Misplaced Pages

Military history of Goguryeo: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 20:57, 12 June 2007 editGood friend100 (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users5,121 edits must stay consistent with article's title.← Previous edit Latest revision as of 04:54, 16 August 2024 edit undoLucasBrown (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users42,806 editsNo edit summaryTag: 2017 wikitext editor 
(307 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see ] -->
{{Message_box|
{{History of Korea}}
id =disputed title|
backgroundcolor = beige|
image =Circle-question-red.svg|
heading =The current title of this article, "{{PAGENAME}}," is ]. {{#if:{{{alternate title|}}}|An alternate proposed title is "{{{alternate title}}}."}} {{#if:{{{alternate titles|}}}|Alternate proposed titles are: {{{alternate titles}}}.}}|
message = Misplaced Pages articles may have only one unique title; the use of the current title does not imply an endorsement of that title. Please see the relevant discussion on the ].}}


The '''military history of Goguryeo''' involves wars with other ], ], nomadic states and tribes, and ]. ] was a highly militaristic state;<ref name="Lee23">{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674615762|pages=23–24|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA23|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265161|page=104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Z3a0NU4RHMC&q=%22Citizens+of+Koguryo+concentrated+on+maintaining+their+military+strength%2C+being+similar+in+this+respect+to+the+ancient+Greek+city-state+Sparta.%22|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> it was a powerful empire and one of the great powers in ],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=John Morris|last2=Westad|first2=Odd Arne|title=The History of the World|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199936762|page=443|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2cfZkU5aQgC&q=koguryo+powerful+empire|access-date=15 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gardner|first1=Hall|title=Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy|date=27 November 2007|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230608733|pages=158–159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=acvGAAAAQBAJ&q=great+powers|access-date=15 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Laet|first1=Sigfried J. de|title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century|year=1994|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=9789231028137|page=1133|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&pg=PA1133|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=20 November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265178|pages=6–7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA6|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} until it was defeated by a ]–] alliance in 668 after prolonged exhaustion and internal strife caused by the death of ].<ref name="End" />
{{split}} <!-- this is an advice from wikiusers participated in the first discussion of AfD, please don't delete this tag until the issue is settled -->


==Conflicts with other Korean states==
{{NPOV}}
===Baekje===
{{Infobox Military Conflict
] and ] were two of the ]; both claimed descent from the ancient Korean kingdom of ]. ], the founder of Baekje, was said to be the second son of ], the founder of Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Kenneth B.|title=Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix|year=1997|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275958237|page=13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XrZQs-6KswMC&pg=PA13|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Yu">{{cite book|last1=Yu|first1=Chai-Shin|title=The New History of Korean Civilization|year=2012|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9781462055593|page=27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYKNdiDCGLAC&pg=PA27|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} Despite the common ancestry, the relationship between Goguryeo and Baekje was often contentious.
|conflict=China-Goguryeo wars{{dubious}}
|partof=
|image=]
|caption=Map of the Three Kingdoms of Korea at the end of the 5th century{{dubious}}
|date = ] – 668{{dubious}}{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
|place=], Northern ], ]
|casus=
|territory=
|result= Goguryeo was the victor in most of the wars but fell to a Silla-Tang alliance in 668
|combatant1=]{{dubious}}{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
|combatant2=]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]
|combatant3=
|commander1=]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]
|commander2=]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]
|commander3=
|strength1= approximately 200,000{{dubious}}{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
|strength2=(1,138,000 foot soldiers and total of more than 3,000,000 in invasion of 612, approximately 300,000 in invasion of 645.){{dubious}}{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
|strength3=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
|casualties3=
|notes=
}}


During the 4th century, ] expanded Baekje's territory to the north at the expense of Goguryeo. In 369, ], the monarch of Goguryeo, attacked Baekje with 20,000 troops, but was defeated by Crown Prince ] at the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=치양전투|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0058383|website=민족문화대백과사전|publisher=Academy of Korean Studies}}</ref> In 371, Geungusu led 30,000 troops and attacked the fortress of ], slaying Gogukwon in battle.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674615762|page=37|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA37|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Baekje was a powerful maritime nation whose influence extended across the sea to ] and ] in China, taking advantage of the weakened state of ], and to ] in the Japanese archipelago.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Korea|date=January 2005|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press|isbn=9788973006199|pages=29–30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-WlUd3cjh0C&pg=PT29|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>
The '''Goguryeo-China wars''' were a series of ] between ], one of the ], and various ] of ].{{dubious}}{{Fact|date=June 2007}}


], a son of Gogukwon, invaded Baekje in 386.<ref name="Gogukyang1">{{cite web|title=국양왕|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE004&cp_code=rp0703&index_id=rp07031366&content_id=rp070313660001&search_left_menu=|website=KOCCA|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref><ref name="Gogukyang2">{{cite web|title=King Gogukyang|url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_dynasty_detail.htm?No=10039591|website=]|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref>
==]==
{{Unreferenced|date=May 2007}}


]
Goguryeo became a significant independent kingdom in the first century, and expanded its power in the region. By the time of ] in 53, the five tribes became five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom, and foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Taejo successfully expanded Goguryeo by attacking Han China's commanderies of ], ], and ], becoming fully independent from the Han commanderies.


In 392, ] led an attack on Baekje with 40,000 troops, capturing 10 walled cities.<ref name="seob">{{cite book|last1=이윤섭|date=7 March 2014|script-title=ko:광개토대왕과 장수왕|publisher=ebookspub(이북스펍)|isbn=9791155191323 |pages=89–91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCf-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT89|access-date=11 October 2016|language=ko}}</ref> In response, ], the monarch of Baekje, launched a counterattack on Goguryeo in 393 but was defeated.<ref name="seob" /> Asin invaded Goguryeo once more in 394, but was defeated again.<ref name="seob" /> After suffering multiple defeats against Goguryeo, Baekje's political stability began to crumble.<ref>{{cite web|title=King Gwanggaeto the Great (1)|url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_dynasty_detail.htm?lang=e&current_page=3&No=10039827|website=]|publisher=Korea Communications Commission|access-date=7 October 2016}}</ref> In 395, Baekje was defeated once more by Goguryeo and was pushed south to its capital of ] on the ].<ref name="seob" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Hyun-hui|last2=Pak|first2=Song-su|last3=Yun|first3=Nae-hyon|title=New History of Korea|date=2005|publisher=Jimoondang|location=Seoul|isbn=8988095855|page=170}}</ref> In the following year, in 396, Gwanggaeto led an assault on Wiryeseong by land and sea, using the Han River, and triumphed over Baekje.<ref name="seob" /> Gwanggaeto captured the Baekje capital and the defeated Asin submitted to him,<ref name="Jinwung">{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Jinwung|title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict|date=5 November 2012|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253000781|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QFPsi3IK8gcC&pg=PA35|access-date=11 October 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>Jeon ho-tae, 〈Koguryo, the origin of Korean power & pride〉, Dongbuka History Foundation, 2007. {{ISBN|8991448836}} p.137</ref> surrendering a prince and 10 government ministers.<ref name="seob" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Institute of Korean Studies|last2=Seoul National University|title=Korean studies|journal=Seoul Journal of Korean Studies|date=2004|issue=17|pages=15–16}}</ref> Henceforth, Baekje lost its dominance in the central Korean peninsula and declined.<ref name="Yu" />
Continuing its expansion to the northwest, Goguryeo began large-scale, organized attacks against the Chinese, as well as conquering neighboring statelets such as ] and ]. In ], ], a general of Han's successor state ], defeated ] and briefly occupied Goguryeo's capital, but did not hold the territory permanently.


