKPs. Other than the Brahmins, the Prabhus (CKPs and Pathare Prabhus) were the communities advanced in education.

The CKPs have the upanayana ( janeu or thread ceremony) and have been granted the rights to study the Vedas and perform Vedic rituals along with the Brahmins. The CKP performed three Vedic karmas or duties which in Sanskrit are called: Adhyayan- studying of the Vedas, yajna- ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras and dāna – alms or charity. Ritually ranked high (along with the Brahmins), the caste may be considered socially proximate to the Brahmin community. They have traditionally been an elite and literate but a numerically small community.Rosenthal, while discussing the British era situation in Kolhapur says that they "claimed a status equal to Brahmans -a claim which the Brahmans always stridently rejected".

More formally, in Maharashtra, they are one of the Prabhu Communities and a sister caste of the Pathare Prabhu. The CKP traditionally follow the Advaita Vedanta, as propounded by Adi Shankara.

Etymology

The name Chandraseniya may be a corruption of the word Chandrashreniya, which means from the valley of the Chenab River in Kashmir. This theory states that the word Kayastha originates from the term Kaya Desha, an ancient name for the region around Ayodhya. The word Prabhu means Lord or a Chief in Sanskrit language.

History

Origin

The CKP claim descent from Chandrasen, an ancient Kshatriya king of Ujjain and Ayodhya and of the Haihaya family of the lunar Kshatriya Dynasty.

High medieval period

Epigraphical evidences i.e. engravings from the Shilahara times have been found in Deccan to prove that many CKPs held high posts and controlled the civilian and military administration. For example, a Shilahara inscription around A.D. 1088 mentions the names of a certain Velgi Prabhu. Lakshmana Prabhu is mentioned as a MahaDandanayaka (head of military) and MahaPradhana (prime minister); Ananta-Prabhu is mentioned as a MahaPradhana (prime minister), Kosadhikari (Head of treasury) and Mahasandhivigrahika (charge of foreign department). According to Historian and researcher S.Muley, these epigraphs might be the first available evidences of the existence of the CKP in Maharashtra.

According to the American Indologist and scholar of Religious Studies and South Asian Studies who is the Professor of International Studies and Comparative Religion at the University of Washington, Christian Lee Novetzke

In the thirteenth century they might have been considered as equal to brahmin or simply within the Brahminic ecumene, this despite the fact that modern day CKPs of Maharashtra understand themselves to have arisen from the Kshatriya varna. Thus they are an intermediate caste between brahmins and Kshatriyas.

Deccan sultanate and Maratha Era

The CKP community became more prominent during the Deccan sultanates and Maratha rule era. During Adilshahi and Nizamshahi, CKP, the Brahmins and high status Maratha were part of the elites. Given their training CKP served both as civilian and military officers. Several of the Maratha Chhatrapati Shivaji's generals and ministers, such as Murarbaji Deshpande and Baji Prabhu Deshpande, and Khando Ballal Chitnis were CKPs.

In 17th-century Maharashtra, during Shivaji's time, the so-called higher classes i.e. the Marathi Brahmins, CKPs and Saraswat Brahmins, due to social and religious restrictions were the only communities that had a system of education for males. Except these three castes, education for all other castes and communities was very limited and consisted of listening to stories from religious texts like the Puranas or to Kirtans and thus the common masses remained illiterate and backward. Hence Shivaji was compelled to use people from these three educated communities – Marathi Brahmins, CKPs and Saraswat Brahmins – for civilian posts as they required education and intellectual maturity. However, in this time period, these three as well as other communities, depending on caste, also contributed their share to Shivaji's "Swaraj"(self-rule) by being cavalry soldiers, commanders, mountaineers, seafarers etc. During the Peshwa era, the CKP's main preceptor or Vedic Guru was a Brahmin by the name of Abashastri Takle, who was referred to by the CKP community as "Gurubaba". Sale of liquor was banned by the Brahmin administrators to the Brahmins, CKPs, Pathare Prabhus and Saraswat Brahmins but there was no objection to other castes drinking it or even to the castes such as Bhandaris from manufacturing it. As the Maratha empire/confederacy expanded in the 18th century, and given the nepotism of the Peshwa of Pune towards their own Chitpavan Brahmin caste, CKP and other literal castes migrated for administration jobs to the new Maratha ruling states such as the Bhosale of Nagpur, the Gaekwads, the Scindia, the Holkars etc., The Gaekwads of Baroda and the Bhosale of Nagpur gave preference to CKPs in their administration.

