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{{Short description|Ruling party of Rhodesia (1965–1979)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox political party
| name = Rhodesian Front
| abbreviation = RF
| logo = ]
| colorcode = {{party color|Rhodesian Front}}
| leader1_title = Leader
| leader1_name = ]
| founded = {{Start date|df=y|1962|3|1}}
| dissolved = {{End date|df=y|1981|06|06}}
| successor = ]
| predecessor = {{nowrap|]<ref>{{cite book|last1= Lipschutz|first1=Mark R.|last2=Rasmussen|first2=R. Kent|title=Dictionary of African Historical Biography|editor=University of California Press|date=1989|page=265}}</ref><br />]}}
| headquarters = ], ]
| ideology = ] ]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leaver |first1=John David |title=Multiracialism and nationalisms: A political retrospective on 1950s Southern Rhodesia ('Colonial Zimbabwe') |journal=Journal of Third World Studies |date=2006 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=167–188 |jstor=45194313 }}</ref><br />]<ref name=Lowry>{{cite book |author1=Donal Lowry |editor1-last=Onslow |editor1-first=Sue |title=Cold War in Southern Africa: White Power, Black Liberation |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-47420-7 |page=84 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xj-MAgAAQBAJ |access-date=7 April 2020 |chapter=The impact of anti-communism on white Rhodesian political culture, c.1920s-1980}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cilliers |first1=Jakkie |title=Counter-Insurgency in Rhodesia |date=April 17, 2015 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=9781315713854 |edition=e-Book 1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHRKCAAAQBAJ |page=18<!--&q="rhodesian+front"+"white+supremacy"&pg=PT18--> |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/720978|jstor = 720978|title = Settler Colonialism in Rhodesia|last1 = Good|first1 = Kenneth|journal = African Affairs|year = 1974|volume = 73|issue = 290|pages = 10–36|doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a096439}}</ref><br />]<ref>{{cite book|last=Preston|first=Matthew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dND1vyuZefwC|title=Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective|editor=I.B.Tauris|date=2004|page=107|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9781850435792}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=West|first=Michael O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=epkrt-Y-qOkC|title=The Rise of an African Middle Class: Colonial Zimbabwe, 1898-1965|editor=Indiana University Press|date=2002|page=229|publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=0253215242}}</ref><br />]<ref> {{dead link|date=April 2023}}</ref><br />]<ref>{{cite book|last=Hume|first=Ian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aKVdDwAAQBAJ|title=From the Edge of Empire: A Memoir|editor=Outskirts Press|date=2018|page=149|publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781478794554}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Roscoe|first=Adrian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIJ4ZTdc5VYC|title=The Columbia Guide to Central African Literature in English Since 1945|editor=Columbia University Press|date=2007|page=35|publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231503792}}</ref><br />]<ref name=Lowry/>
| position = ] to ]<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09574040701400601?journalCode=fswi20|doi = 10.1080/09574040701400601|title = The Wretched of the Empire: Politics, Ideology and Counterinsurgency in Rhodesia, 1965–80|year = 2007|last1 = Evans|first1 = Michael|journal = Small Wars & Insurgencies|volume = 18|issue = 2|pages = 175–195|s2cid = 144153887}}</ref>
| colours = {{Color box|{{party color|Rhodesian Front}}|border=silver}} Purple {{Color box|#FFFFFF|border=silver}} White <!-- do not link colors per ] -->
| flag = ]
| country = Rhodesia
}}
{{Politics of Rhodesia}} {{Politics of Rhodesia}}
The '''Rhodesian Front''' ('''RF''') was a ] ] in ],<ref name="hsu-luckett-vause">{{cite book|last1=Hsu|first1=Chia Yin|last2=Luckett|first2=Thomas M.|last3=Vause|first3=Erika|title=The Cultural History of Money and Credit: A Global Perspective|date=2015|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=9781498505932|pages=142|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ByLuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Onslow">{{cite book|last1=Onslow|first1=Sue|title=Cold War in Southern Africa: White Power, Black Liberation|date=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135219338|page=92|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xj-MAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Butler">{{cite book|last1=Butler|first1=L. J.|title=Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World|date=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9781860644481|page=164|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FciqvzTfAuEC&pg=PA164|access-date=19 February 2017|language=en}}</ref> subsequently known as ]. Formed in March 1962 by white Rhodesians opposed to decolonisation and majority rule, it won that December's ] and subsequently spearheaded the country's ] (UDI) from the ] in 1965, remaining the ruling party and upholding white minority rule through the majority of the ] until 1979. Initially led by ], the party was led through most of its lifetime by co-founder ]. Following the end of the Bush War and the country's reconstitution as ], it changed its name to the ] in 1981.
The '''Rhodesian Front''' (RF) was a political party in ], later known as ], now called ], when the country was under ]. Led first by ], and, from ], by ], the Rhodesian Front was the successor to the ] Party, which was the main opposition party in Southern Rhodesia during the ] period. The RF was formed in March ] by whites opposed to any immediate moves to black ]. Surprisingly, it won power in the ] that December. In successive elections (in which 50 of the 66 parliamentary seats were reserved for whites only) between ] and ], the RF was returned to office, with a large majority, with Smith as Prime Minister.