In 400, ] requested aid from Goguryeo in repelling an allied invasion by ], ], and ]. Gwanggaeto dispatched 50,000 troops and annihilated the enemy coalition.<ref name="Jinwung" />
As Goguryeo extended its reach into the ], the last Han Chinese commandery, at Lelang, was destroyed by ] in 313, and the ] dominated the peninsula.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}


In 433, Baekje and Silla formed an alliance (]: 나제동맹, ]: 羅濟同盟) to balance the Goguryeo threat to the north.<ref name="Ring">{{cite book|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy|last2=Watson|first2=Noelle|last3=Schellinger|first3=Paul|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136639791|page=484|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&pg=PA484|access-date=12 October 2016|language=en}}</ref>
==]==
{{Unreferenced|date=May 2007}}


In 472, ], the ruler of Baekje, requested a military alliance with ] against Goguryeo, but was unsuccessful.<ref name="Ring" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Bushik|title=Samguk Sagi|date=1145|url=http://db.history.go.kr/item/level.do?levelId=sg_025_0070_0050|access-date=2 February 2016|ref=至訥祗王即位三年己未, 句麗長壽王遣使來朝云, “寡君聞大王之弟寳海秀智才藝, 願與相親特遣小臣懇請.” 王門之幸甚因此和通命, 其弟寳海道於句麗, 以内臣金武校勘 271謁為輔而送之. 長壽王又留而不送.}}</ref> In 475, ], the son of Gwanggaeto, launched an invasion by land and sea against Baekje, and captured the capital of ] and executed Gaero.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Historical Survey Society|title=Seoul : a field guide to history|date=2007|publisher=Dolbegae Publishers|location=Paju|isbn=9788971992890|page=16|edition=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Korean Historical Research Association.|title=A history of Korea|date=2005|publisher=Saffron Books|location=London|isbn=9781872843872|page=43}}</ref> Baekje had no choice but to move its capital to mountainous ] (present-day ]), 80 miles to the south, which provided a natural protection for the devastated kingdom.<ref name="Ring" /><ref>{{cite web|title=King Jangsu|url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_dynasty_detail.htm?lang=e&current_page=&No=10041218|website=KBS Radio|publisher=KBS|access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref>
The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, ], of ] ethnicity, attacked Goguryeo’s capital and captured it briefly, taking the body of King Micheon (the father of then-reigning ]) and the queen dowager (King Gogugwon's mother) as collateral for Goguryeo's submission. However, by ], the end of Former Yan's first successor state ], Goguryeo appears to have captured all territory east of the ] previously held by Former Yan and Later Yan, and in ] established peaceful relations with ], the ruler of Later Yan's successor state ], who was a descendant of Goguryeo's royal house. In ], when ], brother and successor of Gao Yun's successor ], could not withstand ] attacks, he evacuated his people to Goguryeo territory. When he subsequently tried to rule part of Goguryeo territory as an independent state, however, he was killed by Goguryeo's ].{{Fact|date=June 2007}} King Jangsu and his successors subsequently undertook the policy of maintaining peaceful relations with both China's Northern Dynasties (Northern Wei, ], ], and ]) and Southern Dynasties (], ], ], and ]), and there would not be major conflicts between Goguryeo and any Chinese state until Sui unified China by destroying Chen in ].{{Fact|date=June 2007}}


In 479, Baekje and Silla reaffirmed their alliance through marriage,<ref name="Ring" /> which was the primary reason why Goguryeo was unable to conquer the entire peninsula.<ref name="Walker137">{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=20 November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265178|page=137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA137|access-date=12 October 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}
==Goguryeo-Sui Wars==
{{Unreferenced|date=May 2007}}


In 551, a Baekje–Silla alliance attacked Goguryeo in order to capture the important ] region from Goguryeo, planning to split it between them. In 553, Baekje gained the critical region after expending itself with a series of costly assaults on ], but Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked the exhausted Baekje troops and took possession of the entire Han River region, leading to a war between the two former allies in which the Baekje monarch was killed.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chŏng|first1=Yang-mo|last2=Smith|first2=Judith G.|last3=Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.)|title=Arts of Korea|year=1998|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=9780870998508|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DnaiYKYmQegC&pg=PA25|access-date=14 October 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Jinwung|title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict|year=2012|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253000248|pages=44–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2EVi-MpnUsC&pg=PA44|access-date=12 September 2016|language=en}}</ref>
:''Main article:].''
The ] was founded in 581. It grew in power and emerged as a powerful dynasty in China, defeating and conquering large forces of "Barbarians" (The Chinese, in their ages of doctrination of being the center of the world, deemed any people who were not Chinese as barbarians and officially named them derogatory names in their historical records) to the North, Northwest, West, and South of China. Many neighbors of China were now forced to pay yearly tribute to the Sui Dynasty. Finally, only Goguryeo was left to be brought to its knees, but Goguryeo did not give into demands for tributes and the following threats.


Baekje attacked Silla in 612, 624, and 627.<ref name="Silla">{{cite book|last1=Barnes|first1=Gina|title=State Formation in Korea: Emerging Elites|date=5 November 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136840975|pages=54–55|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUT8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Goguryeo and Baekje formed an alliance (]: 여제동맹, ]: 麗濟同盟) in 642 aimed toward territorial restoration against Silla. ] of ] attacked Silla and captured around 40 strongpoints in 642,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Whiting|first1=Marvin C.|title=Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC-1912 AD|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595221349|page=257|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JJQiAz3qTCgC&pg=PA257|access-date=2 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} and 7 more fortresses in 645.<ref name="Silla" /> In 655, the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance captured 30 fortresses from Silla.<ref name="Silla" />
Additionally, Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. In 598 the Sui, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives (pre-emptive strike) in the Liaodong region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the ]. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui met with costly defeat. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}


===Silla===
One of Sui's most disastrous campaigns was the campaign of 612, in which Sui mobilised at least 1,138,000 combat troops. General ], led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang. At the ] River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which overwhelmed the Chinese army and drowned nearly every Chinese soldier.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Chinese histories record that of the over 305,000 Sui troops, a mere 2,700 returned.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
In 245, ] ordered an attack on ], but the two kingdoms entered into friendly relations in 248.<ref>{{cite web|title=동천왕|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0016818|website=민족문화대백과사전|publisher=Academy of Korean Studies|access-date=20 November 2016}}</ref>


], the king of Silla, who had been a vassal of ], broke off relations with Goguryeo in 454. Jangsu invaded Silla in 468, expanding his domain into parts of ], and again in 489, capturing 7 walled cities and expanding his domain into parts of ].<ref>{{cite web|title=장수왕|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0048605|website=민족문화대백과사전|publisher=Academy of Korean Studies|access-date=12 October 2016}}</ref>
The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. However the wars exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined.{{fact}}


Silla emerged as a major player in the Korean Peninsula after its betrayal of Baekje and conquest of the Han River region from Goguryeo in 553,<ref name="Walker137" /> but Goguryeo and Baekje applied political, military, and economic pressure against Silla. In 643, under attack by the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, the Silla court dispatched ] to the ] to request military assistance, leading to ].


In 660, Goguryeo's ally, Baekje, fell to the Silla–Tang alliance; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years but could not defeat ]. However, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and civil war ensued among his three sons, leading the Silla–Tang alliance to launch a fresh invasion. In November 668, King ] surrendered to the Silla–Tang alliance and Goguryeo finally fell.
==]==
{{npov-section}}
Although Goguryeo had repulsed the Sui Dynasty, attacks by the Tang Dynasty from the west proved too formidable. by ]. Under ], Sui's succeeding dynasty Tang Dynasty forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the ]. In ], 연개소문 ] killed ] and seized military control over the country.


==Conflicts with Chinese states==
Later in Tang Taizong reign, he also began campaigns against the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo{{Fact|date=June 2007}}, much to the opposition of many advisors. In ], A war In the beginning. Taizong commanded an army of 100,000 Tang soldiers.<ref>'']'', vol. 220.</ref> Taizong's noted army enabled him to conquer a number of ] (] 요동성, ] 개모성, ] 비사성, ] 백암성 fell). The Tang army in several cases defeated the Korean forces on open battlefields. Outside the Ansi Fort, ] and ] had mobilized 150,000 troops, though it proved to be fruitless. After tatics by Taizong with ] commanding 15,000 men and ] with 11,000 coming from behind, the Korean generals were confused and defeated, the losses were 20,000 for the Koreans and 36,000 captured.(주필산 전투) This battle was won with 26,000 Tang troops<ref name=SamgukSagi21/> in comparison to 150,000 Korean troops. The Tang army had won a significant victory over Goguryeo.
===Han dynasty===
{{See also|Battle of Jwawon}}


] became a significant independent kingdom in the first century, and began expanding its power in the region.<ref name="Lee23" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Guo|first1=Rongxing|title=Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method|date=29 August 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781441908490|page=42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbJ3LsL6jJMC&pg=PA42|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> ] conquered neighboring ] and ], and made repeated attacks against the Chinese commanderies and incursions into Liaodong, which would be continued by his successors.<ref name="Lee23" />
However, forts would be the one issue that the Tang Taizong couldn't solve, most particularly Ansi fortress itself. the remaining Goguryeo troops get in inside ]. Ansi was under siege by the Tang army. However Tang was not able to conquer Ansi fortress. After a protracted siege, Taizong ordered the construction of a large siege ramp by making a mountain of soil to tower over the high Ansi walls. As the mountain rose higher, so did the walls as it was raised higher with wooden extensions. However the siege mountain collapsed, at the same time commander ] (It should be noted that Yang was the only commander to defeat Yeon on the battlefield, as Yeon's earlier efforts to take the Ansi Fortress during the civil war that took place after Yeon's coup was unsuccessful.) mobilized the remaining Goguryeo troops to defeat the Tang army, even managing to wound the Tang Taizong himself in the eye. In the end, the Tang army retreated with heavy losses (many of the 10,000-20,000 deaths on the Tang side resulted from this siege). Taizong was defeated by not being able to take Ansi.(안시성 전투)