Varna dispute and Gramanya

The CKPs, described as a traditionally well-educated and intellectual group claimed themselves as Kshatriyas, while the predominant regional Brahmin belief was that they were Shudras (considering that there are no true Kshatriyas in the Kali Yuga). The dispute first broke out few years before the coronation of Shivaji, and was related to the Upanayana rights of the CKP community. CKPs even demanded privileges of the Brahmin order – the rights to conduct the Vedic rituals (all by themselves) and satkarma (all six karmas of the Brahmin order) for which they were opposed especially by the Chitpawans. At times, there were Gramanyas, i.e. "dispute involving the supposed violation of the Brahmanical ritual code of behavior" also known as "Vedokta disputes", initiated by certain individuals who tried to stop CKP rights to Upanayana. These individuals based their opinion on the belief that no true Kshatriyas existed in the Kali Yuga; however the upanayana for CKPs were supported by prominent Brahmin arbitrators like Gaga Bhatt and Ramshastri Prabhune who gave decisions in the favor of the community. Just after the death of Shivaji this dispute raised again but this time the opinion shifted against the views of Gangabhatta. During the Peshwa era Gramanyas were very common and some Chitpawans, at times, initiated Gramanya against other communities – Prabhu communities (CKP, Pathare Prabhu), Saraswats and Shukla Yajurvedis. however they did not come to fruition . The Gramanya during the Peshwa eras finally culminated in the favor of the CKPs as the Vedokta had support from the Shastras and this was affirmed by two letters from Brahmins from Varanasi as well as one from Pune Brahmins ratified by Bajirao II himself. In the final Gramanya, started by Neelkanthashastri and his relative Balaji Pant Natu, a rival of the CKP Vedic scholar V.S.Parasnis at the court of Satara, the Shankaracharya himself intervened as arbiter and he gave his verdict by fully endorsing the rights over Vedas for the CKP. The Shankaracharya's letter is addressed to all Brahmins and he refers to various Shastras, earlier verdicts in the favour of the CKPS as well as letters about the lineage of the CKP to make his decision and void the dispute started by Natu.

Scholarly interpretation

Modern scholars quote statements that show that they were due to political malice – especially given that the Gramanya was started by a certain Yamaji Pant who had sent an assassin to murder a rival CKP. This was noted by Gangadharshastri Dikshit who gave his verdict in favor of the CKPs. Abashastri Takle had used the scriptures to establish their "Vedokta". Similarly, the famous jurist Ramshastri Prabhune also supported the CKPs Vedokta.

The analysis of gramanyas against the CKP was done in depth by historians from the University of Toronto. Modern scholars conclude that the fact that the CKPs held high ranking positions in administration and the military and as statesmen was a "double edged sword". Historians, while analyzing the gramanyas state "As statesmen, they were engulfed in the court intrigues and factions, and, as a result, were prone to persecution by opposing factions. On the other hand, their influence in the court meant that they could wield enough political clout to effect settlements in favor of their caste.". The late Indian professor of sociology, Govind Sadashiv Ghurye commented on the strictness of the caste system during the Peshwa rule in Maharashtra by noting that even advanced caste such as the Prabhus had to establish rights to carry on with the vedic rituals.

University of Toronto historians and Professors Emeriti, Milton Israel and N.K Wagle opine about this as follows in their analysis:

The CKP could undertake the six functions (satkarma) because they had the expertise to do so. Aba Parasnis the CKP could easily hold his own and argue intricate points from the vedas, puranas and the dharmasastras in a debate which resulted in his composition of the siddhantavijaya in sanskrit.He prepared the sanskara manual(karmakalpadruma), which was published by Pratapsimha. The CKP as an educated elite therefore, were a serious challenge to the Brahman monopoly of Vedokta.

British era and later

During the British colonial era, the two literate communities of Maharashtra, namely the Brahmins and the CKP were the first to adopt western education with enthusiasm and prospered with opportunities in the colonial administration. A number of CKP families also served the semi-independent princely states in Maharashtra and other regions of India, such as Baroda.

The British era of the 1800s and 1900s saw the publications dedicated to finding sources of CKP history The book Prabhu Kul Deepika gives the gotras (rishi name) and pravaras etc. of the CKP caste. Another publication, Kayastha-mitra (Volume 1, No.9. Dec 1930) gives a list of north Indian princely families that belonged to the CKP caste.