==History and ideology==
The RF had fifteen founding principles, which included:
The RF was founded on 13 March 1962 in a merger of the ] (DP), defectors from the anti-] faction of the ] (UFP), as well as former members of the ]. It was shaky and ideologically split in its early days, with its heterogeneous membership (ranging from advocates of more gradual transition to explicit segregation) united only in their opposition to then-Prime Minister ]'s plans for transition to majority rule, as well as the UK's ]. The party harnessed white anxieties of a Congo and Kenya-style majority rule scenario in its successful campaign for the ], pledging to keep power "in responsible hands", ensure Southern Rhodesian independence from the ], and thwart "this mad idea of a hand-over, of a sell-out of the European and his civilisation, indeed of everything he had put into his country".<ref>Wood, J.R.T. (June 2005). So Far and No Further! Rhodesia's Bid For Independence During the Retreat From Empire 1959–1965. Victoria, British Columbia: ]. ]</ref> Its opposition to the UK government's demands for majority rule was so great that the RF-led government eventually ].
* The preservation of each racial group's right to maintain its own identity,
* The preservation of 'proper standards' through a policy of advancement through merit,
* The maintenance of the ], which formalised the racial imbalance in the ownership and distribution of land,
* Opposition to compulsory ],
* Job protection for white workers, and
* Maintenance of the government's right to provide separate amenities for different races.


The RF had fifteen founding principles, which included the preservation of each racial group's right to maintain its own identity, the preservation of "proper standards" through meritocracy, the maintenance of the ], which formalised the racial imbalance in the ownership and distribution of land, opposition to compulsory ], job protection for white workers, and the practice of ]. Historians have generally defined the party as ] and wanting to maintain white Rhodesian interests by staunchly opposing majority rule, which the RF argued would lead to a collapse in economic development, law and order, and the emergence of a ] regime in Rhodesia. The party also encouraged immigration of whites from other African former colonies to Rhodesia.<ref>Selby thesis: {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615023739/http://www.zwnews.com/3-Main%20Body.pdf |date=15 June 2007 }}</ref> The RF maintained an all-white membership and wanted to continue the provision of separate amenities for different races in education and public services; thusly, the party was often characterised as racist both within Rhodesia and abroad.<ref> Refugee Review Tribunal. Retrieved 20 December 2022</ref> Ian Smith and the RF claimed that they based their policies, ideas, and democratic principles on meritocratic ideals and "not on colour or nationalism", stating that these policies and what he called "separate economic advancement" would ultimately result in an "equal partnership between black and white" as an alternative to majority rule.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}
Following the elections leading to the country's independence in ], as the Republic of Zimbabwe, the RF won all 20 parliamentary seats reserved for whites. On ], ], the party changed its name to the Republican Front, and on ], ] it became the ]. Eleven of its twenty parliamentarians defected over the following four years, but the party again won 15 of the 20 parliamentary seats reserved for whites in the ]. In 1987 the ruling government party ] the white constituencies into majority black districts and abolished all reserved seats for whites. When these were abolished many white MPs became independents or joined the ruling ] party. In ], the CAZ opened its membership to Zimbabweans of all races. It has since become merged into the ].


