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| '''Urartians''' were an ancient people who spoke the ]. The territory of the ancient kingdom of ] extended over the modern frontiers of ], ], ], and the ].<ref name=":7">Kleiss, Wolfram (2008). "URARTU IN IRAN". '']''. </ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-506512-1| last = Zimansky| first = Paul E.| title = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East| chapter = Urartu| access-date = 2018-11-22| date = 2011-01-01| chapter-url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195065121.001.0001/acref-9780195065121-e-1097| doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195065121.001.0001}}</ref> Its kings left behind ] inscriptions in the ], a member of the ].<ref name=":1" /> These languages might have been related to ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zimansky |first1=Paul |chapter=Urartian and the Urartians |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0024 |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-537614-2 |editor-last1=McMahon |editor-last2=Steadman |editor-first1=Gregory |editor-first2=Sharon |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE) |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=556–557 |quote=That Hurro-Urartian as a whole shared a yet earlier common ancestor with some of the numerous and comparatively obscure languages of the Caucasus is not improbable. Modern Caucasian languages are conventionally divided into southern, (north)western, and (north)eastern families (Smeets 1989:260). Georgian, for example, belongs to the southern family. Diakono and Starostin, in the most thorough attempt at finding a linkage yet published, have argued that Hurro-Urartian is a branch of the eastern Caucasian family. This would make it a distant relative of such modern languages as Chechen, Avar, Lak, and Udi (Diakono and Starostin 1986).}}</ref> Following Armenian incursions into Urartu, Armenians "imposed their language" on Urartians and became the aristocratic class. The Urartians later "were probably absorbed into the Armenian polity".<ref>{{cite book | last=Chahin | first=Mack | title=The Kingdom of Armenia: A history | publisher=Routledge | series=Caucasus World | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-136-85250-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXj_AQAAQBAJ |pages=109–110 |quote=However, before him, Hecataeus of Miletus was the first to mention 'Armenoi', c. 525 BC, which leaves a gap of a mere 60 years between the end of the kingdom of Van and the first historical evidence of the existence of the state of Armenia. During that period, and the previous generations of infiltrations, conquests and consolidation, the Armenians would properly be described as the ruling aristocracy of those territories (and eventually of the whole of the ancient Kingdom of Urartu), where they imposed their language upon those Urartians who chose to stay (and according to recent findings, there was a large proportion of the population who did so), and even Armenised Urartian names. Those of the Urartians who fled continued to live in the highlands of the upper Araxes ... According to more recent research the Chaldians were a native people of the Chalybes. The Urartians were probably absorbed into the Armenian polity.}}</ref> A related people to the Urartians are the ].<ref name="Smeets">{{cite journal |author=Smeets, Rieks |title=On Hurro-Urartian as an Eastern Caucasian language |journal=Bibliotheca Orientalis |volume=XLVI |year=1989 |pages=260–280 |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/reference/id/315299}}</ref> | |||
| '''Urartians''' were an ancient people who lived in the ] and spoke the ]. | |||
| ⚫ | The |
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| According to the migration-mixed hypothesis of ] proposed by I. M. Diakonov, the Urartians, along with the ] and ],<ref>{{Cite web |author=I. M. Diakonov |date=1983 |title=On the Prehistory of the Armenian Language (Facts, Evidence, and Logic) |url=http://hpj.asj-oa.am/3856/1/1983-4(149).pdf |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6MTwi1zTq?url=http://hpj.asj-oa.am/3856/1/1983-4(149).pdf |archive-date=2024-12-11 |access-date=2024-12-11 |work=№ 4 . pp. 149-178. ISSN 0135-0536 |publisher=Historical-philological journal}} In other words, the Armenians are primarily the descendants of the Urartians, who adopted an Indo-European language but retained their own pronunciation (articulatory base, or, in everyday terms, their «accent»). They are also descendants of the Hurrians, Luwians, and, of course, the original speakers of the Proto-Armenian language.</ref> gradually adopted the Indo-European, Proto-Armenian language. They later became part of the Armenian ethnos, transmitting their cultural heritage and forming the primary genetic component of the modern ]. | |||