Rango Bapuji Gupte, the CKP representative of the deposed Raja Pratapsinh Bhosale of Satara spent 13 years in London in the 1840s and 50s to plead for restoration of the ruler without success. At the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, Rango tried to raise a rebel force to fight the British but the plan was thwarted and most of the conspirators were executed. However, Rango Bapuji escaped from his captivity and was never found.

When the prominent Marathi historian Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade contested their claimed Kshatriya status in a 1916 essay, Prabodhankar Thackeray objected to Rajwade's assumptions and wrote a text outlining the identity of the caste, and its contributions to the Maratha empire. In this text, Gramanyachya Sadhyant Itihas, he wrote that the CKPs "provided the cement" for Shivaji's swaraj (self-rule) "with their blood".

Gail Omvedt concludes that during the British era, the overall literacy of Brahmins and CKP was overwhelmingly high as opposed to the literacy of others such as the Kunbis and Marathas for whom it was strikingly low.

In 1902, all communities other than Marathi Brahmins, Saraswat Brahmins, Prabhus (Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus, Pathare Prabhus) and Parsi were considered backward and 50% reservation was provided for them in by the princely state of Kolhapur. In 1925, the only communities that were not considered backward by the British Government in the Bombay Presidency were Brahmins, CKP, Pathare Prabhus, Marwaris, Parsis, Banias and Christians.

In Pune, the descendents of Sakharam Hari Gupte donated premises for conducting thread ceremonies and marriages for the members of the CKP community and the facilities were available to other communities as well.

According to the studies by D.L.Sheth, the former director of the Center for the Study of Developing Societies in India (CSDS), educated upper castes and communities – Punjabi Khatris, Kashmiri Pandits, CKPs, the Chitpawans, Nagar Brahmins, South Indian Brahmins, Bhadralok Bengalis, etc., along with the Parsis and upper crusts of the Muslim and Christian society were among the Indian communities in 1947, at the time of Indian independence, that constituted the middle class and were traditionally "urban and professional" (following professions like doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, etc.). According to P. K. Varma, "education was a common thread that bound together this pan Indian elite" and almost all the members of these communities could read and write English and were educated "beyond school"

Culture

The mother tongue of most of the community is now Marathi, though in Gujarat they also communicate with their neighbours in Gujarati, and use the Gujarati script, while those in Maharashtra speak English and Hindi with outsiders, and use the Devanagari script.

According to anthropologist Iravati Karve, their "ways of living, dress, worship, cremation" are exactly like those of the Brahmins except that they are not necessarily vegetarian.

The CKPs holds the varna rank of Kshatriya. They performed three "vedic karmas"(studying vedas, fire sacrifice, giving alms) as opposed to full("Shatkarmi") Brahmins who performed six vedic duties which also include accepting gifts, teaching Vedas to other and performing vedic rites for others. They also followed rituals, like the sacred thread (Janeu) ceremony, the observation of the period of mourning and seclusion by person of a deceased's lineage by the CKPs has traditionally been for 10 days although Kshatriyas generally observe it for 12 days. Educationally and professionally, 20th century research showed that the Saraswat, CKP, Deshastha and Chitpawan were quite similar. Researcher and professor Dr.Neela Dabir sums it up as follows "In Maharashtra for instance, the family norms among the Saraswat Brahmins and CKPs were similar to those of the Marathi Brahmins". However, she also criticizes these communities by concluding that until the 20th century, the Marathi Brahmin, CKP and Saraswat Brahmin communities, due to their upper-caste ritualistic norms, traditionally discouraged widow remarriage. This resulted in distress in the lives of widows from these castes as opposed to widows from other Marathi Hindu castes.

They worship Ganesh, Vishnu and other Hindu gods. Some CKPs may also be devotees of the religious swamis from their own caste – Ram Maruti Maharaj(Deshpande) and "Gajanan Maharaj (Gupte)", who took samadhis at Kalyan (in 1919) and Nasik (in 1946) respectively. Many CKP clans have Ekvira temple at Karle as their family deity whereas others worship Vinzai, Kadapkarin, Janani as their family deity.

CKPs have had a progressive attitude regarding female education compared to other communities. For example, Dr.Christine Dobbin's research concludes that the educationally advanced communities in the 1850s – the CKPS, Pathare Prabhus, Saraswats, Daivadnya and the Parsis were the first communities in the Bombay Presidency that allowed female education.