===Liaodong Commandery===
The 20th century Korean historical work '']'' claimed that ] also defeated the Tang army.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} According to the ''Joseon Sangosa'', as a result Goguryeo was able to repel the attack and Taizong, caught between Yang's forces in the front and Yeon's counter-attacking forces closing in behind him--as well as suffering from the harsh Manchurian winter was forced to flee back to China. With Yeon in close pursuit, Taizong's desperate, fleeing forces were decimated by Yeon, and Taizong himself barely escaped with his life. The account relayed in the ''Joseon Sangosa'', however, directly contradicted Chinese accounts of an orderly retreat with minimal losses and no pursuit by Goguryeo forces, described in the '']''<ref>'']'', vols. ], 199.</ref>, '']''<ref>'']'', vols. ], 220.</ref>, and the '']''<ref>'']'', vols. ], ].</ref>. The ''Joseon Sangosa'''s account is also contradicted by the ancient Korean history of the ] period, the '']''.<ref name=SamgukSagi21>'']'', vol. 21.</ref>
The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the ] to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord ] established the ] by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. In 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Records of the Three Kingdoms|volume=30|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%BF%97/%E5%8D%B730|quote=建安中,公孫康出軍擊之,破其國,焚燒邑落。拔奇怨爲兄而不得立,與涓奴加各將下戶三萬餘口詣康降,還住沸流水。}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=de Crespigny|first=Rafe|year=2007|title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms|publisher=Brill|page=988}}</ref> Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the ] valley near ].<ref>'Gina L. Barnes', "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, pp. 22–23'</ref>


===Cao Wei===
After Taizong's death in ], the conquest of Goguryeo and the personal rivalry with Yeon Gaesomun became an obsession with Taizong's son ]. He invaded Goguryeo numerous times but Yeon turned the Tang back every time--perhaps most notably during Yeon's celebrated annihilation of the Tang forces in ] at the ] (蛇水) where the invading general ] (龐孝泰) and all 13 of his sons were killed in the battle. As a result while ] was alive, Tang was not able to conquer the Goguryeo. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}
{{main|Goguryeo–Wei War}}


In 244, ], a general of Han's successor state ], defeated ] and briefly occupied and sacked Goguryeo's capital.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tKTtAAAAMAAJ&q=244+sacked|title=A history of Korea|publisher=Kegan Paul International|year=1996|isbn=0-7103-0532-X|edition=illustrated|page=22|quote=Wei. In 242, under King Tongch'ŏn, they attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Yalu in an attempt to cut the land route across Liao, in return for which the Wei invaded them in 244 and sacked Hwando.|access-date=9 February 2012|author=Charles Roger Tennant|author-link=Roger Tennant}}</ref>
=== Fall ===
{{Unreferenced|date=May 2007}}


Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Injae|first1=Lee|last2=Miller|first2=Owen|last3=Jinhoon|first3=Park|last4=Hyun-Hae|first4=Yi|title=Korean History in Maps|date=15 December 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107098466|page=30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA30|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en}}</ref> according to the ], ] assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kim Bu-sik|title=Samguk Sagi|volume=17|quote=十二年冬十二月王畋于杜訥之谷魏將尉遲楷名犯長陵諱將兵來伐王簡精騎五千戰於梁貊之谷敗之斬首八千餘級}}</ref>
Goguryo's ally in the southwest, ], fell to the Silla-Tang alliance in 661 the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664-666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued among his three sons. One of his sons, ] fled to Tang and was a big part in the next invasion of Goguryeo by the Tang and served as the primary key to the downfall of Gogureyo, as only when he came did the Tang's emperor was willing to send troops to Goguryeo, since the defector knew the most of the weaknesses and shortcuts that Tang forces did not know of, into Goguryeo's fortified territory. <ref>http://www.koreandb.net/Sam/bon/samkuk/04_210_1001155.htm</ref>. diagonally opposite another son, ] resist in the face of death to his brother's treachery.


===Lelang commandery===
Silla-Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668.
As Goguryeo extended its reach into the ], the last Chinese commandery at ] was conquered and annexed by ] in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold.<ref>'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 20</ref> This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years.<ref name="Tennant">{{cite book|last1=Tennant|first1=Charles Roger|title=A History of Korea|year=1996|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780710305329|page=22|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xn85nFTAX8EC&pg=PA22|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en|quote=Soon after, the Wei fell to the Jin and Koguryŏ grew stronger, until in 313 they finally succeeded in occupying Lelang and bringing to an end the 400 years of China's presence in the peninsula, a period sufficient to ensure that for the next 1,500 it would remain firmly within the sphere of its culture. After the fall of the Jin in 316, the proto-Mongol Xianbei occupied the North of China, of which the Murong clan took the Shandong area, moved up to the Liao, and in 341 sacked and burned the Koguryŏ capital at Hwando. They took away some thousands of prisoners to provide cheap labour to build more walls of their own, and in 346 went on to wreak even greater destruction on Puyŏ, hastening what seems to have been a continuing migration of its people into the north-eastern area of the peninsula, but Koguryŏ, though temporarily weakened, would soon rebuild its walls and continue to expand.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen|author=Chinul|editor-first=Robert E.|editor-last=Buswell|others=Translated by Robert E. Buswell|edition=abridged|year=1991|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EazRC28tdIIC&pg=PA3|page=3|isbn=0824814274|access-date=22 April 2014}}</ref>


===Former Yan===
Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, which they did and eventually expelled the Tang. Silla'a unification of Korea was short lived for the former Goguryeo General ] led the remnants of Goguryeo, united with the ] and established ], Known to Koreans as the sucessor of Goguryeo and retained much of it's former territory. The Balhae Kingdom would become a buffer in trade and was a powerful empire that Tang could not bother. Their end would come from the ] tribe. This end was a descisive event in Northeast asian history for it was the last Korean Kingdom to hold Manchurian territory.
During the winter of 342, the ] of ], ruled by the ] clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking the queen mother and queen prisoner and exhuming the body of ],<ref>{{cite book|title=Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen|author=Chinul|editor-first=Robert E.|editor-last=Buswell|others=Translated by Robert E. Buswell|edition=abridged|year=1991|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EazRC28tdIIC&pg=PA4|page=4|isbn=0824814274|access-date=22 April 2014}}</ref> and forced ] to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated ] in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula.<ref name="Tennant"/>


===Later Yan===
== Notes and references ==
In 385, ], the son of Gogukwon, invaded and defeated ], the successor state of Former Yan.<ref name="Gogukyang1" /><ref name="Gogukyang2" />
* Graff, David A., Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. ISBN 0-415-23954-0

<references/> Korean Author, Google, reasonable thoughts, Drama Dae joyoung
In 400, the ] state of Later Yan, founded by the ] clan in present-day ], attacked Goguryeo.<ref name="seob2">{{cite book|last1=이윤섭|date=7 March 2014|script-title=ko:광개토대왕과 장수왕|publisher=ebookspub(이북스펍)|isbn=9791155191323 |pages=93–95|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCf-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT93|access-date=11 October 2016|language=ko}}</ref> ] repulsed the enemy troops.<ref name="tong">{{cite book|last1=김상훈|date=22 March 2010|script-title=ko:통 세계사 1: 인류 탄생에서 중세 시대까지: 외우지 않고 통으로 이해하는|publisher=Dasan Books|isbn=9788963702117|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O6TFAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245|access-date=11 October 2016|language=ko}}</ref><ref name="KBS2">{{cite web|title=King Gwanggaeto the Great (2)|url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_dynasty_detail.htm?lang=e&current_page=3&No=10040041|website=]|publisher=Korea Communications Commission|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref> In 402, Gwanggaeto retaliated and conquered the prominent fortress called 宿軍城 near the capital of Later Yan.<ref name="seob2" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=조한성|date=6 December 2012|script-title=ko:역사의터닝포인트14_삼국의전성기|publisher=Book21 Publishing Group|isbn=9788950944087|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r7Qtl2Asj1sC&pg=PA9|access-date=11 October 2016|language=ko}}</ref> In 405 and again in 406, Later Yan troops attacked ] in Liaodong (遼東城 in 405, and 木底城 in 406), but was defeated both times.<ref name="seob2" /> Gwanggaeto conquered all of Liaodong.<ref name="Jinwung" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674615762|pages=38–40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA38|access-date=11 October 2016|language=en}}</ref> By conquering Liaodong, Gwanggaeto recovered the ancient domain of ];<ref name="Jinwung" /><ref name="tong" /> Goguryeo controlled Liaodong until the mid-late 7th century.