| == History and Origin == | == History and Origin == | ||
| {{Main|Urartu}} | |||
| It is assumed that the Urartians spread across the ] from the region of Rewanduz (modern-day northwestern Iran), where the ancient city of Musasir was located.<ref name="Barnett">Barnett R.D. Urartu // Edwards I.E.S., Gadd C.J., Hammond N.G.L., Boardman J. Cambridge Ancient history. — London: Cambridge University Press, 1982. — Vol. 3, part 1. — P. 314—371. — ISBN 0-521-22496-9.</ref><ref name="Stoun Zimansky">{{Cite book |author=Stone E. C., Zimansky P. |title=Archaeology in the Borderlands. Investigations in Caucasia and beyond |year=2003 |isbn=1931745013 |place=Los Angeles |chapter=The Urartian Transformation in the Outer Town of Ayanis |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref><ref name="Salvinu">{{Cite book |author=Salvini, Mirjo |title=Geschichte und Kultur der Urartäer |year=1995 |publisher=Darmstadt }}</ref><ref name="Melikishvily1948">{{Cite journal |author=Melikishvili, G. A. |title=Musasir and the Question of the Earliest Habitat of the Urartian Tribes |journal=Bulletin of Ancient History |year=1948 |issue=2 |pages=37–48 |quote=This article by Georgian historian G. A. Melikishvili explores the ancient city of Musasir and its significance in understanding the earliest territories inhabited by Urartian tribes. Drawing on historical and archaeological evidence.}}</ref><ref name="Barnett" /> |
It is assumed that the Urartians spread across the ] from the region of Rewanduz (modern-day northwestern Iran), where the ancient city of Musasir was located.<ref name="Barnett">Barnett R.D. Urartu // Edwards I.E.S., Gadd C.J., Hammond N.G.L., Boardman J. Cambridge Ancient history. — London: Cambridge University Press, 1982. — Vol. 3, part 1. — P. 314—371. — ISBN 0-521-22496-9.</ref><ref name="Stoun Zimansky">{{Cite book |author=Stone E. C., Zimansky P. |title=Archaeology in the Borderlands. Investigations in Caucasia and beyond |year=2003 |isbn=1931745013 |place=Los Angeles |chapter=The Urartian Transformation in the Outer Town of Ayanis |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref><ref name="Salvinu">{{Cite book |author=Salvini, Mirjo |title=Geschichte und Kultur der Urartäer |year=1995 |publisher=Darmstadt }}</ref><ref name="Melikishvily1948">{{Cite journal |author=Melikishvili, G. A. |title=Musasir and the Question of the Earliest Habitat of the Urartian Tribes |journal=Bulletin of Ancient History |year=1948 |issue=2 |pages=37–48 |quote=This article by Georgian historian G. A. Melikishvili explores the ancient city of Musasir and its significance in understanding the earliest territories inhabited by Urartian tribes. Drawing on historical and archaeological evidence.}}</ref><ref name="Barnett" /> | ||
| Since its re-discovery in the 19th century, Urartu, which is commonly believed to have been at least partially ]-speaking,<ref name="Diakonoff 1992 51–54">{{cite journal|last=Diakonoff|first=Igor M|title=First Evidence of the Proto-Armenian Language in Eastern Anatolia|journal=Annual of Armenian Linguistics|year=1992|volume=13|pages=51–54|issn=0271-9800}}</ref><ref name="EncyclopediaIE">{{Cite book|title=] |date=1997|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |editor=Mallory, J. P. |editor2=Adams, Douglas Q.|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|location=London|pages=|oclc=37931209|quote=Armenian presence in their historical seats should then be sought at some time before c 600 BC; ... Armenian phonology, for instance, appears to have been greatly affected by Urartian, which may suggest a long period of bilingualism.}}</ref><ref>Robert Drews. ''Militarism and the Indo-Europeanizing of Europe''. Routledge. 2017. p. 228. "The vernacular of the Great Kingdom of Biainili was quite certainly Armenian. The Armenian language was obviously the region's vernacular in the fifth century BC, when Persian commanders and Greek writers paired it with Phrygian. That it was brought into the region between the early sixth and the early fifth century BC, and that it immediately obliterated whatever else had been spoken there, can hardly be supposed; ... Because Proto-Armenian speakers seem to have lived not far from Hurrian speakers our conclusion must be that the Armenian language of Mesrop Mashtots was descended from an Indo--European language that had been spoken in southern Caucasia in the Bronze Age."