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] is one of the southernmost states of ]. The Cheras transformed Kerala into an international trade centre by establishing trade relations across the ] with all major ] and ] ports as well those of ] and the ].<ref>{{cite journal |title=East Africa and oceanic exchange networks between the first and fifteenth centuries |first=Philippe |last=Beaujard |date=2015 |journal=Afriques |volume=06 |number=6 |doi=10.4000/afriques.3097|doi-access=free }}</ref> The early Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighboring ] and ]. The Cheras regained control over Kerala in the 9th century CE until the kingdom was dissolved in the 12th century, after which smaller kingdoms, most notably the ], arose.
⚫ After the fall of the ], a lot of independent feudal small kingdoms rose up. The kingdoms of ], ], ] and ] dominated them politically, financially and also in terms of miitary strength. The other kingdoms and their kings were subordinates to these main kingdoms and were usually under their control. Later, the kingdoms of Kochi and Kolathunadu came under the Kingdom of Calicut due to political pressures over time. The emergence of a lot of feudal kingdoms started happening when the ] and ] lords started breaking up the kingdoms into more smaller kingdoms under their own rule. Namboodiris who had some roles in governing but stayed out of the ruing family started governing the provinces directly. Some lords who were not in the control of the kings even used to murder the common people. These small kingdoms due to their rivalry and political plays, had stagnated, because of which a Kerala which lost its unity, was the sight which awaited the Portuguese when they landed in Kerala in 1498. The list of these kingdoms are given below.<ref>Sreedhara Menon, A.. A Survey of Kerala History. India, Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society ; National Book Stall, 1967.</ref>


In 1498 CE, ] traveler ] established a sea route to ] by sailing around the ], located in the southernmost region of Africa. The Portuguese were soon followed by the ], the ] and finally by the ]. By the late 18th century, most of the influence in Kerala came from the British. The British crown gained control over Northern Kerala (including the Kingdom of ] and the ]) and through the creation of the ]. The British also allied with the ] and the ] in the southern part of the state, until India won it's independence in 1947.
* ]

⚫ * ]
==Medieval History==
* ]

* Ilayedathu Swaroopam
⚫ After the fall of the ], a lot of independent feudal small kingdoms rose up. The kingdoms of ], ], ] and ] dominated them politically, financially and also in terms of miitary strength. The other kingdoms and their kings were subordinates to these main kingdoms and were usually under their control.<ref>Menon, Indudharan. Hereditary Physicians of Kerala: Traditional Medicine and Ayurveda in Modern India. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2018.</ref> The kingdoms of Kochi and Kolathunadu became dependent on the Kingdom of Calicut due to political pressures over time <ref name=sreedharamenon>Sreedhara Menon, A.. A Survey of Kerala History. India, Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society ; National Book Stall, 1967.</ref>
* Deshinganad Swaroopam

* Attingal Swaroopam
The emergence of a lot of feudal kingdoms started happening when the ] and ] lords started breaking up the kingdoms into more smaller kingdoms under their own rule. The ] is one of the Brahmin royal families of Kerala. Namboodiris who had some roles in governing but stayed out of the ruing family started governing the provinces directly. Some lords who were not in the control of the kings even used to murder the common people. During this era of Nambudiri and Nair leadership, the culture and political condition of Kerala went on a rapid change. This period witnessed an unstable, chaotic political condition and also saw the rise of rigid social systems.<ref name=sreedharamenon/> However, literature, art forms, temples, mathematics, astronomy, external trade etc. flourished during this period.
* Karunagapalli Swaroopam

* Karthikapalli Swaroopam
==Modern history==
⚫ * ]

* Purakkad dynasty
These small kingdoms due to their rivalry and political plays, had stagnated by 1498 CE, when the ] landed in Kerala. The kingdoms of Calicut and Cochin had been the two major kingdoms in Kerala during this time, however their predominance decreased in the next century with the increasing Portuguese control and later, the ] control.<ref name=manuspillai>Pillai, Manu S. The Ivory Throne : Chronicles of the House of Travancore. HarperCollins Publishers, India, 2015.</ref> The Dutch succeeded in expelling the Portuguese and brought about the fall of the kingdom of Cochin in 1663 CE.<ref>Koshy, M. O.. The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729-1758. India, Mittal Publications, 1989.</ref>
* ]