===Sui dynasty===
]
{{Main|Goguryeo–Sui War}}

In 589, the ] period ended and the ] unified China after four centuries of fragmentation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sui dynasty {{!}} Chinese history|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sui-dynasty|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 November 2016}}</ref> The Sui Empire reconquered ] and defeated ], sacking its capital,<ref name="Wendi">{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=20 November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265178|page=151|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA151|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Connolly|first1=Peter|last2=Gillingham|first2=Emeritus Professor of History at the London School of Economics John|last3=Gillingham|first3=John|last4=Lazenby|first4=John|title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare|date=13 May 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135936747|page=193|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLYoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> and conquered important lands in northern China and ] against Turks, Tibetans and proto-Mongolians.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Barbara Bennett|title=Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century|date=16 September 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317463726|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT142|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

In 598, ] made a preemptive attack on ],<ref name="Lee47">{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674615762|page=47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA47|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> leading ] to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui.<ref name="Wendi" /><ref name="White">{{cite book|last1=White|first1=Matthew|title=Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History|date=7 November 2011|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393081923|pages=78–79|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-fQHlaIpR4C&pg=PA78|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

In 612, ] mobilized a huge force said to number over a million men and invaded Goguryeo.<ref name="Lee47" /><ref name="White" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chan)|first1=陳志海 (Warren|title=All Kinds of Everything: From Chinese Civilization to World History (until 1912) 2nd edition (精裝本)|date=28 October 2015|publisher=Red Publish|isbn=9789888380008|page=147|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC7yCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT147|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Unable to overcome the defenses of Yodong (Liaodong) Fortress, Emperor Yang ordered 305,000 troops to attack the Goguryeo capital of ].<ref name="Lee47" /> However, General ] baited the Sui troops and annihilated them at the ];<ref name="Lee47" /><ref name="White" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grant|first1=Reg G.|title=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History|year=2011|publisher=Universe Pub.|isbn=9780789322333|page=104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s4njwZGrZg4C&pg=PA104|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> according to Chinese historical records: of the 305,000 Sui troops, a mere 2,700 returned.<ref>{{in lang|ko}} {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716080932/http://preview.britannica.co.kr/bol/topic.asp?article_id=b11s1728a |date=2011-07-16 }}</ref> Emperor Yang lifted his siege of the ] and withdrew his forces back to China.<ref name="Lee47" />

Emperor Yang was obsessed with defeating Goguryeo.<ref name="Walker153">{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=20 November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265178|page=153|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA153|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Bedeski">{{cite book|last1=Bedeski|first1=Robert|title=Human Security and the Chinese State: Historical Transformations and the Modern Quest for Sovereignty|date=12 March 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134125975|page=90|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNl9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> He attacked Goguryeo again in 613 and 614,<ref name="Walker152">{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=20 November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265178|page=152|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA152|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ebrey|first1=Patricia Buckley|last2=Walthall|first2=Anne|last3=Palais|first3=James B.|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800|year=2013|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1111808150|page=106|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CWE8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> but failed against Goguryeo's defensive strategies, fierce resistance, and able leadership;<ref name="Walker153" /><ref name="Bedeski" /> furthermore, his campaign in 613 was cut short by internal discontent and floods back home.<ref name="Walker152" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tanner|first1=Harold Miles|title=China: A History|date=13 March 2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=978-0872209152|page=170|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA170|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty.<ref name="White" /><ref name="Walker153" /><ref name="Bedeski" /><ref name="Ebrey106">{{cite book|last1=Ebrey|first1=Patricia Buckley|last2=Walthall|first2=Anne|last3=Palais|first3=James B.|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800|year=2013|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1111808150|page=106|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CWE8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

===Tang dynasty===
{{main|First campaign in the Goguryeo–Tang War|Goguryeo–Tang War}}
] of ]. They are identified by the two feathers on top of their head.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Library |first1=British |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |year=2004 |publisher=Serindia Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-1-932476-13-2 |page=110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA110 |language=en}}</ref> 648-651 CE, ], Samarkand.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA243 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grenet |first1=Frantz |title=Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole |journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales |date=2004 |volume=5/6 |page=Fig. C |url=https://www.cairn.info/journal-annales-2004-5-page-1043.htm}}</ref>]]
] ascended the ] throne in 626, and led many successful military campaigns. In 630, Emperor Taizong ], an ally of Goguryeo, bringing much of ] under Tang control; he then conquered the ], and defeated the ] in 640.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|date=23 December 2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781851096725|page=406|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA406|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> In 643, ] of ] requested military aid against the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance.<ref name="Ebrey106" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=20 November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265178|page=160|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA160|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} Tang forged an alliance with Silla, and began preparations for a major campaign against Goguryeo in 644.<ref name="Graff196">{{cite book|last1=Graff|first1=David|title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900|date=2 September 2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134553532|page=196|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gpmBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196|access-date=3 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

In 645, Emperor Taizong personally led a ] by land and sea with 113,000 Tang troops plus an unspecified number of tribal auxiliaries.<ref name="Graff196" /> His noted army captured a number of Goguryeo border fortresses, including the potent Yodong (Liaodong) Fortress, which had repulsed ] in 612 and 613.<ref name="Graff197">{{cite book|last1=Graff|first1=David|title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900|date=2 September 2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134553532|page=197|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gpmBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|access-date=4 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Arriving outside Ansi Fortress on July 18, Emperor Taizong prepared to meet an approaching relief army, said to number 150,000 men, in battle. Emperor Taizong ordered ] to bait the Koreans with 15,000 troops, while ]'s concealed troops would ambush them from behind.<ref name="Graff197" /> On the following day, the two sides clashed and Emperor Taizong inflicted a crushing defeat on the confused Koreans, inflicting 20,000 casualties and capturing 36,800 prisoners.<ref name="Graff197" /> Emperor Taizong then laid siege to Ansi Fortress; his troops attacked the ] as many as six or seven times per day, but were repelled each time by the defenders.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674615762|page=48|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA48|access-date=4 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Unable to breach the adamant fortress despite months of siege, Tang eventually staked everything on the construction of a huge mound, designed to tower over the walls of the fortress; however, the defenders captured and successfully held the mound despite three days of frantic assaults by Tang troops.<ref name="Graff198">{{cite book|last1=Graff|first1=David|title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900|date=2 September 2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134553532|page=198|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gpmBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA198|access-date=3 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Furthermore, exacerbated by worsened conditions for the Tang army due to cold weather (and winter approaching) and diminishing provisions, Emperor Taizong was compelled to order a withdrawal from Goguryeo on October 13,<ref name="Graff198" /> but left behind an extravagant gift for ], the commander of Ansi Fortress.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Kenneth B.|title=Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix|year=1997|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275958237|page=16|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XrZQs-6KswMC&pg=PA16|access-date=2 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

Emperor Taizong attacked Goguryeo again in 647 and 648, but was unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|date=23 December 2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781851096725|page=406|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&q=%22In+645+he+led+Tang+forces+to+conquer+Koguryo+but+was+defeated.+Again+in+647+and+648+he+sent+out+expeditionary+forces+to+invade+Koguryo%2C+but+these+attacks+were+also+repulsed+by+the+Korean+kingdom.%22|access-date=4 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ebrey|first1=Patricia Buckley|last2=Walthall|first2=Anne|last3=Palais|first3=James B.|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800|year=2013|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1111808150|page=106|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CWE8AAAAQBAJ&q=%22Still+convinced+that+he+could+defeat+Koguryo%2C+Taizong+dispatched+two+more+expeditions+against+it+in+647+and+648%2C+neither+of+them+successful.%22|access-date=4 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Guo|first1=Rongxing|title=Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method|date=29 August 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781441908490|page=42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbJ3LsL6jJMC&q=%22The+subsequent+dynasty%2C+Tang+%28AD+618%E2%80%93907%29%2C+dispatched+three+unsuccessful+expeditions+against+Koguryo+in+AD+644%2C+648%2C+and+655.%22|access-date=4 November 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chen|first1=Jack Wei|title=The Poetics of Sovereignty: On Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty|year=2010|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674056084|page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5wlDivOQGakC&pg=PA43|access-date=4 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