</ref><ref>Hrach Martirosyan (2013). "The place of Armenian in the Indo-European language family: the relationship with Greek and Indo-Iranian*" ''Leiden University''. p. 85-86.</ref><ref>Petrosyan, Armen. "The Armenian Elements in the Language and Onomastics of Urartu." ''Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies''. 2010. </ref> has played a significant role in ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Redgate|first=Anne Elizabeth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3nef10a3UcC|title=The Armenians|publisher=Wiley|year=2000|isbn=978-0-631-22037-4|author-link=Elizabeth Redgate}}, p. 276.</ref> The claim that Urartians were Armenians has no "serious scientific grounds".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Areshian |first1=Gregory E. |chapter=Bīsotūn, 'Urartians' and 'Armenians' of the Achaemenid Texts, and the Origins of the Exonyms Armina and Arminiya | editor-last1=Avetisyan | editor-first1=Pavel S. |editor-last2=Dan |editor-first2=Roberto | editor-last3=Grekyan | editor-first3=Yervand H. | title=Over the Mountains and Far Away: Studies in Near Eastern history and archaeology presented to Mirjo Salvini on the occasion of his 80th birthday | publisher=Archaeopress | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-78491-944-3 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvndv9f0.6 | url=https://www.archaeopress.com/Archaeopress/DMS/01395710731745869652C7160519F1A3/9781784919436-sample.pdf |page=3 |quote=Never having serious scientific grounds and fulfilling its political goals in 1991, but still littering today school textbooks, this nationalistic paradigmatic concept maintains among a number of other amateurish ideas that 'Urartians' were 'Armenians', without even attempting to explore what 'Urartians' and 'Armenians' could have meant in the 9th-6th centuries BCE, thereby demonstrating a classical example of historical presentism}}</ref> | |||
| In the 1st millennium BC, the Urartians, along with other peoples of the region, participated in the formation of the Armenian ethnic group. Armenians inherited the physical and cultural components of the ancient population of the highlands, primarily the Urartians, ], and ], who constitute the main genetic and cultural basis of the modern Armenian people.<ref>{{Cite book|author=D’yakonov I. M. |title=History of the Ancient World= The Decline of Ancient Societies |year=1989 |place=M. |publisher=Main Editorial Board of Eastern Literature |volume=3| page=282 }} The Armenian people include Proto-Armenian, Hurrian-Urartian, and Luwian elements</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Leo "History of Armenia" Volume I |publisher=“Hayastan” Publishing House |year=196 |location=Yerevan |pages=246–262}}.</ref> | |||
| == Language == | == Language == | ||
| {{main|Urartian language|Hurro-Urartian languages}} | |||
| The Urartian language belongs to the ] family and is closely related to the ].<ref name="Friedrich1">{{Cite book |author=Johannes Friedrich |title=Decoding Forgotten Scripts and Languages |publisher=URSS |year=2003 |isbn=5-354-00045-9 |place=Moscow}}</ref> The Urartians used a simplified form of ] cuneiform, adapting it to their needs. For example, many polysemous Assyrian ]s were used by the Urartians with a single meaning, losing the original multiplicity of the Assyrian signs. | |||
| ] | |||
| Urartian or Vannic<ref>{{cite web|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 March 2021|publisher=]|access-date=5 November 2024|url=http://multitree.org/codes/xur|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310043712/http://multitree.org/codes/xur|title=Urartean}}</ref> is an extinct ] which was spoken by the inhabitants of the ancient kingdom of ] (''Biaini'' or ''Biainili'' in Urartian), (it was also called ''Nairi''), which was centered on the region around ] and had its capital, ], near the site of the modern town of ] in the ], now in the ] region of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Læssøe |first=Jørgen |url= |title=People of Ancient Assyria: Their Inscriptions and Correspondence |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |year=1963 |isbn=9781013661396 |pages=89 |oclc=}}</ref> Its past prevalence is unknown. While some believe it was probably dominant around Lake Van and in the areas along the upper ] valley,<ref>Wilhelm, Gernot. 2008. Urartian. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. P.105. "Neither its geographical origin can be conclusively determined, nor the area where Urartian was spoken by a majority of the population. It was probably dominant in the mountainous areas along the upper Zab Valley and around Lake Van."</ref> others believe it was spoken by a relatively small population who comprised a ruling class.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zimansky |first=Paul |date=1995 |title=Urartian Material Culture As State Assemblage: An Anomaly in the Archaeology of Empire |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1357348 |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=299/300 |issue=299/300 |pages=103–115 |doi=10.2307/1357348 |jstor=1357348 |s2cid=164079327 |issn=0003-097X |quote=Although virtually all the cuneiform records that survive from Urartu are in one sense or another royal, they provide clues to the existence of linguistic diversity in the empire. There is no basis for the a priori assumption that a large number of people ever spoke Urartian. Urartian words are not borrowed in any numbers by neighboring peoples, and the language disappears from the written record along with the government}}</ref> | |||
| First attested in the 9th century ], Urartian ceased to be written after the fall of the Urartian state in 585 BCE and presumably became extinct due to the fall of Urartu.<ref>Wilhelm, Gernot. 2008. Urartian. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. P.106: "We do not know when the language became extinct, but it is likely that the collapse of what had survived of the empire until the end of the seventh or the beginning of the sixth century BCE caused the language to disappear."</ref> It must have had long contact with, and been gradually totally replaced by, an early form of ],<ref>Petrosyan, Armen. ''The Armenian Elements in the Language and Onomastics of Urartu''. Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 2010. (https://www.academia.edu/2939663/The_Armenian_Elements_in_the_Language_and_Onomastics_of_Urartu)</ref><ref name="EncyclopediaIE"/><ref>Igor M. Diakonoff. The Pre-history of the Armenian People. 1968. (http://www.attalus.org/armenian/diakph11.htm)</ref> although it is only in the 5th century CE that the first written examples of Armenian appear.<ref>Clackson, James P. T. 2008. Classical Armenian. In: The languages of Asia Minor (ed. R. D. Woodard). P.125. "The extralinguistic facts relevant to the prehistory of the Armenian people are also obscure. Speakers of Armenian appear to have replaced an earlier population of Urartian speakers (see Ch. 10) in the mountainous region of Eastern Anatolia. The name Armenia first occurs in the Old Persian inscriptions at Bīsotūn dated to c. 520 BCE (but note that the Armenians use the ethnonym hay to refer to themselves). We have no record of the Armenian language before the fifth century CE. The Old Persian, Greek, and Roman sources do mention a number of prominent Armenians by name, but unfortunately the majority of these names are Iranian in origin, for example, Dādrši- (in Darius’ Bīsotūn inscription), Tigranes, and Tiridates. Other names are either Urartian (Haldita- in the Bīsotūn inscription) or obscure and unknown in literate times in Armenia (Araxa- in the Bīsotūn inscription)."</ref> | |||
| Around 500 cuneiform texts are known, containing about 350-400 root words.<ref name="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana, v. 2, USA 1980, pgs. 539, 541; Hovick Nersessian, "Highlands of Armenia, " Los Angeles, 2000. Mr. Nersessian is in the New York Academy of Sciences.</ref> Most of these have Urartian origins, some are borrowed from other languages. More than 200 Urartian roots have been preserved in the Armenian language.<ref name="Melikishvili">Melikishvili G. A. Urartian Cuneiform Inscriptions. — Moscow: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1960.</ref> Arno Furne and Allan Bomhard suggested that the Hurro-Urartian languages might be related to Indo-European languages, though this hypothesis is not widely accepted. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the relationship between Hurrian and Urartian languages and Indo-European languages is denied. | |||
| == Religion == | == Religion == | ||
| {{Main|Urartu religion}} | {{Main|Urartu religion}} | ||
| ] | |||
| The religious beliefs of the Urartians shared many similarities with the religions of ]. The Urartian ] included numerous deities, many of which were borrowed from the religious traditions of ], ] and ].<ref name="Piotrovsky" /> | |||