References

Notes

1. quote on page 168:The CKP could undertake the six functions (satkarma) because they had the expertise to do so. Aba Parasnis the CKP could easily hold his own and argue intricate points from the vedas,puranas and the dharmasastras in a debate which resulted in his composition of the siddhantavijaya in sanskrit.He prepared the samskara manual(karmakalpadruma), which was published by Pratapsimha. The CKP as an educated elite therefore, were a serious challenge to the Brahman monopoly of Vedokta.
2. Omvedt does add a proviso saying that :There is difficulty in using such Census data, particularly because the various categories tended to be defined in different ways in different years, and different criteria were used in different provinces for classifying the population. Nonetheless, the overall trend is clear
3. quote from page 14: Rubbing shoulders with the portraits of the Gods and Goddesses would be pictures of Ram Maruti Maharaj or Gajanan Maharaj(both CKP Swamis, whose samadhis are at Kalyan and Nasik respectively)....Almost every C K.P home will have either a coloured or a black-and-white portrait of Sai Baba of Shirdi...

Citations

1. Commissioner, India Census (1903). Census of India, 1901. Printed at the Government central Press.
2. Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya (1896). Hindu Castes And Sects.
3. Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu Social Club, Poona; Gupte, T. V. (1904). Ethnographical notes on Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu. University of California Libraries. Poona.
4. ^ B. R. Sunthankar (1988). Nineteenth Century History of Maharashtra: 1818–1857. p. 121. The Kayastha Prabhus, though small in number, were another caste of importance in Maharashtra. The Konkan districts were their homeland. They formed one of the elite castes of Maharashtra. They also held the position of Deshpandes and Gadkaris and produced some of the best warriors in the Maratha history
5. ^ K.P.Bahadur, Sukhdev Singh Chib (1981). The Castes, Tribes and Culture of India. ESS Publications. p. 161. pg 161: The Kayastha Prabhus...They performed three of the vedic duties or karmas, studying the Vedas adhyayan, sacrificing yajna and giving alms or dana...The creed mostly accepted by them is that of the advaita school of Adi Shankaracharya, though they also worship Vishnu, Ganapati and other gods. ...Most of the Pathare Prabhus are the followers of smart sect who adopt the teachings of Shankaracharya
6. Sharmila Rege (2013). Writing Caste/Writing Gender: Narrating Dalit Women's Testimonies. Zubaan Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-93-83074-67-9. The traditional caste hierarchy was headed by the brahmin castes-the deshasthas, chitpawans, karhades saraswats and the chandraseniya kayastha prabhus.
7. Sulabha Brahme, Ashok Upadhyaya (2004). Agrarian structure, movements & peasant organisations in India, Volume 2. V.V. Giri National Labour Institute. p. 29. ISBN 978-81-7827-064-7. Besides Brahmins, the other communities advanced in education are Kayastha Prabhu, Pathare Prabhu found mainly in the...
8. ^ KS Singh (1998). India's communities. Oxford University Press. p. 2083. ..the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu observe the thread-wearing (janeu) ceremony for male children. They cremate the dead and observe death pollution for ten days.
9. Pran Nath Chopra (1982). Religions and communities of India. Vision Books. p. 98. ISBN 9780391027480. Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu They have the Upanayana ceremony and are Vedadhikaris ( having the right to read the Vedas )
10. ^ Milton Israel and N.K.Wagle, ed. (1987). Religion and Society in Maharashtra. Center for South Asian Studies, University of Toronto, Canada. pp. 147–170.
11. André Béteille (1992). Society and Politics in India: Essays in a Comparative Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 0195630661. Although the Chandraseniya Kayasth Prabhu are non-Brahmins, they rank very high and might be regarded as being socially proximate to the Koknasth Brahman.
12. Kurtz, Donald (1 August 1997). Book Contradictions and Conflict: A Dialectical Political Anthropology of a University in Western India (Studies in Human Society, Vol 9). Brill. p. 68. ISBN 978-9004098282. ... CKPs. They represent a small but literate and ritually high caste.
13. Rosenzweig, Mark; Munshi, Kaivan (September 2006). "Traditional Institutions Meet the Modern World: Caste, Gender, and Schooling Choice in a Globalizing Economy". American Economic Review. 96 (4): 1225–1252. doi:10.1257/aer.96.4.1225. (page 1228)High castes include all the Brahmin jatis, as well as a few other elite jatis (CKP and Pathare Prabhus).Low castes include formerly untouchable and backward castes (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Castes, as defined by the government of India). Medium castes are drawn mostly from the cultivator jatis, such as the Marathas and the Kunbis, as well as other traditional vocations that were not considered to be ritually impure.