* ]
After the ] came into the picture in 1600s, the Portuguese and the Dutch slowly started losing the monopoly they had and by 1750s, almost all of the Indian Ocean trade monopoly from Kerala had come to British hands. By this time, the Kingdoms of Calicut and Kolathunadu had declined and during ]'s invasion of Malabar, these kingdoms were annexed, with some members of their royal families escaping to the Kingdom of Travancore.<ref name=manuspillai/> By 1790s, the British had taken control of the entirety of Northern Kerala and only the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore remained somewhat in power. The small feudal kingdoms in Northern Kerala had been conquered by Tipu Sultan and after him, annexed into British control, while the ones in southern Kerala were subsumed into either the Kingdom of Cochin or the Kingdom of Travancore. These two kingdoms retained semi-independence status by accepting British suzerainty which they retained until the ].<ref name=manuspillai/>
* ]

* ]
==Religion==
* Karappuram kingdom

* Anjikkaimal kingdom
Most of the kingdoms were Hindu kingdoms, with instances of a few Brahmin royal families headed by Brahmin kings, for example, the ]. However, The ] under the domain of the Kingdom of Calicut was ], and The Kingdom of Villarvattom under the domain of the Kingdom of Cochin was ] (See ]).<ref name=narayanan>Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 358.</ref><ref name=permanentking>The Permanent King of Cochin. N.p., The Savings Trust Limited, 2021.</ref><ref name=emergence>Ninam, M. M.. The Emergence of Hinduism from Christianity. United States, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2008.</ref> Even if the kings belonged to one religion, they employed people from other religions. The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the old kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC|title=The Legacy of Kerala|last=Menon|first=A. Sreedhara|publisher=Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala|year=1982|isbn=978-8-12643-798-6|edition=Reprinted|access-date=2012-11-16}}</ref><ref>Shokoohy, Mehrdad. Muslim architecture of South India: the sultanate of Ma'bar and the traditions of the maritime settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa). United Kingdom, RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.</ref>
* Idappally Swaroopam

* Paravoor Swaroopam
There are a lot of instances of religious tolerance shown by the kings. During the time of the second Chera empire, the ] record the gift of a plot of land to the Terisapalli (Teresa church) at Kurakkeni Kollam along with several rights and privileges in 9th century CE. ]s of Kerala are also referred in this plate.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27192872 |jstor=27192872 |title=The Syrian Christian Copper Plate of Tarisāppaḷḷy, and the Jewish and Muslim Merchants of Early Malabar |last1=Tintu |first1=K. J. |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=16 April 2024 |volume=80 |pages=184–191}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Cereti|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=2009|isbn=9783447059374|editor-last=Sundermann|editor-first=W.|location=Wiesbaden|pages=|chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates|editor-last2=Hintze|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=de Blois|editor-first3=F.}}</ref> The Paliyam Copper Plate of the Ay King, ] shows that the Buddhists benefited from royal patronage in the 10th century CE.<ref></ref> The ] of Bhaskara Ravi Varman in 1000 CE records the royal gift of rights and privileges to the Jewish Chief of ] ]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/09/11/stories/2003091108060400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031027084148/http://www.hindu.com/2003/09/11/stories/2003091108060400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 October 2003|title=Sharon delighted with gift from Kochi|date=11 September 2003|work=]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> The ] dated 1225 CE describe the concession made by the King Viraraghava of Perumbadappu Swaroopam to Syrian Christian merchant Iravikorttan, the chief of Manikkiramam (]) in Makotaiyar Pattinam (modern ])<ref>''Epigraphica Indica'', Volume IV. pp. 290-7.</ref> Several records of Bhutala Vira Udaya Marthanda Varma (1516-1535 A.D.) discovered from Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts show his solicitude for other religionists like the Jains and the Christians.<ref name=sreedharamenon/>
* Aalangad desham

* ]
==Succession practices==

All the kingdoms practised ], a system of matrilineal inheritance. Through this system, descent and the inheritance of property were passed from the maternal uncle to nephews or nieces. The right of the child was with the maternal uncle or the mother's family rather than the father or the father's family. Through this bloodline, surnames, titles, properties, and everything of the child are inherited from his uncle or mother.<ref>Dr. S. Sree Devi, "MARUMAKKATHAYAM SYSTEM ", IJRAR - International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR), E-ISSN 2348-1269, P- ISSN 2349-5138, Volume.5, Issue 1, Page No pp.680-687, March-2018, Available at : http://www.ijrar.org/IJRAR19D1096.pdf</ref> Usually after one king, his younger brothers succeed to the throne, and after that, their eldest nephew through their sisters succeeds, with the cycle passing on to the next generation. The son of a king may receive a ] but has no place in the line of succession. In the absence of nephews, nieces could also succeed to the kingdom, as in the case of Queen ] who was the queen regnant of Travancore from 1810 to 1813.