| ⚫ | The religious beliefs of the Urartians shared many similarities with the religions of ]. The Urartian ] included numerous deities, many of which were borrowed from the religious traditions of ], ] and ].<ref name="Piotrovsky">Piotrovsky B. B. ''The Kingdom of Van (Urartu)'' / Edited by I. A. Orbeli. — Moscow: Publishing House of Oriental Literature, 1959. — 286 pp. — 3,500 copies.</ref> | ||
| Sacrifices, mainly of animals (bulls and sheep), were practiced, although there is evidence of human sacrifices.<ref name="Lehmann-Haupt">Lehmann-Haupt C.F. Armenien, einst und jetzt. — Berlin: B. Behr, 1910—1931.</ref> Rituals of worship, usually performed in special chambers carved into the rocks, resembled ziggurats. In one such chamber, a tablet was found listing 79 Urartian deities and the number of animals that were to be sacrificed to each of them.<ref>{{Cite book |author=König F. W. |title=Handbuch der chaldischen Inschriften |publisher=E. Weidner |year=1955 |place=Graz |pages=275}}</ref> | Sacrifices, mainly of animals (bulls and sheep), were practiced, although there is evidence of human sacrifices.<ref name="Lehmann-Haupt">Lehmann-Haupt C.F. Armenien, einst und jetzt. — Berlin: B. Behr, 1910—1931.</ref> Rituals of worship, usually performed in special chambers carved into the rocks, resembled ziggurats. In one such chamber, a tablet was found listing 79 Urartian deities and the number of animals that were to be sacrificed to each of them.<ref>{{Cite book |author=König F. W. |title=Handbuch der chaldischen Inschriften |publisher=E. Weidner |year=1955 |place=Graz |pages=275}}</ref> | ||
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Urartians were an ancient people who spoke the Urartian language. The territory of the ancient kingdom of Urartu extended over the modern frontiers of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and the Republic of Armenia. Its kings left behind cuneiform inscriptions in the Urartian language, a member of the Hurro-Urartian language family. These languages might have been related to Northeast Caucasian languages. Following Armenian incursions into Urartu, Armenians "imposed their language" on Urartians and became the aristocratic class. The Urartians later "were probably absorbed into the Armenian polity". A related people to the Urartians are the Hurrians.
History and Origin
Main article: UrartuIt is assumed that the Urartians spread across the Armenian highlands from the region of Rewanduz (modern-day northwestern Iran), where the ancient city of Musasir was located.
Since its re-discovery in the 19th century, Urartu, which is commonly believed to have been at least partially Armenian-speaking, has played a significant role in Armenian nationalism. The claim that Urartians were Armenians has no "serious scientific grounds".
Language
Main articles: Urartian language and Hurro-Urartian languages
Urartian or Vannic is an extinct Hurro-Urartian language which was spoken by the inhabitants of the ancient kingdom of Urartu (Biaini or Biainili in Urartian), (it was also called Nairi), which was centered on the region around Lake Van and had its capital, Tushpa, near the site of the modern town of Van in the Armenian highlands, now in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey. Its past prevalence is unknown. While some believe it was probably dominant around Lake Van and in the areas along the upper Zab valley, others believe it was spoken by a relatively small population who comprised a ruling class.
First attested in the 9th century BCE, Urartian ceased to be written after the fall of the Urartian state in 585 BCE and presumably became extinct due to the fall of Urartu. It must have had long contact with, and been gradually totally replaced by, an early form of Armenian, although it is only in the 5th century CE that the first written examples of Armenian appear.
Religion
Main article: Urartu religion
The religious beliefs of the Urartians shared many similarities with the religions of Mesopotamia. The Urartian pantheon included numerous deities, many of which were borrowed from the religious traditions of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria.
Sacrifices, mainly of animals (bulls and sheep), were practiced, although there is evidence of human sacrifices. Rituals of worship, usually performed in special chambers carved into the rocks, resembled ziggurats. In one such chamber, a tablet was found listing 79 Urartian deities and the number of animals that were to be sacrificed to each of them.
References
- Kleiss, Wolfram (2008). "URARTU IN IRAN". Encyclopædia Iranica.