14. Bidyut Chakrabarty (2003). Communal Identity in India: Its Construction and Articulation in the Twentieth Century. Oxford University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-19-566330-3. Of the six groups, four are Brahmins; one is high non-Brahmin caste, Chandraseniya Kayashth Prabhu (CKP), ranking next only to the Brahmins; and the other is a cultivating caste, Maratha (MK), belonging to the middle level of the hierarchy.
15. ^ Champa Aphale (1976). Growing Up in an Urban Complex. National Publishing House. p. 5. advanced castes among the maharashtrians viz.Brahmins. In this groups were also included families belonging to the chandraseniya kayastha prabhu besides the three subscastes among the brahmins, viz. Kokanastha Brahmins, Deshastha Brahmins and Saraswat Brahmins. The reason for this was that, though non-Brahmins, these C.K.P. families were very much near the Brahmin families as regards their educational and occupational status.
16. V. B. Ghuge (1994). Rajarshi Shahu: a model ruler. kirti prakashan. p. 20. In the Hindu social hierarchy the privileged classes were Brahmins, CKP's and others. Similarly other elite classes were Parsis and Europeans.
17. ^ Donald B. Rosenthal (1973). "From Reformist Princes to 'Co-operative Kings". Special Studies Series, State University of New York. Buffalo, N.Y. Council on International Studies, State University of New York at Buffalo: 7.
18. Rosenthal, Donald (19 May 1973). "From Reformist Princes to 'Co-operative Kings': I: Political Change in Pre-Independence Kolhapur". Economic and Political Weekly. 8 (20): 903–910. JSTOR 4362649. (page 905)Within the circle of "available" non-Brahman elite groups one might also count the tiny community of CKP's Chandrasenya Kayastha Prabhu...A community which claimed status equal to Brahmans-a claim which the Brahmans always stridently rejected – the CKP's were a source of men of talent who were to act as advisors to Shahu...
19. Christine E. Dobbin (1972). Urban leadership in Western India: politics and communities in Bombay city, 1840–1885. Oxford University Press. p. 225. ISBN 9780198218418. Not only were the Pathare prabhus aware for the need for self help. In 1876 the members of their sister community, the Chandraseniya Kyasth Prabhus, began to organize themselves.
20. Vijaya Gupchup. Bombay: Social Change 1813–1857. p. 166. The other intellectual class, the Prabhus were once again subdivided in the Chnadraseniya Kayastha Prabhu and the Pathare Prabhus
21. Pran Nath Chopra (1982). Religions and communities of India. Vision Books. p. 88. ISBN 9780391027480. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
22. quote:The name Chandraseniya is a corrupt form of Chandrashreniya ( meaning from the valley of the Chenab in Kashmir ) . The term Kayastha originates from the region around Ayodhya , which was called Kaya Desh , where the Chandraseniya Prabhus settled. ' Prabhu ' denotes a high government official
23. "Definition of PRABHU". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
24. Sharad Hebalkar (2001). Ancient Indian ports: with special reference to Maharashtra. p. 87.
25. Lucy Carol Stout (1976). The Hindustani Kayasthas : The Kayastha Pathshala, and the Kayastha Conference. University of California, Berkeley. p. 17.
26. S.Muley,M.A.,PhD (1972). Studies in the Historical and cultural geography and ethnography of the Deccan. Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, University of Poona. pp. 301, 303, 304. " pg 301: (section)Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu...From our epigraphical evidences, many Prabhus seem to have held high posts in the Silahara kingdom, and controlled the civil and military administration. The Chaul inscription of AD.1088 mentions Veliga Prabhu. Ananta Prabhu and Lakshamana Prabhu appear in a number of records. The former was a MahaPradhana, Kosadhikari, MahasandhiVigrahika and the latter was a MahaPradhana and Mahadandanayaka. Table on Pg 303,304: minister: pradhana, head of treasury: kosadhikari, foreign department charge: Mahasandhivigrahika, head of military: MahaDandanayaka{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
27. Christian Lee Noverzke (2016). The Qutodian revolution : Vernacularization, Religion, and the Premodern Public Sphere in India, part 2. Columbia University Press. p. 159.
28. ^ Pandit, Nalini (1979). "Caste and Class in Maharashtra". Economic and Political Weekly. 14 (7/8 (February 1979)): 425–436. JSTOR 4367360.
29. Balkrishna Govind Gokhale (1988). Poona in the eighteenth century: an urban history. Oxford University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-562137-2. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