The ] followed a similar matrilineal system of descent: the eldest member of the family, whether male or female, became its head and ruler; the male rulers were called ] and female rulers were called as ].

==List of Kingdoms==

The list of these kingdoms are given below.<ref name=sreedharamenon/>

The four main kingdoms were -
* ] (successor to the ] which was in fact a successor to the ] and the ])
⚫ * ] (Also called Perumbadappu Swaroopam)
* ] (Also called Nediyirippu Swaroopam)
* ] (Also called Chirakkal kingdom; successors to the ])

The minor kingdoms at different times during the medieval and modern history included -

* ], sole Muslim kingdom of Kerala; vassal to the Kingdom of Kolathunadu
* Villarvattom, sole Christian kingdom of Kerala; vassal to the Kingdom of Cochin (See ])<ref name=narayanan/><ref name=permanentking/><ref name=emergence/>
* ], which later evolved into the ]
* ], later evolved into the ] and subsequently, the Kingdom of Travancore
* Ilayedathu Swaroopam, later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
* Deshinganad Swaroopam, later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
* Attingal Swaroopam, which was later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
* Karunagapalli Swaroopam, which was subsumed into the Kayamkulam Kingdom and subsequently, into the Kingdom of Travancore
* Karthikapalli Swaroopam, which was subsumed into the Kayamkulam Kingdom and subsequently, into the Kingdom of Travancore
⚫ * ], later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
* Purakkad dynasty (Also called Chembakasseri kingdom), later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
* ], later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
* ], later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
* ], vassal of the ], but later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
* ], vassal of the Kingdom of Travancore
* Karappuram kingdom, vassal to the Kingdom of Travancore and the Kingdom of Cochin at different times
* Anjikkaimal kingdom, vassal of the Kingdom of Cochin
* Idappally Swaroopam, vassal to the Kingdom of Travancore and the Kingdom of Cochin at different times
* Paravoor Swaroopam, vassal to the Kingdom of Travancore
* Aalangad desham, vassal to the Kingdom of Travancore
* ], vassal to the Kingdom of Cochin and the ] at different times
* Thalappilli * Thalappilli
* ] * ], vassal of the ]
* Chengazhinad, vassal to the Kingdom of Cochin and the Kingdom of Calicut at different times
* Chengazhinad
* ] * ]
* Tharur Swaroopam * Tharur Swaroopam
* Kollengode kingdom * Kollengode kingdom, vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
* Kavalappara Swaroopam * Kavalappara Swaroopam
* ] * ], vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
* ] * ], vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* Kottayam dynasty, vassal to the Kingdom of Kolathunadu
* ]
* ], which later evolved into the Kingdom of Kolathunadu
* ]
* Kottayam dynasty
* Kurangoth kingdom * Kurangoth kingdom
* Randuthara * Randuthara
* ], vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
* ]
* Neeleswaram kingdom * Neeleswaram kingdom
* Kumbala desham * Kumbala desham
* Nedunganad * Nedunganad, vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
* Kodasseri Swaroopam * Kodasseri Swaroopam
* Vilwarvattom


==References== ==References==
Line 49: Line 86:


] ]
]

Latest revision as of 23:49, 28 December 2024

Kerala is one of the southernmost states of India. The Cheras transformed Kerala into an international trade centre by establishing trade relations across the Arabian Sea with all major Mediterranean and Red Sea ports as well those of Eastern Africa and the Far East. The early Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighboring Cholas and Rashtrakutas. The Cheras regained control over Kerala in the 9th century CE until the kingdom was dissolved in the 12th century, after which smaller kingdoms, most notably the Kingdom of Calicut, arose.

In 1498 CE, Portuguese traveler Vasco Da Gama established a sea route to Kozhikode by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, located in the southernmost region of Africa. The Portuguese were soon followed by the Dutch, the French and finally by the British. By the late 18th century, most of the influence in Kerala came from the British. The British crown gained control over Northern Kerala (including the Kingdom of Kingdom of Kolathunadu and the Kingdom of Calicut) and through the creation of the Malabar District. The British also allied with the Kingdom of Travancore and the Kingdom of Cochin in the southern part of the state, until India won it's independence in 1947.