- ^ Zimansky, Paul E. (2011-01-01). "Urartu". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195065121.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-506512-1. Retrieved 2018-11-22.
- Zimansky, Paul (2012). "Urartian and the Urartians". In McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE). Oxford University Press. pp. 556–557. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0024. ISBN 978-0-19-537614-2.
That Hurro-Urartian as a whole shared a yet earlier common ancestor with some of the numerous and comparatively obscure languages of the Caucasus is not improbable. Modern Caucasian languages are conventionally divided into southern, (north)western, and (north)eastern families (Smeets 1989:260). Georgian, for example, belongs to the southern family. Diakono and Starostin, in the most thorough attempt at finding a linkage yet published, have argued that Hurro-Urartian is a branch of the eastern Caucasian family. This would make it a distant relative of such modern languages as Chechen, Avar, Lak, and Udi (Diakono and Starostin 1986).
- Chahin, Mack (2013). The Kingdom of Armenia: A history. Caucasus World. Routledge. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-1-136-85250-3.
However, before him, Hecataeus of Miletus was the first to mention 'Armenoi', c. 525 BC, which leaves a gap of a mere 60 years between the end of the kingdom of Van and the first historical evidence of the existence of the state of Armenia. During that period, and the previous generations of infiltrations, conquests and consolidation, the Armenians would properly be described as the ruling aristocracy of those territories (and eventually of the whole of the ancient Kingdom of Urartu), where they imposed their language upon those Urartians who chose to stay (and according to recent findings, there was a large proportion of the population who did so), and even Armenised Urartian names. Those of the Urartians who fled continued to live in the highlands of the upper Araxes ... According to more recent research the Chaldians were a native people of the Chalybes. The Urartians were probably absorbed into the Armenian polity.
- Smeets, Rieks (1989). "On Hurro-Urartian as an Eastern Caucasian language". Bibliotheca Orientalis. XLVI: 260–280.
- ^ Barnett R.D. Urartu // Edwards I.E.S., Gadd C.J., Hammond N.G.L., Boardman J. Cambridge Ancient history. — London: Cambridge University Press, 1982. — Vol. 3, part 1. — P. 314—371. — ISBN 0-521-22496-9.
- Stone E. C., Zimansky P. (2003). "The Urartian Transformation in the Outer Town of Ayanis". Archaeology in the Borderlands. Investigations in Caucasia and beyond. Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 1931745013.
- Salvini, Mirjo (1995). Geschichte und Kultur der Urartäer. Darmstadt.
- Melikishvili, G. A. (1948). "Musasir and the Question of the Earliest Habitat of the Urartian Tribes". Bulletin of Ancient History (2): 37–48.
This article by Georgian historian G. A. Melikishvili explores the ancient city of Musasir and its significance in understanding the earliest territories inhabited by Urartian tribes. Drawing on historical and archaeological evidence.
- Diakonoff, Igor M (1992). "First Evidence of the Proto-Armenian Language in Eastern Anatolia". Annual of Armenian Linguistics. 13: 51–54. ISSN 0271-9800.
- ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 30. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. OCLC 37931209.
Armenian presence in their historical seats should then be sought at some time before c 600 BC; ... Armenian phonology, for instance, appears to have been greatly affected by Urartian, which may suggest a long period of bilingualism.
- Robert Drews. Militarism and the Indo-Europeanizing of Europe. Routledge. 2017. p. 228. "The vernacular of the Great Kingdom of Biainili was quite certainly Armenian. The Armenian language was obviously the region's vernacular in the fifth century BC, when Persian commanders and Greek writers paired it with Phrygian. That it was brought into the region between the early sixth and the early fifth century BC, and that it immediately obliterated whatever else had been spoken there, can hardly be supposed; ... Because Proto-Armenian speakers seem to have lived not far from Hurrian speakers our conclusion must be that the Armenian language of Mesrop Mashtots was descended from an Indo--European language that had been spoken in southern Caucasia in the Bronze Age."
- Hrach Martirosyan (2013). "The place of Armenian in the Indo-European language family: the relationship with Greek and Indo-Iranian*" Leiden University. p. 85-86.