30. Kantak, M. R. (1978). "The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of the Shivaji Maharaj's Swarajya". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 38 (1): 44,47. JSTOR 42931051. (page 44) Next to the Brahmins came the Saraswats and the Kayastha Prabhus. Except the Brahmins, the saraswats and the kayasthas, all other castes and communities in Maharashtra received very little education, which was the sole privilege of the higher castes.(page 47)A charge may be leveled against Shivaji Maharaj that he recruited in his civil departments the people from the so called intellectual classes only. It is a fact that Shivaji Maharaj's civil services were dominated by the Brahmins, the Prabhus and the Saraswats. However, the blame on it does not fall on Shivaji Maharaj but on the social framework within which he was workings. As has been pointed out earlier in this article , in 17th century Maharashtra, due to social and religious restrictions, education was the privilege of the higher classes only. Consequently, the common masses remained illiterate and backward. For civil posts, intellectual maturity, some standard of education as well as knowledge of reading, writing and account keeping ,etc. were essential. Shivaji Maharaj found these requisites readily in the Brahmins, the Saraswats and the Kayasthas which were the only educated classes then. Shivaji Maharaj had no alternative but to recruit them in his services for maintaining a high standard of efficiency.
31. Bayly, Susan (2000). Caste, society and politics in India from the eighteenth century to the modern age (1. Indian ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-521-79842-6.
32. Gordon, Stewart (1993). The Marathas 1600–1818 (1. publ. ed.). New York: Cambridge University. p. 145. ISBN 9780521268837.
33. ^ Harold Robert Isaacs (1970). Harry M. Lindquist (ed.). Education: readings in the processes of cultural transmission. Houghton Mifflin. p. 88. ..in this case the particular tradition of a Kshatriya caste called "CKP"(Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu). This group described as an intellectual community came into conflict with the Brahmins at least 300 years ago over their right to be teachers and scholars
34. ^ Deshpande, Madhav (1 January 2010). "Ksatriyas in the Kali Age? Gāgābhatta & His Opponents". Indo-Iranian Journal. 53 (2): 95–120. doi:10.1163/001972410X12686674794853. ISSN 0019-7246.
35. Gokhale, Sandhya (2008). The Chitpwans. Shubhi Publications. p. 30. claimed privilege of the traditional Brahmin order, the right to perform Vedic Ritual...in this they were frequently opposed by the Brahmins, especially the Chitpawans
36. Deshpande, Madhav (1 January 2010). "Ksatriyas in the Kali Age? Gāgābhatta & His Opponents". Indo-Iranian Journal. 53 (2): 95–120. doi:10.1163/001972410X12686674794853. ISSN 0019-7246.
37. Gokhale, Sandhya (2008). The Chitpwans. Shubhi publications. p. 204. The jati disputes were not a rare occurrence in Maharashtra. There are recorded instances of disputes between jatis such as Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Pathare Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Saraswats and the Chitpawans and Shukla Yajurvedi and the Chitpawans. The intra-caste dispute involving the supposed violation of the Brahmanical ritual code of behavior was called Gramanya in Marathi.
38. Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India. Popular Prakashan. pp. 5, 14. ISBN 9788171542055. (page 5) Thus the Brahmin government of Poona, while passing some legislation prohibiting the manufacture and sale of liquors, excluded the bhandaris kolis and similar other castes from the operation thereof but strictly forbade the sale of drinks to Brahmins, Shenvis, Prabhus and Government officers (page 14). Such an advanced caste as the Prabhus in the Maratha country had to establish its rights to carry on the rites according to the vedic formulae which were being questioned at the time of the later peshwas
39. Gunther-Dietz Sontheimer; Parameswara Aithal, eds. (1982). Indology and Law: Studies in the Honour or Professor J.Duncan M.Derett. Südasien-Institut – Universität Heidelberg. p. 325. (page 321) Gangadhar Dikshit remarked "The proof in favor of the prabhus vedokta adduced by their preceptor is preponderant. There is no argument against it. Who can, therefore, dare say that the Shastra is false? Their preceptor Gurubaba (Abashastri Takle), indeed, quoting from the scriptures convincingly argued the Prabhus claims to Vedokta before the Pandit assembly by proving their Kshatriya genealogy (page 325). As the prabhus's Gurubaba stated in the Pandit assembly, that the gramanya initiated by Yamaji was due to political malice("rajyakarani dvesha"). It did not therefore, come to fruition. That there was an active enmity between Govindrao, a leading member of the prabhu caste and Yamaji, is clear from a document in which it is stated that Yamaji Pant actually sent an assassin to murder Govindrao. The Prabhus eminence as soldier-statesmen and high ranking administrative officers from Bajiravs time to end of Peshwai was both an asset and a liability. As statesmen, they were engulfed in the court intrigues and factions, and, as a result, were prone to persecution by opposing factions. On the other hand, their influence in the court meant that they could wield enough political clout to effect settlements in favor of their caste.