Defeating Goguryeo had been an obsession with Emperor Taizong,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=20 November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265178|page=161|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA161|access-date=4 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} and after his death in 649, his son ] continued his ambition. Upon the suggestion of ], the Silla–Tang alliance first conquered ] in 660 to break up the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, and then turned its full attention to Goguryeo.<ref name="oceania">{{cite book|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy|last2=Watson|first2=Noelle|last3=Schellinger|first3=Paul|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136639791|page=486|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&q=stalwart+defenses|access-date=16 July 2016|language=en}}</ref> However, Emperor Gaozong, too, was unable to defeat Goguryeo led by ];<ref name="oceania" /><ref name="maps">{{cite book|last1=Injae|first1=Lee|last2=Miller|first2=Owen|last3=Jinhoon|first3=Park|last4=Hyun-Hae|first4=Yi|title=Korean History in Maps|date=15 December 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107098466|page=29|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|access-date=4 August 2016|language=en}}</ref> one of Yeon Gaesomun's most notable victories came in 662 at the ''Battle of Sasu'' (蛇水), where he annihilated the Tang forces and killed the invading general Pang Xiaotai (龐孝泰) and all 13 of his sons.<ref>{{cite book|last1=이희진|date=2 September 2013|script-title=ko:옆으로 읽는 동아시아 삼국지 1|publisher=EASTASIA|isbn=9788962620726|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfevAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT348|access-date=4 November 2016|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=통일기|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div_id=CP_THE003&cp_code=cp0901&index_id=cp09010004&content_id=cp090100040001&search_left_menu=1|website=한국콘텐츠진흥원|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Hence, while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang could not defeat Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite book|last1=김용만|year=1998|script-title=ko:고구려의발견: 새로쓰는고구려문명사|publisher=바다출판사|isbn=9788987180212|page=486|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0iN1PAAACAAJ&q=%EA%B3%A0%EA%B5%AC%EB%A0%A4%EC%9D%98+%EB%B0%9C%EA%B2%AC|access-date=4 November 2016|language=ko}}</ref>

====Fall and aftermath====
In 666 (though dates vary from 664–666), Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and a civil war ensued among his three sons. His eldest son and immediate successor, ], defected to ] and provided the secrets and weaknesses of Goguryeo to ], and played a critical role in the next invasion and downfall of Goguryeo.<ref></ref> Yeon Gaesomun's second son, ], resisted in the face of death, as opposed to his brother's treachery, and fought until the very end. Meanwhile, Yeon Gaesomun's younger brother, Yeon Jeongto, defected to the Silla side.<ref name="Succession">{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674615762|page=67|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA67|access-date=5 August 2016|language=en|quote=Loath to let slip such an opportunity, T'ang mounted a fresh invasion under Li Chi in 667 and Silla launched a coordinated offensive. This time the T'ang army received every possible assistance from the defector Namsaeng, and although Koguryŏ continued to hold out for another year, the end finally came in 668.}}</ref>

The Tang–Silla alliance mounted a fresh invasion of Goguryeo in 667, aided by the defector Yeon Namsaeng,<ref name="Succession" /> and in 668, finally vanquished the divided kingdom, which had been plagued by violent dissension, numerous defections, and widespread demoralization following the death of Yeon Gaesomun.<ref name="End">{{cite book|last1=Graff|first1=David|title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900|date=2 September 2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134553532|page=200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gpmBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA200|access-date=6 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>

] thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on Tang China had its price. Tang China attempted to impose its rule over the entire Korean peninsula, but Silla, aided by Goguryeo and Baekje refugees, forcibly resisted and expelled Tang.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=20 November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265178|page=164|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&pg=PA164|access-date=29 November 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} However, Silla's unification of the ] was short-lived because the former Goguryeo general ] led remnants of Goguryeo, united with the ] people, and established ], a successor of Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Injae|first1=Lee|last2=Miller|first2=Owen|last3=Jinhoon|first3=Park|last4=Hyun-Hae|first4=Yi|title=Korean History in Maps|date=15 December 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107098466|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|access-date=20 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Balhae eventually reconquered and retained much of Goguryeo's former territory.

The ] ] general ] ordered a mass slaughter of ] Caucasians from West and Central Asia, identifying them through their big noses and lances were used to impale Caucasian children when he stormed Beijing (]) from ] when he ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=Valerie |date=2003 |title=New Work on the Sogdians, the Most Important Traders on the Silk Road, A.D. 500-1000 |jstor=4528925|journal=T'oung Pao |volume=89 |issue=1/3 |pages=158 |doi= 10.1163/156853203322691347}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hansen |first1=Valerie |title=The Silk Road: A New History |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190218423 |pages=157–158 |edition=illustrated, reprint |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FDdRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA157 |chapter=CHAPTER 5 The Cosmopolitan Terminus of the Silk Road}}</ref>

Balhae became a powerful empire like its predecessor, but its eventual end came at the hands of the ] in 926. Balhae's end was a decisive event in Northeast Asian history for it was the last Korean kingdom to hold territory in ]. Goguryeo was revived once more in 918 by successor state ],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rossabi|first1=Morris|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries|date=20 May 1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520045620|page=323|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&q=%22As+the+self-proclaimed+successor+to+Koguryo+and+the+protector+of+Parhae+refugees%2C+many+of+them+of+Koguryo+origin%2C+Koryo+considered+the+northern+territories+in+Manchuria+its+rightful+legacy.%22|access-date=1 August 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674615762|page=103|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&pg=PA103|access-date=20 October 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Djun Kil|title=The History of Korea|date=30 January 2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313038532|page=57|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ci_iGuAAqmsC&pg=PA57|access-date=20 October 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grayson|first1=James H.|title=Korea - A Religious History|date=5 November 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136869259|page=79|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LU78AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA79|access-date=20 October 2016|language=en}}</ref> founded by ], a descendant of Goguryeo nobility.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ryu|first1=Howard Jisoo|title=Orderly Korea Unification: With the Guarantee of Stability in East Asia|date=12 July 2007|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=9781462803323|page=145|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrZ-PuddnnYC&q=Goguryeo+descent|access-date=18 July 2016|language=en}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=박|first1=종기|date=24 August 2015|script-title=ko:고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다|publisher=휴머니스트|isbn=9788958629023|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qn6TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT59|access-date=27 October 2016|language=ko}}</ref> In 937, much of the ruling class and the ] of collapsed ] fled to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included into the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Ki-Baik|title=A New History of Korea|date=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=067461576X|page=103|quote=When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom.}}</ref>

==Conflicts with nomadic states==
In 395, ] invaded the ] Baili clan to the west on the ],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Biography: Kilpatrick-Louis|editor1-first=Suzanne Michele|editor1-last=Bourgoin|publisher=Gale Research|year=1998|title=Kwanggaet'o|page=94}}</ref> destroying 3 tribes and 600 to 700 camps.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Holcombe|first1=Charles|title=The Genesis of East Asia : 221 B.C. - A.D. 907|date=2001|publisher=Associate for Asian Studies |location=Honolulu|isbn=9780824824655|page=174|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XT5pvPZ4vroC&q=three+tribes&pg=PA78|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref>

In 398, Gwanggaeto conquered the ] people to the northeast,<ref name="Jinwung" /> who were ] ancestors of the ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=November 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265161|page=137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Z3a0NU4RHMC&pg=PA137|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en|quote=He also conquered Sushen tribes in the northeast, Tungusic ancestors of the Jurcid and Manchus who later ruled Chinese "barbarian conquest dynasties" during the twelfth and seventeenth centuries.}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}

In 479, ] invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the ] with his ] allies.<ref>{{cite book|script-title=ko:한나절에 읽는 백제의 역사|publisher=ebookspub(이북스펍)|isbn=9791155191965|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8N3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA474|access-date=16 November 2016|language=ko|date=4 October 2014}}</ref>

==Conflicts with Japanese states==
{{main|Goguryeo–Wa conflicts}}
In 404, Gwanggaeto defeated an attack by the ] from the ] on the southern border of what was once the ], inflicting enormous casualties on the enemy.<ref name="seob2" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kamstra|first1=Jacques H.|title=Encounter Or Syncretism: The Initial Growth of Japanese Buddhism|pages=38}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Batten|first1=Bruce Loyd|title=Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War And Peace, 500-1300|pages=16}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
*]
*]
*] *]
*] *]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Graff |first=David A. |title=Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900 |year=2002 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-23954-0 }}


] ]
] ]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 04:54, 16 August 2024