Unlike the South African ], the RF never ''de jure'' disenfranchised non-white voters in their entirety and did not introduce '']''-style legislation governing interpersonal relationships: marriage and relationships between whites and non-whites were possible and legal, albeit uncommon. In all other aspects, however, the RF government perpetuated existing racial segregation and inequalities{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}: the white minority's economic domination and ownership of land was maintained, as was the racial segregation of public services, education and electoral rolls through the party's policy of "separate economic advancement". In contrast to the National Party, whose rule expanded and escalated white domination, the RF sought mainly, with some notable exceptions, to maintain minority rule through inexplicit means.
== References ==


Before the RF's rise to power, separate 'A' and 'B' electoral rolls based on differing income and property qualifications had already ''de facto'' disenfranchised the black electorate for decades, with the larger 'A' roll mainly consisting of the wealthier white minority, and the smaller 'B' roll almost exclusively consisting of the small number of Africans eligible and willing to register. Combined with a largely successful boycott campaign from the black majority, this resulted in ''de facto'' white minority rule. In an exception to their usual policies, the ] explicitly delineated the two electoral rolls by race: With the European 'A' roll increased to 50 seats as opposed to the African 'B' roll only having 8 (with an additional 8 indirectly elected to represent chiefs and tribal interests), this resulted in 270,000 whites having 50 seats and 6 million Africans having 16 seats in the Assembly. These reforms only served to reinforce black rejection of the system.
''Rhodesians Never Die'', Godwin, P. & Hancock, I., 1995. Baobab Books, Harare, Zimbabwe.


The Rhodesian Land Tenure Act was introduced the same year, which ostensibly introduced parity by reducing the amount of land reserved for white ownership to the same 45 million acres as for blacks: in practice, the most fertile farmlands remained in white hands, and some farmers took advantage by shifting their boundaries into black-populated territories, often without notifying others, thereby necessating government evictions.<ref>Nelson, Harold. ''Zimbabwe: A Country Study.'' pp. 137–153.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Raeburn |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/weareeverywheren00raeb/page/189 |title=Black Fire! Narratives of Rhodesian Guerrillas |publisher=Random House |year=1978 |isbn=978-0394505305 |location=New York |pages=189–207}}</ref>
]
]


<ref name="hall22">*{{cite magazine |title=Rhodesia's Face of Defiance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVYEAAAAMBAJ&q=%22&pg=PA22 |last=Hall |first=Lee |magazine=] |date=27 May 1966 |access-date=11 June 2013 |page=22}}</ref> In 1977, the party had a schism in which the more hardline wing broke off to form the ] (RAP), which opposed Smith's proposals to negotiate a settlement with black nationalist leaders.
]

]
In the ] leading to the country's independence in 1980, as the Republic of ], the RF won all 20 parliamentary seats reserved for whites in the power-sharing agreement that it had forged. On 6 June 1981, the party changed its name to the ], and on 23 July 1984, it became the ] (CAZ) and opened its membership to Zimbabweans of all colours and all ethnic groups.<ref>, '']'', July 23, 1984, p. A5.</ref> Eleven of its 20 parliamentarians defected over the following four years, but the party again won 15 of the 20 parliamentary seats reserved for whites in the ]. In October 1987, the ruling government of ] officially abolished all reserved seats for whites.<ref>, '']'', August 25, 1987</ref> When these were abolished, many white MPs became independents or joined the ruling ] party.
]

==Electoral history==

===Legislative Assembly elections===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Popular Vote
! Percentage
! Seats
! Government
|-
| ''']'''
| 38,282
| 54.9%
| {{Composition bar|35|65|{{party color|Rhodesian Front}}}}
| {{yes|RF}}
|-
| ''']'''
| 28,175
| 78.4%
| {{Composition bar|50|65|{{party color|Rhodesian Front}}}}
| {{yes|RF}}
|}