Medieval History

After the fall of the second Chera dynasty, a lot of independent feudal small kingdoms rose up. The kingdoms of Venad, Kolathunadu, Calicut and Cochin dominated them politically, financially and also in terms of miitary strength. The other kingdoms and their kings were subordinates to these main kingdoms and were usually under their control. The kingdoms of Kochi and Kolathunadu became dependent on the Kingdom of Calicut due to political pressures over time

The emergence of a lot of feudal kingdoms started happening when the Nair and Nambudiri lords started breaking up the kingdoms into more smaller kingdoms under their own rule. The Edapally royal family is one of the Brahmin royal families of Kerala. Namboodiris who had some roles in governing but stayed out of the ruing family started governing the provinces directly. Some lords who were not in the control of the kings even used to murder the common people. During this era of Nambudiri and Nair leadership, the culture and political condition of Kerala went on a rapid change. This period witnessed an unstable, chaotic political condition and also saw the rise of rigid social systems. However, literature, art forms, temples, mathematics, astronomy, external trade etc. flourished during this period.

Modern history

These small kingdoms due to their rivalry and political plays, had stagnated by 1498 CE, when the Portuguese East India Company landed in Kerala. The kingdoms of Calicut and Cochin had been the two major kingdoms in Kerala during this time, however their predominance decreased in the next century with the increasing Portuguese control and later, the Dutch control. The Dutch succeeded in expelling the Portuguese and brought about the fall of the kingdom of Cochin in 1663 CE.

After the British came into the picture in 1600s, the Portuguese and the Dutch slowly started losing the monopoly they had and by 1750s, almost all of the Indian Ocean trade monopoly from Kerala had come to British hands. By this time, the Kingdoms of Calicut and Kolathunadu had declined and during Tipu Sultan's invasion of Malabar, these kingdoms were annexed, with some members of their royal families escaping to the Kingdom of Travancore. By 1790s, the British had taken control of the entirety of Northern Kerala and only the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore remained somewhat in power. The small feudal kingdoms in Northern Kerala had been conquered by Tipu Sultan and after him, annexed into British control, while the ones in southern Kerala were subsumed into either the Kingdom of Cochin or the Kingdom of Travancore. These two kingdoms retained semi-independence status by accepting British suzerainty which they retained until the independence of India.

Religion

Most of the kingdoms were Hindu kingdoms, with instances of a few Brahmin royal families headed by Brahmin kings, for example, the Kingdom of Edapally. However, The Arakkal kingdom under the domain of the Kingdom of Calicut was Muslim, and The Kingdom of Villarvattom under the domain of the Kingdom of Cochin was Syrian Christian (See Thoma of Villarvattom). Even if the kings belonged to one religion, they employed people from other religions. The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the old kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts.

There are a lot of instances of religious tolerance shown by the kings. During the time of the second Chera empire, the Quilon Syrian copper plates record the gift of a plot of land to the Terisapalli (Teresa church) at Kurakkeni Kollam along with several rights and privileges in 9th century CE. Muslims of Kerala are also referred in this plate. The Paliyam Copper Plate of the Ay King, Vikramaditya Varaguna shows that the Buddhists benefited from royal patronage in the 10th century CE. The Jewish copper plates of Cochin of Bhaskara Ravi Varman in 1000 CE records the royal gift of rights and privileges to the Jewish Chief of Anjuvannam Joseph Rabban The Viraraghava copper plates dated 1225 CE describe the concession made by the King Viraraghava of Perumbadappu Swaroopam to Syrian Christian merchant Iravikorttan, the chief of Manikkiramam (Manigiramam) in Makotaiyar Pattinam (modern Kodungallur) Several records of Bhutala Vira Udaya Marthanda Varma (1516-1535 A.D.) discovered from Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts show his solicitude for other religionists like the Jains and the Christians.

Succession practices

All the kingdoms practised Marumakkathayam, a system of matrilineal inheritance. Through this system, descent and the inheritance of property were passed from the maternal uncle to nephews or nieces. The right of the child was with the maternal uncle or the mother's family rather than the father or the father's family. Through this bloodline, surnames, titles, properties, and everything of the child are inherited from his uncle or mother. Usually after one king, his younger brothers succeed to the throne, and after that, their eldest nephew through their sisters succeeds, with the cycle passing on to the next generation. The son of a king may receive a courtesy title but has no place in the line of succession. In the absence of nephews, nieces could also succeed to the kingdom, as in the case of Queen Gowri Lakshmi Bayi who was the queen regnant of Travancore from 1810 to 1813.

The Arakkal kingdom followed a similar matrilineal system of descent: the eldest member of the family, whether male or female, became its head and ruler; the male rulers were called Ali Raja and female rulers were called as Arakkal Beevi.

List of Kingdoms

The list of these kingdoms are given below.