Part of a series on the
History of Korea
thum
Prehistoric period
Palaeolithic 700,000 BC-8000 BC
Neolithic 8000 BC–1500 BC
* Jeulmun
Bronze Age 1500 BC–300 BC
* Mumun
* Liaoning dagger
Ancient period
Gojoseon 2333 BC–108 BC
* Dangun
* Gija
* Wiman
Jin 4th–2nd century BC
Yemaek
Proto–Three Kingdoms period
Three Kingdoms period
Goguryeo 37 BC–668 AD
Baekje 18 BC–660 AD
Silla 57 BC–935 AD
Gaya confederacy 42–562
Tamna (Tributary of Baekje) 498–660
Usan 512–930
Northern and Southern period
United Silla (Unified Silla) 668–892
Balhae 698–926
Little Goguryeo 699–820
Tamna (Tributary of Silla) 662–925
Later Three Kingdoms period
Later Baekje 892–936
Taebong (Later Goguryeo) 901–918
Unified Silla (Later Silla) 892–935
Later Sabeol 919–927
Dongdan Kingdom 926–936
Later Balhae 927–935
Jeongan 938–986
Dynastic period
Goryeo 918–1392
Tamna (Vassal of Goryeo) 938–1105
Heungyo 1029–1030
Joseon 1392–1897
Korean Empire 1897–1910
Colonial period
Japanese occupation 1910–1945
Provisional Government 1919–1948
Modern period
Military governments 1945–1948
North-South division 1945–present
* North 1948–present
* South 1948–present
By topic
Timeline
map Korea portal

The military history of Goguryeo involves wars with other Korean kingdoms, Chinese dynasties, nomadic states and tribes, and Wa Japan. Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state; it was a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia, until it was defeated by a SillaTang alliance in 668 after prolonged exhaustion and internal strife caused by the death of Yeon Gaesomun.

Conflicts with other Korean states

Baekje

Goguryeo and Baekje were two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea; both claimed descent from the ancient Korean kingdom of Buyeo. Onjo, the founder of Baekje, was said to be the second son of Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo. Despite the common ancestry, the relationship between Goguryeo and Baekje was often contentious.

During the 4th century, Geunchogo expanded Baekje's territory to the north at the expense of Goguryeo. In 369, Gogukwon, the monarch of Goguryeo, attacked Baekje with 20,000 troops, but was defeated by Crown Prince Geungusu at the Battle of Chiyang. In 371, Geungusu led 30,000 troops and attacked the fortress of Pyongyang, slaying Gogukwon in battle. Baekje was a powerful maritime nation whose influence extended across the sea to Liaoxi and Shandong in China, taking advantage of the weakened state of Former Qin, and to Kyushu in the Japanese archipelago.

Gogukyang, a son of Gogukwon, invaded Baekje in 386.

Goguryeo at its height in 476 CE.

In 392, Gwanggaeto the Great led an attack on Baekje with 40,000 troops, capturing 10 walled cities. In response, Asin, the monarch of Baekje, launched a counterattack on Goguryeo in 393 but was defeated. Asin invaded Goguryeo once more in 394, but was defeated again. After suffering multiple defeats against Goguryeo, Baekje's political stability began to crumble. In 395, Baekje was defeated once more by Goguryeo and was pushed south to its capital of Wiryeseong on the Han River. In the following year, in 396, Gwanggaeto led an assault on Wiryeseong by land and sea, using the Han River, and triumphed over Baekje. Gwanggaeto captured the Baekje capital and the defeated Asin submitted to him, surrendering a prince and 10 government ministers. Henceforth, Baekje lost its dominance in the central Korean peninsula and declined.

In 400, Silla requested aid from Goguryeo in repelling an allied invasion by Baekje, Gaya, and Wa. Gwanggaeto dispatched 50,000 troops and annihilated the enemy coalition.

In 433, Baekje and Silla formed an alliance (Hangul: 나제동맹, Hanja: 羅濟同盟) to balance the Goguryeo threat to the north.

In 472, Gaero, the ruler of Baekje, requested a military alliance with Northern Wei against Goguryeo, but was unsuccessful. In 475, Jangsu, the son of Gwanggaeto, launched an invasion by land and sea against Baekje, and captured the capital of Wiryeseong and executed Gaero. Baekje had no choice but to move its capital to mountainous Ungjin (present-day Gongju), 80 miles to the south, which provided a natural protection for the devastated kingdom.

In 479, Baekje and Silla reaffirmed their alliance through marriage, which was the primary reason why Goguryeo was unable to conquer the entire peninsula.

In 551, a Baekje–Silla alliance attacked Goguryeo in order to capture the important Han River region from Goguryeo, planning to split it between them. In 553, Baekje gained the critical region after expending itself with a series of costly assaults on Goguryeo fortresses, but Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked the exhausted Baekje troops and took possession of the entire Han River region, leading to a war between the two former allies in which the Baekje monarch was killed.

Baekje attacked Silla in 612, 624, and 627. Goguryeo and Baekje formed an alliance (Hangul: 여제동맹, Hanja: 麗濟同盟) in 642 aimed toward territorial restoration against Silla. King Uija of Baekje attacked Silla and captured around 40 strongpoints in 642, and 7 more fortresses in 645. In 655, the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance captured 30 fortresses from Silla.

Silla

In 245, Dongcheon ordered an attack on Silla, but the two kingdoms entered into friendly relations in 248.

Nulji, the king of Silla, who had been a vassal of Jangsu, broke off relations with Goguryeo in 454. Jangsu invaded Silla in 468, expanding his domain into parts of Gangwon Province, and again in 489, capturing 7 walled cities and expanding his domain into parts of North Gyeongsang Province.

Silla emerged as a major player in the Korean Peninsula after its betrayal of Baekje and conquest of the Han River region from Goguryeo in 553, but Goguryeo and Baekje applied political, military, and economic pressure against Silla. In 643, under attack by the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, the Silla court dispatched Kim Chunchu to the Tang dynasty to request military assistance, leading to Emperor Taizong's campaign against Goguryeo.

In 660, Goguryeo's ally, Baekje, fell to the Silla–Tang alliance; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years but could not defeat Yeon Gaesomun. However, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and civil war ensued among his three sons, leading the Silla–Tang alliance to launch a fresh invasion. In November 668, King Bojang surrendered to the Silla–Tang alliance and Goguryeo finally fell.

Conflicts with Chinese states

Han dynasty

See also: Battle of Jwawon

Goguryeo became a significant independent kingdom in the first century, and began expanding its power in the region. Taejodae conquered neighboring Okjeo and Dongye, and made repeated attacks against the Chinese commanderies and incursions into Liaodong, which would be continued by his successors.

Liaodong Commandery

The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong Commandery to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord Gongsun Kang established the Daifang Commandery by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. In 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo. Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley near Hwando.

Cao Wei

Main article: Goguryeo–Wei War

In 244, Guanqiu Jian, a general of Han's successor state Cao Wei, defeated Dongcheon and briefly occupied and sacked Goguryeo's capital.

Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok; according to the Samguk Sagi, Jungcheon assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies.

Lelang commandery

As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong Peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and annexed by Micheon in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold. This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years.

Former Yan

During the winter of 342, the Xianbei of Former Yan, ruled by the Murong clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking the queen mother and queen prisoner and exhuming the body of Micheon, and forced Gogukwon to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula.

Later Yan

In 385, Gogukyang, the son of Gogukwon, invaded and defeated Later Yan, the successor state of Former Yan.

In 400, the Xianbei state of Later Yan, founded by the Murong clan in present-day Liaoning, attacked Goguryeo. Gwanggaeto the Great repulsed the enemy troops. In 402, Gwanggaeto retaliated and conquered the prominent fortress called 宿軍城 near the capital of Later Yan. In 405 and again in 406, Later Yan troops attacked Goguryeo fortresses in Liaodong (遼東城 in 405, and 木底城 in 406), but was defeated both times. Gwanggaeto conquered all of Liaodong. By conquering Liaodong, Gwanggaeto recovered the ancient domain of Gojoseon; Goguryeo controlled Liaodong until the mid-late 7th century.

Sui dynasty

Eulji Mundeok
Main article: Goguryeo–Sui War

In 589, the Northern and Southern dynasties period ended and the Sui dynasty unified China after four centuries of fragmentation. The Sui Empire reconquered Vietnam and defeated Champa, sacking its capital, and conquered important lands in northern China and Central Asia against Turks, Tibetans and proto-Mongolians.

In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on Liaoxi, leading Emperor Wen to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui.

In 612, Emperor Yang mobilized a huge force said to number over a million men and invaded Goguryeo. Unable to overcome the defenses of Yodong (Liaodong) Fortress, Emperor Yang ordered 305,000 troops to attack the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang. However, General Eulji Mundeok baited the Sui troops and annihilated them at the Battle of Salsu; according to Chinese historical records: of the 305,000 Sui troops, a mere 2,700 returned. Emperor Yang lifted his siege of the Korean fortress and withdrew his forces back to China.