===House of Assembly elections===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Popular Vote
! Percentage
! Seats
! Government
|-
| ''']'''
| 39,066
| 76.8%
| {{Composition bar|50|66|{{party color|Rhodesian Front}}}}
| {{yes|RF}}
|-
| ''']'''
| 55,597
| 77.0%
| {{Composition bar|50|66|{{party color|Rhodesian Front}}}}
| {{yes|RF}}
|-
| ''']'''
| 57,348
| 85.4%
| {{Composition bar|50|66|{{party color|Rhodesian Front}}}}
| {{yes|RF}}
|-
| ''']'''
| 11,613 (White Roll)
| 82.0%
| {{Composition bar|28|100|{{party color|Rhodesian Front}}}}
| {{no|UANC}}
|-
| ''']'''
| 13,621 (White Roll)
| 83.0%
| {{Composition bar|20|100|{{party color|Rhodesian Front}}}}
| {{no|ZANU}}
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Politics}}
* ]
* South African ] governing party from 4 June 1948 until 9 May 1994,

==Further reading==
*''Rhodesians Never Die'', Godwin, P. & Hancock, I., 1995. Baobab Books, Harare, Zimbabwe.
*Pollard, William C. ''A Career of Defiance: The Life of Ian Smith'', Agusan River Publishing Co., 1992. Topeka, KS.
*McLaughlin, John . "Ian Smith and the Future of Zimbabwe," ''The National Review'', October 30, 1981, pp.&nbsp;2168–70.
*''Facts on File'', 1984 ed., p.&nbsp;574.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Rhodesian topics}}
{{Zimbabwean political parties}}{{Authority control}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 11:08, 26 December 2024

Ruling party of Rhodesia (1965–1979)

Rhodesian Front
AbbreviationRF
LeaderIan Smith
Founded1 March 1962 (1962-03-01)
Dissolved6 June 1981 (1981-06-06)
Preceded byDominion Party
Southern Rhodesia Liberal Party
Succeeded byRepublican Front
HeadquartersSalisbury, Rhodesia
IdeologyWhite minority interests
White nationalism
Rhodesian nationalism
National conservatism
Social conservatism
Anti-communism
Political positionRight-wing to far-right
Colours  Purple   White
Party flag
border=black
Politics of Rhodesia
Political history
Government
Legislature
Elections
Political parties
Foreign relations
National symbols

The Rhodesian Front (RF) was a conservative political party in Southern Rhodesia, subsequently known as Rhodesia. Formed in March 1962 by white Rhodesians opposed to decolonisation and majority rule, it won that December's general election and subsequently spearheaded the country's Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1965, remaining the ruling party and upholding white minority rule through the majority of the Bush War until 1979. Initially led by Winston Field, the party was led through most of its lifetime by co-founder Ian Smith. Following the end of the Bush War and the country's reconstitution as Zimbabwe, it changed its name to the Republican Front in 1981.

History and ideology

The RF was founded on 13 March 1962 in a merger of the Dominion Party (DP), defectors from the anti-Whitehead faction of the United Federal Party (UFP), as well as former members of the Southern Rhodesia Liberal Party. It was shaky and ideologically split in its early days, with its heterogeneous membership (ranging from advocates of more gradual transition to explicit segregation) united only in their opposition to then-Prime Minister Edgar Whitehead's plans for transition to majority rule, as well as the UK's demands for majority rule before independence. The party harnessed white anxieties of a Congo and Kenya-style majority rule scenario in its successful campaign for the 1962 Southern Rhodesian general election, pledging to keep power "in responsible hands", ensure Southern Rhodesian independence from the Federation, and thwart "this mad idea of a hand-over, of a sell-out of the European and his civilisation, indeed of everything he had put into his country". Its opposition to the UK government's demands for majority rule was so great that the RF-led government eventually declared unilateral independence in 1965.