- Petrosyan, Armen. "The Armenian Elements in the Language and Onomastics of Urartu." Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 2010.
- Redgate, Anne Elizabeth (2000). The Armenians. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-631-22037-4., p. 276.
- Areshian, Gregory E. (2019). "Bīsotūn, 'Urartians' and 'Armenians' of the Achaemenid Texts, and the Origins of the Exonyms Armina and Arminiya". In Avetisyan, Pavel S.; Dan, Roberto; Grekyan, Yervand H. (eds.). Over the Mountains and Far Away: Studies in Near Eastern history and archaeology presented to Mirjo Salvini on the occasion of his 80th birthday (PDF). Archaeopress. p. 3. doi:10.2307/j.ctvndv9f0.6. ISBN 978-1-78491-944-3.
Never having serious scientific grounds and fulfilling its political goals in 1991, but still littering today school textbooks, this nationalistic paradigmatic concept maintains among a number of other amateurish ideas that 'Urartians' were 'Armenians', without even attempting to explore what 'Urartians' and 'Armenians' could have meant in the 9th-6th centuries BCE, thereby demonstrating a classical example of historical presentism
- "Urartean". LINGUIST List. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 5 November 2024.
- Læssøe, Jørgen (1963). People of Ancient Assyria: Their Inscriptions and Correspondence. Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 89. ISBN 9781013661396.
- Wilhelm, Gernot. 2008. Urartian. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. P.105. "Neither its geographical origin can be conclusively determined, nor the area where Urartian was spoken by a majority of the population. It was probably dominant in the mountainous areas along the upper Zab Valley and around Lake Van."
- Zimansky, Paul (1995). "Urartian Material Culture As State Assemblage: An Anomaly in the Archaeology of Empire". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 299/300 (299/300): 103–115. doi:10.2307/1357348. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1357348. S2CID 164079327.
Although virtually all the cuneiform records that survive from Urartu are in one sense or another royal, they provide clues to the existence of linguistic diversity in the empire. There is no basis for the a priori assumption that a large number of people ever spoke Urartian. Urartian words are not borrowed in any numbers by neighboring peoples, and the language disappears from the written record along with the government
- Wilhelm, Gernot. 2008. Urartian. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. P.106: "We do not know when the language became extinct, but it is likely that the collapse of what had survived of the empire until the end of the seventh or the beginning of the sixth century BCE caused the language to disappear."
- Petrosyan, Armen. The Armenian Elements in the Language and Onomastics of Urartu. Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 2010. (https://www.academia.edu/2939663/The_Armenian_Elements_in_the_Language_and_Onomastics_of_Urartu)
- Igor M. Diakonoff. The Pre-history of the Armenian People. 1968. (http://www.attalus.org/armenian/diakph11.htm)
- Clackson, James P. T. 2008. Classical Armenian. In: The languages of Asia Minor (ed. R. D. Woodard). P.125. "The extralinguistic facts relevant to the prehistory of the Armenian people are also obscure. Speakers of Armenian appear to have replaced an earlier population of Urartian speakers (see Ch. 10) in the mountainous region of Eastern Anatolia. The name Armenia first occurs in the Old Persian inscriptions at Bīsotūn dated to c. 520 BCE (but note that the Armenians use the ethnonym hay to refer to themselves). We have no record of the Armenian language before the fifth century CE. The Old Persian, Greek, and Roman sources do mention a number of prominent Armenians by name, but unfortunately the majority of these names are Iranian in origin, for example, Dādrši- (in Darius’ Bīsotūn inscription), Tigranes, and Tiridates. Other names are either Urartian (Haldita- in the Bīsotūn inscription) or obscure and unknown in literate times in Armenia (Araxa- in the Bīsotūn inscription)."
- Piotrovsky B. B. The Kingdom of Van (Urartu) / Edited by I. A. Orbeli. — Moscow: Publishing House of Oriental Literature, 1959. — 286 pp. — 3,500 copies.
- Lehmann-Haupt C.F. Armenien, einst und jetzt. — Berlin: B. Behr, 1910—1931.
- König F. W. (1955). Handbuch der chaldischen Inschriften. Graz: E. Weidner. p. 275.