Emperor Yang was obsessed with defeating Goguryeo. He attacked Goguryeo again in 613 and 614, but failed against Goguryeo's defensive strategies, fierce resistance, and able leadership; furthermore, his campaign in 613 was cut short by internal discontent and floods back home. Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty.

Tang dynasty

Main articles: First campaign in the Goguryeo–Tang War and Goguryeo–Tang War
Korean ambassadors during an audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. They are identified by the two feathers on top of their head. 648-651 CE, Afrasiyab murals, Samarkand.

Emperor Taizong ascended the Tang throne in 626, and led many successful military campaigns. In 630, Emperor Taizong defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, an ally of Goguryeo, bringing much of Central Asia under Tang control; he then conquered the Tarim Basin, and defeated the Tibetan Empire in 640. In 643, Queen Seondeok of Silla requested military aid against the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance. Tang forged an alliance with Silla, and began preparations for a major campaign against Goguryeo in 644.

In 645, Emperor Taizong personally led a campaign against Goguryeo by land and sea with 113,000 Tang troops plus an unspecified number of tribal auxiliaries. His noted army captured a number of Goguryeo border fortresses, including the potent Yodong (Liaodong) Fortress, which had repulsed Emperor Yang in 612 and 613. Arriving outside Ansi Fortress on July 18, Emperor Taizong prepared to meet an approaching relief army, said to number 150,000 men, in battle. Emperor Taizong ordered Li Shiji to bait the Koreans with 15,000 troops, while Zhangsun Wuji's concealed troops would ambush them from behind. On the following day, the two sides clashed and Emperor Taizong inflicted a crushing defeat on the confused Koreans, inflicting 20,000 casualties and capturing 36,800 prisoners. Emperor Taizong then laid siege to Ansi Fortress; his troops attacked the Korean fortress as many as six or seven times per day, but were repelled each time by the defenders. Unable to breach the adamant fortress despite months of siege, Tang eventually staked everything on the construction of a huge mound, designed to tower over the walls of the fortress; however, the defenders captured and successfully held the mound despite three days of frantic assaults by Tang troops. Furthermore, exacerbated by worsened conditions for the Tang army due to cold weather (and winter approaching) and diminishing provisions, Emperor Taizong was compelled to order a withdrawal from Goguryeo on October 13, but left behind an extravagant gift for Yang Manchun, the commander of Ansi Fortress.

Emperor Taizong attacked Goguryeo again in 647 and 648, but was unsuccessful.

Defeating Goguryeo had been an obsession with Emperor Taizong, and after his death in 649, his son Emperor Gaozong continued his ambition. Upon the suggestion of Kim Chunchu, the Silla–Tang alliance first conquered Baekje in 660 to break up the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, and then turned its full attention to Goguryeo. However, Emperor Gaozong, too, was unable to defeat Goguryeo led by Yeon Gaesomun; one of Yeon Gaesomun's most notable victories came in 662 at the Battle of Sasu (蛇水), where he annihilated the Tang forces and killed the invading general Pang Xiaotai (龐孝泰) and all 13 of his sons. Hence, while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang could not defeat Goguryeo.

Fall and aftermath

In 666 (though dates vary from 664–666), Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and a civil war ensued among his three sons. His eldest son and immediate successor, Yeon Namsaeng, defected to Tang and provided the secrets and weaknesses of Goguryeo to Emperor Gaozong, and played a critical role in the next invasion and downfall of Goguryeo. Yeon Gaesomun's second son, Yeon Namgeon, resisted in the face of death, as opposed to his brother's treachery, and fought until the very end. Meanwhile, Yeon Gaesomun's younger brother, Yeon Jeongto, defected to the Silla side.

The Tang–Silla alliance mounted a fresh invasion of Goguryeo in 667, aided by the defector Yeon Namsaeng, and in 668, finally vanquished the divided kingdom, which had been plagued by violent dissension, numerous defections, and widespread demoralization following the death of Yeon Gaesomun.

Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on Tang China had its price. Tang China attempted to impose its rule over the entire Korean peninsula, but Silla, aided by Goguryeo and Baekje refugees, forcibly resisted and expelled Tang. However, Silla's unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea was short-lived because the former Goguryeo general Dae Joyeong led remnants of Goguryeo, united with the Mohe people, and established Balhae, a successor of Goguryeo. Balhae eventually reconquered and retained much of Goguryeo's former territory.

The Tang dynasty Goguryeo general Gao Juren ordered a mass slaughter of Sogdian Caucasians from West and Central Asia, identifying them through their big noses and lances were used to impale Caucasian children when he stormed Beijing (Jicheng (Beijing)) from An Lushan when he defeated An Lushan's rebels.

Balhae became a powerful empire like its predecessor, but its eventual end came at the hands of the Khitan Empire in 926. Balhae's end was a decisive event in Northeast Asian history for it was the last Korean kingdom to hold territory in Manchuria. Goguryeo was revived once more in 918 by successor state Goryeo, founded by Wang Geon, a descendant of Goguryeo nobility. In 937, much of the ruling class and the last crown prince of collapsed Balhae fled to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included into the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo.

Conflicts with nomadic states

In 395, Gwanggaeto the Great invaded the Khitan Baili clan to the west on the Liao River, destroying 3 tribes and 600 to 700 camps.

In 398, Gwanggaeto conquered the Sushen people to the northeast, who were Tungusic ancestors of the Jurchens and Manchus.

In 479, Jangsu invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the Didouyu with his Rouran allies.

Conflicts with Japanese states

Main article: Goguryeo–Wa conflicts

In 404, Gwanggaeto defeated an attack by the Wa from the Japanese archipelago on the southern border of what was once the Daifang commandery, inflicting enormous casualties on the enemy.