The RF had fifteen founding principles, which included the preservation of each racial group's right to maintain its own identity, the preservation of "proper standards" through meritocracy, the maintenance of the Land Apportionment Act, which formalised the racial imbalance in the ownership and distribution of land, opposition to compulsory racial integration, job protection for white workers, and the practice of Christianity. Historians have generally defined the party as conservative and wanting to maintain white Rhodesian interests by staunchly opposing majority rule, which the RF argued would lead to a collapse in economic development, law and order, and the emergence of a communist regime in Rhodesia. The party also encouraged immigration of whites from other African former colonies to Rhodesia. The RF maintained an all-white membership and wanted to continue the provision of separate amenities for different races in education and public services; thusly, the party was often characterised as racist both within Rhodesia and abroad. Ian Smith and the RF claimed that they based their policies, ideas, and democratic principles on meritocratic ideals and "not on colour or nationalism", stating that these policies and what he called "separate economic advancement" would ultimately result in an "equal partnership between black and white" as an alternative to majority rule.

Unlike the South African National Party, the RF never de jure disenfranchised non-white voters in their entirety and did not introduce apartheid-style legislation governing interpersonal relationships: marriage and relationships between whites and non-whites were possible and legal, albeit uncommon. In all other aspects, however, the RF government perpetuated existing racial segregation and inequalities: the white minority's economic domination and ownership of land was maintained, as was the racial segregation of public services, education and electoral rolls through the party's policy of "separate economic advancement". In contrast to the National Party, whose rule expanded and escalated white domination, the RF sought mainly, with some notable exceptions, to maintain minority rule through inexplicit means.

Before the RF's rise to power, separate 'A' and 'B' electoral rolls based on differing income and property qualifications had already de facto disenfranchised the black electorate for decades, with the larger 'A' roll mainly consisting of the wealthier white minority, and the smaller 'B' roll almost exclusively consisting of the small number of Africans eligible and willing to register. Combined with a largely successful boycott campaign from the black majority, this resulted in de facto white minority rule. In an exception to their usual policies, the 1969 constitutional reform explicitly delineated the two electoral rolls by race: With the European 'A' roll increased to 50 seats as opposed to the African 'B' roll only having 8 (with an additional 8 indirectly elected to represent chiefs and tribal interests), this resulted in 270,000 whites having 50 seats and 6 million Africans having 16 seats in the Assembly. These reforms only served to reinforce black rejection of the system.

The Rhodesian Land Tenure Act was introduced the same year, which ostensibly introduced parity by reducing the amount of land reserved for white ownership to the same 45 million acres as for blacks: in practice, the most fertile farmlands remained in white hands, and some farmers took advantage by shifting their boundaries into black-populated territories, often without notifying others, thereby necessating government evictions.

In 1977, the party had a schism in which the more hardline wing broke off to form the Rhodesian Action Party (RAP), which opposed Smith's proposals to negotiate a settlement with black nationalist leaders.

In the elections leading to the country's independence in 1980, as the Republic of Zimbabwe, the RF won all 20 parliamentary seats reserved for whites in the power-sharing agreement that it had forged. On 6 June 1981, the party changed its name to the Republican Front, and on 23 July 1984, it became the Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe (CAZ) and opened its membership to Zimbabweans of all colours and all ethnic groups. Eleven of its 20 parliamentarians defected over the following four years, but the party again won 15 of the 20 parliamentary seats reserved for whites in the 1985 election. In October 1987, the ruling government of Robert Mugabe officially abolished all reserved seats for whites. When these were abolished, many white MPs became independents or joined the ruling ZANU–PF party.

Electoral history

Legislative Assembly elections

Year Popular Vote Percentage Seats Government
1962 38,282 54.9% 35 / 65 RF
1965 28,175 78.4% 50 / 65 RF

House of Assembly elections

Year Popular Vote Percentage Seats Government
1970 39,066 76.8% 50 / 66 RF
1974 55,597 77.0% 50 / 66 RF
1977 57,348 85.4% 50 / 66 RF
1979 11,613 (White Roll) 82.0% 28 / 100 UANC
1980 13,621 (White Roll) 83.0% 20 / 100 ZANU

See also

Further reading

  • Rhodesians Never Die, Godwin, P. & Hancock, I., 1995. Baobab Books, Harare, Zimbabwe.
  • Pollard, William C. A Career of Defiance: The Life of Ian Smith, Agusan River Publishing Co., 1992. Topeka, KS.
  • McLaughlin, John . "Ian Smith and the Future of Zimbabwe," The National Review, October 30, 1981, pp. 2168–70.
  • Facts on File, 1984 ed., p. 574.

References

  1. Lipschutz, Mark R.; Rasmussen, R. Kent (1989). University of California Press (ed.). Dictionary of African Historical Biography. p. 265.
  2. Leaver, John David (2006). "Multiracialism and nationalisms: A political retrospective on 1950s Southern Rhodesia ('Colonial Zimbabwe')". Journal of Third World Studies. 23 (2): 167–188. JSTOR 45194313.
  3. ^ Donal Lowry (2009). "The impact of anti-communism on white Rhodesian political culture, c.1920s-1980". In Onslow, Sue (ed.). Cold War in Southern Africa: White Power, Black Liberation. New York: Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-415-47420-7. Retrieved 7 April 2020.
  4. Cilliers, Jakkie (17 April 2015). Counter-Insurgency in Rhodesia (e-Book 1st ed.). London: Routledge. p. 18. ISBN 9781315713854. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
  5. Good, Kenneth (1974). "Settler Colonialism in Rhodesia". African Affairs. 73 (290): 10–36. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a096439. JSTOR 720978.
  6. Preston, Matthew (2004). I.B.Tauris (ed.). Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 107. ISBN 9781850435792.
  7. West, Michael O. (2002). Indiana University Press (ed.). The Rise of an African Middle Class: Colonial Zimbabwe, 1898-1965. Indiana University Press. p. 229. ISBN 0253215242.
  8. Rhodesian Front
  9. Hume, Ian (2018). Outskirts Press (ed.). From the Edge of Empire: A Memoir. Outskirts Press. p. 149. ISBN 9781478794554.
  10. Roscoe, Adrian (2007). Columbia University Press (ed.). The Columbia Guide to Central African Literature in English Since 1945. Columbia University Press. p. 35. ISBN 9780231503792.
  11. Evans, Michael (2007). "The Wretched of the Empire: Politics, Ideology and Counterinsurgency in Rhodesia, 1965–80". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 18 (2): 175–195. doi:10.1080/09574040701400601. S2CID 144153887.
  12. Hsu, Chia Yin; Luckett, Thomas M.; Vause, Erika (2015). The Cultural History of Money and Credit: A Global Perspective. Lexington Books. p. 142. ISBN 9781498505932.
  13. Onslow, Sue (2009). Cold War in Southern Africa: White Power, Black Liberation. Routledge. p. 92. ISBN 9781135219338.
  14. Butler, L. J. (2002). Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World. I.B.Tauris. p. 164. ISBN 9781860644481. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
  15. Wood, J.R.T. (June 2005). So Far and No Further! Rhodesia's Bid For Independence During the Retreat From Empire 1959–1965. Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4120-4952-8.
  16. Selby thesis:p58 Archived 15 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  17. RRT Research Response Refugee Review Tribunal. Retrieved 20 December 2022
  18. Nelson, Harold. Zimbabwe: A Country Study. pp. 137–153.
  19. Raeburn, Michael (1978). Black Fire! Narratives of Rhodesian Guerrillas. New York: Random House. pp. 189–207. ISBN 978-0394505305.
  20. *Hall, Lee (27 May 1966). "Rhodesia's Face of Defiance". Life. p. 22. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  21. Ian Smith Invites Blacks to Join His Party, The New York Times, July 23, 1984, p. A5.
  22. Zimbabwe whites lose special political status. End of reserved seats in Parliament brings one-party state closer, Christian Science Monitor, August 25, 1987
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