The four main kingdoms were -

The minor kingdoms at different times during the medieval and modern history included -

  • Arakkal kingdom, sole Muslim kingdom of Kerala; vassal to the Kingdom of Kolathunadu
  • Villarvattom, sole Christian kingdom of Kerala; vassal to the Kingdom of Cochin (See Thoma of Villarvattom)
  • Venad kingdom, which later evolved into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Ay dynasty, later evolved into the Venad kingdom and subsequently, the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Ilayedathu Swaroopam, later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Deshinganad Swaroopam, later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Attingal Swaroopam, which was later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Karunagapalli Swaroopam, which was subsumed into the Kayamkulam Kingdom and subsequently, into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Karthikapalli Swaroopam, which was subsumed into the Kayamkulam Kingdom and subsequently, into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Kayamkulam kingdom, later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Purakkad dynasty (Also called Chembakasseri kingdom), later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Pandalam dynasty, later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Thekkumkur, later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Vadakkumkur, vassal of the Kingdom of Cochin, but later subsumed into the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Poonjar dynasty, vassal of the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Karappuram kingdom, vassal to the Kingdom of Travancore and the Kingdom of Cochin at different times
  • Anjikkaimal kingdom, vassal of the Kingdom of Cochin
  • Idappally Swaroopam, vassal to the Kingdom of Travancore and the Kingdom of Cochin at different times
  • Paravoor Swaroopam, vassal to the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Aalangad desham, vassal to the Kingdom of Travancore
  • Kodungallur kingdom, vassal to the Kingdom of Cochin and the Kingdom of Calicut at different times
  • Thalappilli
  • Mannanar dynasty, vassal of the Kolathunadu
  • Chengazhinad, vassal to the Kingdom of Cochin and the Kingdom of Calicut at different times
  • Valluvanad
  • Tharur Swaroopam
  • Kollengode kingdom, vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
  • Kavalappara Swaroopam
  • Vettathunadu, vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
  • Parappanad, vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
  • Kurumbranad
  • Kadathanadu
  • Kottayam dynasty, vassal to the Kingdom of Kolathunadu
  • Mushika dynasty, which later evolved into the Kingdom of Kolathunadu
  • Kurangoth kingdom
  • Randuthara
  • Nilambur Kingdom, vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
  • Neeleswaram kingdom
  • Kumbala desham
  • Nedunganad, vassal to the Kingdom of Calicut
  • Kodasseri Swaroopam

References

  1. Beaujard, Philippe (2015). "East Africa and oceanic exchange networks between the first and fifteenth centuries". Afriques. 06 (6). doi:10.4000/afriques.3097.
  2. Menon, Indudharan. Hereditary Physicians of Kerala: Traditional Medicine and Ayurveda in Modern India. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2018.
  3. ^ Sreedhara Menon, A.. A Survey of Kerala History. India, Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society ; National Book Stall, 1967.
  4. ^ Pillai, Manu S. The Ivory Throne : Chronicles of the House of Travancore. HarperCollins Publishers, India, 2015.
  5. Koshy, M. O.. The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729-1758. India, Mittal Publications, 1989.
  6. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 358.
  7. ^ The Permanent King of Cochin. N.p., The Savings Trust Limited, 2021.
  8. ^ Ninam, M. M.. The Emergence of Hinduism from Christianity. United States, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2008.
  9. Menon, A. Sreedhara (1982). The Legacy of Kerala (Reprinted ed.). Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala. ISBN 978-8-12643-798-6. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  10. Shokoohy, Mehrdad. Muslim architecture of South India: the sultanate of Ma'bar and the traditions of the maritime settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa). United Kingdom, RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  11. Tintu, K. J. (16 April 2024). "The Syrian Christian Copper Plate of Tarisāppaḷḷy, and the Jewish and Muslim Merchants of Early Malabar". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 80: 184–191. JSTOR 27192872.
  12. Cereti, C. G. (2009). "The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates". In Sundermann, W.; Hintze, A.; de Blois, F. (eds.). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447059374.
  13. A social history of India S. N. Sadasivan APH Publishing, 2000
  14. "Sharon delighted with gift from Kochi". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 11 September 2003. Archived from the original on 27 October 2003.
  15. Epigraphica Indica, Volume IV. pp. 290-7.
  16. Dr. S. Sree Devi, "MARUMAKKATHAYAM SYSTEM ", IJRAR - International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR), E-ISSN 2348-1269, P- ISSN 2349-5138, Volume.5, Issue 1, Page No pp.680-687, March-2018, Available at : http://www.ijrar.org/IJRAR19D1096.pdf
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