(page 328)It is significant that the two Prabhu Sardars, Nilkanthrav Page and Ravji Apaji were the key members of the faction which helped Bajirav to acquire the Peshwaship.
40. Vijaya Gupchup. Bombay: Social Change. p. 166,167. (page 166)The other intellectual class, the Prabhus were once again subdivided in the Chnadraseniya Kayastha Prabhu and the Pathare Prabhus. (page 167) The Bhandaris were given a permit for the manufacture of liquor but were forbidden to sell their products to castes such as Brahmins and Shenvis and the Prabhus because these were required by their caste laws to abstain from drinking
41. Mehta, Vijaya (2005). Gulati, Leela; Bagchi, Jasodhara (eds.). A space of her own : personal narratives of twelve women. London: SAGE. p. 181. ISBN 9780761933151.
42. Divekar, V.D., 1978. Survey of Material in Marathi on the Economic and Social History of India—3. The Indian Economic & Social History Review, 15(3), pp.375–407.
43. V.D Divekar (1981). Survey of Material in Marathi on the Economic and Social History of India. Bharata Itihasa Samshodhaka Mandala. p. 61. On the historical information relating to Chandraseneeya Kayastha Prabhus (known popularly as &dquo;C.K.P.s&dquo;) we have a good book published from Baroda (no publication date) under the title Prabhu-kul-deepika. The book gives detailed information about the Gotras, Pravaras, allied caste names, surnames, etc., of the members of the C.K.P. caste. R.R. Pradhan, in an issue of Kayastha-mitra (Vol. 1, No. 9, December 1930, pp. 2-3) gives a list of north Indian princely families that belonged to the C.K.P. caste. We may mention here two such publications: Chandraseneeya Kayastha Prabhunchd itihas dni Sans-theche patrak (Baroda, 1891); and, Chdndraseneeya Kdyastha Prabhu samci-jachyd itihäsáche digdarshan, by R.N. Pradhan (Baroda, 1918). Seetanandan has compiled a detailed list of authors belonging to the C.K.P. caste
44. Naregal, Veena (2013). Bates, Crispin (ed.). Mutiny at the margins : new perspectives on the Indian uprising of 1857. Los Angeles: SAGE. pp. 167–186. ISBN 9788132109709.
45. Prachi Deshpande (2007). Creative Pasts: Historical Memory And Identity in Western India, 1700–1960. Columbia University Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-231-12486-7. Retrieved 1 September 2012.
46. Sen, S.P. (1969). Studies in Modern Indian History: A Regional Survey. Institute of Historical Studies. p. 81. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
47. Omvedt, Gail (August 1973). "Development of the Maharashtrian Class Structure, 1818 to 1931". Economic and Political Weekly. 8 (31/33): 1418–1419. page 1426:There is difficulty in using such Census data, particularly because the various categories tended to be defined in different ways in different years, and different criteria were used in different provinces for classifying the population. Nonetheless, the overall trend is clear...page 1419:Male literacy rates were much higher than the male and female together, but show the same pattern, as does the literacy in English. Not only were the Brahmans and CKPs overwhelmingly dominant, but maratha kunbi figures were amazingly low, especially for bombay province. Even allowing for the effects of sampling differences, the low rates for the marathas kunbis are striking, and it is noteworthy that many artisan castes were more literate. This also tended to be true in the central provinces-Berar.
48. André Burguière; Raymond Grew, eds. (2001). The construction of minorities: cases for comparison across time. University of Michigan Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0472067374. Reservations for backward communities were instituted in Bombay after 1925, when a government resolution defined backward classes as all except for "Brahmins, Prabhus, Marwaris, Parsis, Banias, and Christians."
49. Richard I. Cashman (1 January 1975). The Myth of the Lokamanya: Tilak and Mass Politics in Maharashtra. University of California Press. p. 116. ISBN 9780520024076. when he issued the resolution of july 26th,1902, reserving, 50% of future vacancies in the kolhapur state service for the members of the "backward classes"The backward castes were considered to be those groups other than the advanced communities, namely the brahmans ,Prabhus, Shenvis and parsis
50. Vijaya Gupchup. Bombay: Social Change 1813–1857. p. 166,167. (page 167) The Bhandaris were given a permit for the manufacture of liquor but were forbidden to sell their products to castes such as Brahmins and Shenvis and the Prabhus because these were required by their caste laws to abstain from drinking.(page 166) The other intellectual class, the Prabhus were once again subdivided in the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu and the Pathare Prabhus.
51. Rajaram Vinayak Oturka. Rajaram Vinayak Oturka (ed.). Poona: Look and Outlook. Municipal Corporation(Pune). p. 133. Sakharam Hari Gupte C. K. P. Karyalaya : The above Karya- laya is situated at 4 Narayan Peth, Poona, on a site secured from the Sardar Ambegavkar family of Baroda on a nominal rent, through the efforts of the C. K. P. Swayamsevak Sangh which also collected donations from members of the C. K. P. community for the construction of the building. The objects of the trust are to promote the educational, moral and cultural welfare of the C. K. P. community. The premises are let out particularly for marriage and thread ceremonies to members of the community and when possible to other communities as well.
52. Pavan K. Varma (2007). The Great Indian Middle class. Penguin Books. p. 28. ISBN 9780143103257.
53. Karve, I.K. (1968). Maharashtra, Land and Its People. Gazetteer of India. Directorate of Government Printing, Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State. Retrieved 25 January 2024. During the Maratha fight against Aurangazeb they distinguished themselves as loyal and staurch supporters of Shivaji Sambhaji and Rajaram and made a name as warriors also. They are today mostly government employees, teachers, lawyers, doctors etc. They are an intellectually keen and are a progressive community ...Their way of living, dress, worship, cremation ceremonies are like those of the Brahmins except that they eat fish, fowl and mutton. They are mostly concentrated in the region north of Bombay and are found in great numbers in the cities of Bombay and Poona. Some families are found in the villages near the western Ghats where they hold inam lands.
54. Kurtz, Donald V. (2009). "The Last Institution Standing: Contradictions and the politics of Domination in an Indian University". Journal of Anthropological Research. 65 (4): 611–640. doi:10.3998/jar.0521004.0065.404. JSTOR 25608264. S2CID 147219376. The CKP jati is resident largely in Maharashtra, holds the varna rank of Kshatria, which commonly, except by some Brahmans, is accorded a caste status equal to that of the Chitpawan Brahmans.
55. Fritzi-Marie Titzmann (24 October 2019). Xenia Zeiler (ed.). Digital Hinduism. Taylor & Francis. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-351-60732-2. 22.Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu. CKP is a Kshatriya subcaste whose members live predominantly in Maharashtra.
56. Vijaya Gupchup. Bombay: Social Change, 1813–1857. Popular Book Depot. The Brahmana's six duties (Satakarmas) are studying the Vedas and teaching them, performing rites for himself and for others, giving and accepting gifts. Trikarmi means that one can study the Vedas, perform rites for himself and give gifts.
57. Bento Graciano D'Souza (1975). Goan Society in Transition: A Study in Social Change. Popular Prakashan. p. 61. The most important of the Konkani caste communities were: (1) The Saraswat Brahmins such as Shenvis, Sastikars, Bardesh- ... They are, therefore, called Trikarmi Brahmins as distinguished from Shatkarmi Brahmins who performed all the six duties
58. Paul Gwynne (2017). World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction. John Wiley and Sons. p. 146. According to tradition the defilement period differs by class; 10 days for brahmin, 12 days for kshatriya , 15 days for vaishya and one month for shudra.
59. Dr.Neela Dabir (2000). women in distress. Rawat Publishers. pp. 97, 99.
60. The illustrated weekly of India, volume 91, part 3. 1970. pp. 6–13.
61. N.S.Pathak. "Mountain Path – Volume 12 – No.1". T. N. Venkataraman,Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai. p. 37. My guru, Sri Gajanan Maharaj Gupte of Nasik (who attained Mahasamadhi in September 1946) was, in 1943, invited by Sri Ramana Maharshi Mandal of Matunga, Bombay, to attend the 63rd birth anniversary celebrations... {{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
62. Zelliot, Eleanor; Berntsen, Maxine (1988). The Experience of Hinduism : essays on religion in Maharashtra. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 335. ISBN 9780887066627. ckp.
63. Christine Dobbin (1972). Urban leadership in western India. Oxford University Press. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-0-19-821841-8.

• Prabhu Communities of Maharashtra
• Kayastha
• Social groups of Maharashtra
• Marathi people