See also

References

  1. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  2. Walker, Hugh Dyson (November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 104. ISBN 9781477265161. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  3. Roberts, John Morris; Westad, Odd Arne (2013). The History of the World. Oxford University Press. p. 443. ISBN 9780199936762. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
  4. Gardner, Hall (27 November 2007). Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 158–159. ISBN 9780230608733. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
  5. Laet, Sigfried J. de (1994). History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. UNESCO. p. 1133. ISBN 9789231028137. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
  6. Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. pp. 6–7. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  7. ^ Graff, David (2 September 2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 200. ISBN 9781134553532. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
  8. Lee, Kenneth B. (1997). Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 13. ISBN 9780275958237. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  9. ^ Yu, Chai-Shin (2012). The New History of Korean Civilization. iUniverse. p. 27. ISBN 9781462055593. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  10. "치양전투". 민족문화대백과사전. Academy of Korean Studies.
  11. Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  12. A Brief History of Korea. Ewha Womans University Press. January 2005. pp. 29–30. ISBN 9788973006199. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  13. ^ "국양왕". KOCCA. Korea Creative Content Agency. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  14. ^ "King Gogukyang". KBS World Radio. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  15. ^ 이윤섭 (7 March 2014). 광개토대왕과 장수왕 (in Korean). ebookspub(이북스펍). pp. 89–91. ISBN 9791155191323. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  16. "King Gwanggaeto the Great (1)". KBS World Radio. Korea Communications Commission. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
  17. Yi, Hyun-hui; Pak, Song-su; Yun, Nae-hyon (2005). New History of Korea. Seoul: Jimoondang. p. 170. ISBN 8988095855.
  18. ^ Kim, Jinwung (5 November 2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0253000781. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  19. Jeon ho-tae, 〈Koguryo, the origin of Korean power & pride〉, Dongbuka History Foundation, 2007. ISBN 8991448836 p.137
  20. Institute of Korean Studies; Seoul National University (2004). "Korean studies". Seoul Journal of Korean Studies (17): 15–16.
  21. ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (12 November 2012). Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 484. ISBN 9781136639791. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  22. Kim, Bushik (1145). Samguk Sagi. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
  23. Historical Survey Society (2007). Seoul : a field guide to history (English ed.). Paju: Dolbegae Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 9788971992890.
  24. Korean Historical Research Association. (2005). A history of Korea. London: Saffron Books. p. 43. ISBN 9781872843872.
  25. "King Jangsu". KBS Radio. KBS. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
  26. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 137. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  27. Chŏng, Yang-mo; Smith, Judith G.; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.) (1998). Arts of Korea. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 25. ISBN 9780870998508. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  28. Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-0253000248. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
  29. ^ Barnes, Gina (5 November 2013). State Formation in Korea: Emerging Elites. Routledge. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9781136840975. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  30. Whiting, Marvin C. Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC-1912 AD. iUniverse. p. 257. ISBN 9780595221349. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
  31. "동천왕". 민족문화대백과사전. Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  32. "장수왕". 민족문화대백과사전. Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  33. Guo, Rongxing (29 August 2009). Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 42. ISBN 9781441908490. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  34. Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms. Vol. 30. 建安中,公孫康出軍擊之,破其國,焚燒邑落。拔奇怨爲兄而不得立,與涓奴加各將下戶三萬餘口詣康降,還住沸流水。
  35. de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms, Brill, p. 988
  36. 'Gina L. Barnes', "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, pp. 22–23'
  37. Charles Roger Tennant (1996). A history of Korea (illustrated ed.). Kegan Paul International. p. 22. ISBN 0-7103-0532-X. Retrieved 9 February 2012. Wei. In 242, under King Tongch'ŏn, they attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Yalu in an attempt to cut the land route across Liao, in return for which the Wei invaded them in 244 and sacked Hwando.
  38. Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (15 December 2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 9781107098466. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
  39. Kim Bu-sik. Samguk Sagi. Vol. 17. 十二年冬十二月王畋于杜訥之谷魏將尉遲楷名犯長陵諱將兵來伐王簡精騎五千戰於梁貊之谷敗之斬首八千餘級
  40. 'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 20
  41. ^ Tennant, Charles Roger (1996). A History of Korea. Routledge. p. 22. ISBN 9780710305329. Retrieved 10 October 2016. Soon after, the Wei fell to the Jin and Koguryŏ grew stronger, until in 313 they finally succeeded in occupying Lelang and bringing to an end the 400 years of China's presence in the peninsula, a period sufficient to ensure that for the next 1,500 it would remain firmly within the sphere of its culture. After the fall of the Jin in 316, the proto-Mongol Xianbei occupied the North of China, of which the Murong clan took the Shandong area, moved up to the Liao, and in 341 sacked and burned the Koguryŏ capital at Hwando. They took away some thousands of prisoners to provide cheap labour to build more walls of their own, and in 346 went on to wreak even greater destruction on Puyŏ, hastening what seems to have been a continuing migration of its people into the north-eastern area of the peninsula, but Koguryŏ, though temporarily weakened, would soon rebuild its walls and continue to expand.
  42. Chinul (1991). Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen. Translated by Robert E. Buswell (abridged ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 3. ISBN 0824814274. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  43. Chinul (1991). Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen. Translated by Robert E. Buswell (abridged ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 4. ISBN 0824814274. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  44. ^ 이윤섭 (7 March 2014). 광개토대왕과 장수왕 (in Korean). ebookspub(이북스펍). pp. 93–95. ISBN 9791155191323. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  45. ^ 김상훈 (22 March 2010). 통 세계사 1: 인류 탄생에서 중세 시대까지: 외우지 않고 통으로 이해하는 (in Korean). Dasan Books. ISBN 9788963702117. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  46. "King Gwanggaeto the Great (2)". KBS World Radio. Korea Communications Commission. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  47. 조한성 (6 December 2012). 역사의터닝포인트14_삼국의전성기 (in Korean). Book21 Publishing Group. ISBN 9788950944087. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  48. Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. pp. 38–40. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  49. "Sui dynasty | Chinese history". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  50. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 151. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  51. Connolly, Peter; Gillingham, Emeritus Professor of History at the London School of Economics John; Gillingham, John; Lazenby, John (13 May 2016). The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 9781135936747. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  52. Peterson, Barbara Bennett (16 September 2016). Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century. Routledge. ISBN 9781317463726. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  53. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  54. ^ White, Matthew (7 November 2011). Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 78–79. ISBN 9780393081923. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  55. Chan), 陳志海 (Warren (28 October 2015). All Kinds of Everything: From Chinese Civilization to World History (until 1912) 2nd edition (精裝本). Red Publish. p. 147. ISBN 9789888380008. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  56. Grant, Reg G. (2011). 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History. Universe Pub. p. 104. ISBN 9780789322333. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  57. (in Korean) "Battle of Salsu", Encyclopædia Britannica Korean Edition Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine
  58. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 153. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  59. ^ Bedeski, Robert (12 March 2007). Human Security and the Chinese State: Historical Transformations and the Modern Quest for Sovereignty. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 9781134125975. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  60. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 152. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  61. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. p. 106. ISBN 978-1111808150. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  62. Tanner, Harold Miles (13 March 2009). China: A History. Hackett Publishing. p. 170. ISBN 978-0872209152. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  63. ^ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. p. 106. ISBN 978-1111808150. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  64. Library, British (2004). The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. Serindia Publications, Inc. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-932476-13-2.
  65. Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
  66. Grenet, Frantz (2004). "Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole". Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales. 5/6: Fig. C.
  67. Tucker, Spencer C. (23 December 2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 406. ISBN 9781851096725. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  68. Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 160. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  69. ^ Graff, David (2 September 2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 9781134553532. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  70. ^ Graff, David (2 September 2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 197. ISBN 9781134553532. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  71. Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  72. ^ Graff, David (2 September 2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 198. ISBN 9781134553532. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  73. Lee, Kenneth B. (1997). Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 16. ISBN 9780275958237. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
  74. Tucker, Spencer C. (23 December 2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 406. ISBN 9781851096725. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  75. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. p. 106. ISBN 978-1111808150. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  76. Guo, Rongxing (29 August 2009). Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 42. ISBN 9781441908490. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  77. Chen, Jack Wei (2010). The Poetics of Sovereignty: On Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty. Harvard University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9780674056084. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  78. Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 161. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  79. ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (12 November 2012). Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 486. ISBN 9781136639791. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
  80. Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (15 December 2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9781107098466. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
  81. 이희진 (2 September 2013). 옆으로 읽는 동아시아 삼국지 1 (in Korean). EASTASIA. ISBN 9788962620726. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  82. "통일기". 한국콘텐츠진흥원. Korea Creative Content Agency. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  83. 김용만 (1998). 고구려의발견: 새로쓰는고구려문명사 (in Korean). 바다출판사. p. 486. ISBN 9788987180212. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  84. 보장왕(상) - 삼국사기 고구려본기 - 디지털한국학
  85. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 67. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 5 August 2016. Loath to let slip such an opportunity, T'ang mounted a fresh invasion under Li Chi in 667 and Silla launched a coordinated offensive. This time the T'ang army received every possible assistance from the defector Namsaeng, and although Koguryŏ continued to hold out for another year, the end finally came in 668.
  86. Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 164. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
  87. Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (15 December 2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN 9781107098466. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  88. Hansen, Valerie (2003). "New Work on the Sogdians, the Most Important Traders on the Silk Road, A.D. 500-1000". T'oung Pao. 89 (1/3): 158. doi:10.1163/156853203322691347. JSTOR 4528925.
  89. Hansen, Valerie (2015). "CHAPTER 5 The Cosmopolitan Terminus of the Silk Road". The Silk Road: A New History (illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-0190218423.
  90. Rossabi, Morris (20 May 1983). China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries. University of California Press. p. 323. ISBN 9780520045620. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  91. Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 103. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  92. Kim, Djun Kil (30 January 2005). The History of Korea. ABC-CLIO. p. 57. ISBN 9780313038532. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  93. Grayson, James H. (5 November 2013). Korea - A Religious History. Routledge. p. 79. ISBN 9781136869259. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  94. Ryu, Howard Jisoo (12 July 2007). Orderly Korea Unification: With the Guarantee of Stability in East Asia. Xlibris Corporation. p. 145. ISBN 9781462803323. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
  95. 박, 종기 (24 August 2015). 고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다 (in Korean). 휴머니스트. ISBN 9788958629023. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
  96. Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 103. ISBN 067461576X. When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom.
  97. Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele, ed. (1998). "Kwanggaet'o". Encyclopedia of World Biography: Kilpatrick-Louis. Gale Research. p. 94.
  98. Holcombe, Charles (2001). The Genesis of East Asia : 221 B.C. - A.D. 907. Honolulu: Associate for Asian Studies p. 174. ISBN 9780824824655. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
  99. Walker, Hugh Dyson (November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 137. ISBN 9781477265161. Retrieved 29 July 2016. He also conquered Sushen tribes in the northeast, Tungusic ancestors of the Jurcid and Manchus who later ruled Chinese "barbarian conquest dynasties" during the twelfth and seventeenth centuries.
  100. 한나절에 읽는 백제의 역사 (in Korean). ebookspub(이북스펍). 4 October 2014. ISBN 9791155191965. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  101. Kamstra, Jacques H. Encounter Or Syncretism: The Initial Growth of Japanese Buddhism. p. 38.
  102. Batten, Bruce Loyd. Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War And Peace, 500-1300. p. 16.

Further reading

  • Graff, David A. (2002). Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23954-0.
Categories: