Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 04:54, 16 August 2024

Part of a series on the
History of Korea
Prehistoric period Palaeolithic 700,000 BC-8000 BC Neolithic 8000 BC–1500 BC * Jeulmun Bronze Age 1500 BC–300 BC * Mumun * Liaoning dagger
Ancient period Gojoseon 2333 BC–108 BC * Dangun * Gija * Wiman Jin 4th–2nd century BC Yemaek
Proto–Three Kingdoms period Takri Dongye Buyeo Eastern Galsa Okjeo Samhan Ma Byeon Jin Goguryeo Tamna Nakrang Four Commanderies of Han
Three Kingdoms period Goguryeo 37 BC–668 AD Baekje 18 BC–660 AD Silla 57 BC–935 AD Gaya confederacy 42–562 Tamna (Tributary of Baekje) 498–660 Usan 512–930
Northern and Southern period United Silla (Unified Silla) 668–892 Balhae 698–926 Little Goguryeo 699–820 Tamna (Tributary of Silla) 662–925
Later Three Kingdoms period Later Baekje 892–936 Taebong (Later Goguryeo) 901–918 Unified Silla (Later Silla) 892–935 Later Sabeol 919–927 Dongdan Kingdom 926–936 Later Balhae 927–935 Jeongan 938–986
Dynastic period Goryeo 918–1392 Tamna (Vassal of Goryeo) 938–1105 Heungyo 1029–1030 Joseon 1392–1897 Korean Empire 1897–1910
Colonial period Japanese occupation 1910–1945 Provisional Government 1919–1948
Modern period Military governments 1945–1948 North-South division 1945–present * North 1948–present * South 1948–present
By topic Architecture Art Cuisine Currency Education Geography Historiography Language Military (List · Goguryeo) Monarchs (Family tree) Names (Era names) Naval Newspapers Politics (Joseon · North · South) Religion Buddhism Christianity Islam Science and technology Women World Heritage Sites (North · South)
Timeline
Korea portal
v t e

The military history of Goguryeo involves wars with other Korean kingdoms, Chinese dynasties, nomadic states and tribes, and Wa Japan. Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state; it was a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia, until it was defeated by a Silla–Tang alliance in 668 after prolonged exhaustion and internal strife caused by the death of Yeon Gaesomun.

Conflicts with other Korean states

Baekje

Goguryeo and Baekje were two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea; both claimed descent from the ancient Korean kingdom of Buyeo. Onjo, the founder of Baekje, was said to be the second son of Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo. Despite the common ancestry, the relationship between Goguryeo and Baekje was often contentious.

During the 4th century, Geunchogo expanded Baekje's territory to the north at the expense of Goguryeo. In 369, Gogukwon, the monarch of Goguryeo, attacked Baekje with 20,000 troops, but was defeated by Crown Prince Geungusu at the Battle of Chiyang. In 371, Geungusu led 30,000 troops and attacked the fortress of Pyongyang, slaying Gogukwon in battle. Baekje was a powerful maritime nation whose influence extended across the sea to Liaoxi and Shandong in China, taking advantage of the weakened state of Former Qin, and to Kyushu in the Japanese archipelago.

Gogukyang, a son of Gogukwon, invaded Baekje in 386.

In 392, Gwanggaeto the Great led an attack on Baekje with 40,000 troops, capturing 10 walled cities. In response, Asin, the monarch of Baekje, launched a counterattack on Goguryeo in 393 but was defeated. Asin invaded Goguryeo once more in 394, but was defeated again. After suffering multiple defeats against Goguryeo, Baekje's political stability began to crumble. In 395, Baekje was defeated once more by Goguryeo and was pushed south to its capital of Wiryeseong on the Han River. In the following year, in 396, Gwanggaeto led an assault on Wiryeseong by land and sea, using the Han River, and triumphed over Baekje. Gwanggaeto captured the Baekje capital and the defeated Asin submitted to him, surrendering a prince and 10 government ministers. Henceforth, Baekje lost its dominance in the central Korean peninsula and declined.

In 400, Silla requested aid from Goguryeo in repelling an allied invasion by Baekje, Gaya, and Wa. Gwanggaeto dispatched 50,000 troops and annihilated the enemy coalition.

In 433, Baekje and Silla formed an alliance (Hangul: 나제동맹, Hanja: 羅濟同盟) to balance the Goguryeo threat to the north.

In 472, Gaero, the ruler of Baekje, requested a military alliance with Northern Wei against Goguryeo, but was unsuccessful. In 475, Jangsu, the son of Gwanggaeto, launched an invasion by land and sea against Baekje, and captured the capital of Wiryeseong and executed Gaero. Baekje had no choice but to move its capital to mountainous Ungjin (present-day Gongju), 80 miles to the south, which provided a natural protection for the devastated kingdom.

In 479, Baekje and Silla reaffirmed their alliance through marriage, which was the primary reason why Goguryeo was unable to conquer the entire peninsula.

In 551, a Baekje–Silla alliance attacked Goguryeo in order to capture the important Han River region from Goguryeo, planning to split it between them. In 553, Baekje gained the critical region after expending itself with a series of costly assaults on Goguryeo fortresses, but Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked the exhausted Baekje troops and took possession of the entire Han River region, leading to a war between the two former allies in which the Baekje monarch was killed.

Baekje attacked Silla in 612, 624, and 627. Goguryeo and Baekje formed an alliance (Hangul: 여제동맹, Hanja: 麗濟同盟) in 642 aimed toward territorial restoration against Silla. King Uija of Baekje attacked Silla and captured around 40 strongpoints in 642, and 7 more fortresses in 645. In 655, the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance captured 30 fortresses from Silla.

Silla

In 245, Dongcheon ordered an attack on Silla, but the two kingdoms entered into friendly relations in 248.

Nulji, the king of Silla, who had been a vassal of Jangsu, broke off relations with Goguryeo in 454. Jangsu invaded Silla in 468, expanding his domain into parts of Gangwon Province, and again in 489, capturing 7 walled cities and expanding his domain into parts of North Gyeongsang Province.

Silla emerged as a major player in the Korean Peninsula after its betrayal of Baekje and conquest of the Han River region from Goguryeo in 553, but Goguryeo and Baekje applied political, military, and economic pressure against Silla. In 643, under attack by the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, the Silla court dispatched Kim Chunchu to the Tang dynasty to request military assistance, leading to Emperor Taizong's campaign against Goguryeo.

In 660, Goguryeo's ally, Baekje, fell to the Silla–Tang alliance; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years but could not defeat Yeon Gaesomun. However, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and civil war ensued among his three sons, leading the Silla–Tang alliance to launch a fresh invasion. In November 668, King Bojang surrendered to the Silla–Tang alliance and Goguryeo finally fell.

Conflicts with Chinese states

Han dynasty

Goguryeo became a significant independent kingdom in the first century, and began expanding its power in the region. Taejodae conquered neighboring Okjeo and Dongye, and made repeated attacks against the Chinese commanderies and incursions into Liaodong, which would be continued by his successors.

Liaodong Commandery

The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong Commandery to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord Gongsun Kang established the Daifang Commandery by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. In 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo. Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley near Hwando.

Cao Wei

In 244, Guanqiu Jian, a general of Han's successor state Cao Wei, defeated Dongcheon and briefly occupied and sacked Goguryeo's capital.

Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok; according to the Samguk Sagi, Jungcheon assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies.

Lelang commandery

As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong Peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and annexed by Micheon in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold. This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years.

Former Yan

During the winter of 342, the Xianbei of Former Yan, ruled by the Murong clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking the queen mother and queen prisoner and exhuming the body of Micheon, and forced Gogukwon to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula.

Later Yan

In 385, Gogukyang, the son of Gogukwon, invaded and defeated Later Yan, the successor state of Former Yan.

In 400, the Xianbei state of Later Yan, founded by the Murong clan in present-day Liaoning, attacked Goguryeo. Gwanggaeto the Great repulsed the enemy troops. In 402, Gwanggaeto retaliated and conquered the prominent fortress called 宿軍城 near the capital of Later Yan. In 405 and again in 406, Later Yan troops attacked Goguryeo fortresses in Liaodong (遼東城 in 405, and 木底城 in 406), but was defeated both times. Gwanggaeto conquered all of Liaodong. By conquering Liaodong, Gwanggaeto recovered the ancient domain of Gojoseon; Goguryeo controlled Liaodong until the mid-late 7th century.

Sui dynasty

In 589, the Northern and Southern dynasties period ended and the Sui dynasty unified China after four centuries of fragmentation. The Sui Empire reconquered Vietnam and defeated Champa, sacking its capital, and conquered important lands in northern China and Central Asia against Turks, Tibetans and proto-Mongolians.

In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on Liaoxi, leading Emperor Wen to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui.

In 612, Emperor Yang mobilized a huge force said to number over a million men and invaded Goguryeo. Unable to overcome the defenses of Yodong (Liaodong) Fortress, Emperor Yang ordered 305,000 troops to attack the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang. However, General Eulji Mundeok baited the Sui troops and annihilated them at the Battle of Salsu; according to Chinese historical records: of the 305,000 Sui troops, a mere 2,700 returned. Emperor Yang lifted his siege of the Korean fortress and withdrew his forces back to China.

Emperor Yang was obsessed with defeating Goguryeo. He attacked Goguryeo again in 613 and 614, but failed against Goguryeo's defensive strategies, fierce resistance, and able leadership; furthermore, his campaign in 613 was cut short by internal discontent and floods back home. Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty.

Tang dynasty

Emperor Taizong ascended the Tang throne in 626, and led many successful military campaigns. In 630, Emperor Taizong defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, an ally of Goguryeo, bringing much of Central Asia under Tang control; he then conquered the Tarim Basin, and defeated the Tibetan Empire in 640. In 643, Queen Seondeok of Silla requested military aid against the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance. Tang forged an alliance with Silla, and began preparations for a major campaign against Goguryeo in 644.

In 645, Emperor Taizong personally led a campaign against Goguryeo by land and sea with 113,000 Tang troops plus an unspecified number of tribal auxiliaries. His noted army captured a number of Goguryeo border fortresses, including the potent Yodong (Liaodong) Fortress, which had repulsed Emperor Yang in 612 and 613. Arriving outside Ansi Fortress on July 18, Emperor Taizong prepared to meet an approaching relief army, said to number 150,000 men, in battle. Emperor Taizong ordered Li Shiji to bait the Koreans with 15,000 troops, while Zhangsun Wuji's concealed troops would ambush them from behind. On the following day, the two sides clashed and Emperor Taizong inflicted a crushing defeat on the confused Koreans, inflicting 20,000 casualties and capturing 36,800 prisoners. Emperor Taizong then laid siege to Ansi Fortress; his troops attacked the Korean fortress as many as six or seven times per day, but were repelled each time by the defenders. Unable to breach the adamant fortress despite months of siege, Tang eventually staked everything on the construction of a huge mound, designed to tower over the walls of the fortress; however, the defenders captured and successfully held the mound despite three days of frantic assaults by Tang troops. Furthermore, exacerbated by worsened conditions for the Tang army due to cold weather (and winter approaching) and diminishing provisions, Emperor Taizong was compelled to order a withdrawal from Goguryeo on October 13, but left behind an extravagant gift for Yang Manchun, the commander of Ansi Fortress.

Emperor Taizong attacked Goguryeo again in 647 and 648, but was unsuccessful.

Defeating Goguryeo had been an obsession with Emperor Taizong, and after his death in 649, his son Emperor Gaozong continued his ambition. Upon the suggestion of Kim Chunchu, the Silla–Tang alliance first conquered Baekje in 660 to break up the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, and then turned its full attention to Goguryeo. However, Emperor Gaozong, too, was unable to defeat Goguryeo led by Yeon Gaesomun; one of Yeon Gaesomun's most notable victories came in 662 at the Battle of Sasu (蛇水), where he annihilated the Tang forces and killed the invading general Pang Xiaotai (龐孝泰) and all 13 of his sons. Hence, while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang could not defeat Goguryeo.

Fall and aftermath

In 666 (though dates vary from 664–666), Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and a civil war ensued among his three sons. His eldest son and immediate successor, Yeon Namsaeng, defected to Tang and provided the secrets and weaknesses of Goguryeo to Emperor Gaozong, and played a critical role in the next invasion and downfall of Goguryeo. Yeon Gaesomun's second son, Yeon Namgeon, resisted in the face of death, as opposed to his brother's treachery, and fought until the very end. Meanwhile, Yeon Gaesomun's younger brother, Yeon Jeongto, defected to the Silla side.

The Tang–Silla alliance mounted a fresh invasion of Goguryeo in 667, aided by the defector Yeon Namsaeng, and in 668, finally vanquished the divided kingdom, which had been plagued by violent dissension, numerous defections, and widespread demoralization following the death of Yeon Gaesomun.

Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on Tang China had its price. Tang China attempted to impose its rule over the entire Korean peninsula, but Silla, aided by Goguryeo and Baekje refugees, forcibly resisted and expelled Tang. However, Silla's unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea was short-lived because the former Goguryeo general Dae Joyeong led remnants of Goguryeo, united with the Mohe people, and established Balhae, a successor of Goguryeo. Balhae eventually reconquered and retained much of Goguryeo's former territory.

The Tang dynasty Goguryeo general Gao Juren ordered a mass slaughter of Sogdian Caucasians from West and Central Asia, identifying them through their big noses and lances were used to impale Caucasian children when he stormed Beijing (Jicheng (Beijing)) from An Lushan when he defeated An Lushan's rebels.

Balhae became a powerful empire like its predecessor, but its eventual end came at the hands of the Khitan Empire in 926. Balhae's end was a decisive event in Northeast Asian history for it was the last Korean kingdom to hold territory in Manchuria. Goguryeo was revived once more in 918 by successor state Goryeo, founded by Wang Geon, a descendant of Goguryeo nobility. In 937, much of the ruling class and the last crown prince of collapsed Balhae fled to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included into the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo.

Conflicts with nomadic states

In 395, Gwanggaeto the Great invaded the Khitan Baili clan to the west on the Liao River, destroying 3 tribes and 600 to 700 camps.

In 398, Gwanggaeto conquered the Sushen people to the northeast, who were Tungusic ancestors of the Jurchens and Manchus.

In 479, Jangsu invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the Didouyu with his Rouran allies.

Conflicts with Japanese states

In 404, Gwanggaeto defeated an attack by the Wa from the Japanese archipelago on the southern border of what was once the Daifang commandery, inflicting enormous casualties on the enemy.

See also

• History of Korea
• Military history of Korea

References

1. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
2. Walker, Hugh Dyson (November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 104. ISBN 9781477265161. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
3. Roberts, John Morris; Westad, Odd Arne (2013). The History of the World. Oxford University Press. p. 443. ISBN 9780199936762. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
4. Gardner, Hall (27 November 2007). Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 158–159. ISBN 9780230608733. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
5. Laet, Sigfried J. de (1994). History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. UNESCO. p. 1133. ISBN 9789231028137. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
6. Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. pp. 6–7. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
7. ^ Graff, David (2 September 2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 200. ISBN 9781134553532. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
8. Lee, Kenneth B. (1997). Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 13. ISBN 9780275958237. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
9. ^ Yu, Chai-Shin (2012). The New History of Korean Civilization. iUniverse. p. 27. ISBN 9781462055593. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
10. "치양전투". 민족문화대백과사전. Academy of Korean Studies.
11. Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
12. A Brief History of Korea. Ewha Womans University Press. January 2005. pp. 29–30. ISBN 9788973006199. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
13. ^ "국양왕". KOCCA. Korea Creative Content Agency. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
14. ^ "King Gogukyang". KBS World Radio. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
15. ^ 이윤섭 (7 March 2014). 광개토대왕과 장수왕 (in Korean). ebookspub(이북스펍). pp. 89–91. ISBN 9791155191323. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
16. "King Gwanggaeto the Great (1)". KBS World Radio. Korea Communications Commission. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
17. Yi, Hyun-hui; Pak, Song-su; Yun, Nae-hyon (2005). New History of Korea. Seoul: Jimoondang. p. 170. ISBN 8988095855.
18. ^ Kim, Jinwung (5 November 2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0253000781. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
19. Jeon ho-tae, 〈Koguryo, the origin of Korean power & pride〉, Dongbuka History Foundation, 2007. ISBN 8991448836 p.137
20. Institute of Korean Studies; Seoul National University (2004). "Korean studies". Seoul Journal of Korean Studies (17): 15–16.
21. ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (12 November 2012). Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 484. ISBN 9781136639791. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
22. Kim, Bushik (1145). Samguk Sagi. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
23. Historical Survey Society (2007). Seoul : a field guide to history (English ed.). Paju: Dolbegae Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 9788971992890.
24. Korean Historical Research Association. (2005). A history of Korea. London: Saffron Books. p. 43. ISBN 9781872843872.
25. "King Jangsu". KBS Radio. KBS. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
26. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 137. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
27. Chŏng, Yang-mo; Smith, Judith G.; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.) (1998). Arts of Korea. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 25. ISBN 9780870998508. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
28. Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-0253000248. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
29. ^ Barnes, Gina (5 November 2013). State Formation in Korea: Emerging Elites. Routledge. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9781136840975. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
30. Whiting, Marvin C. Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC-1912 AD. iUniverse. p. 257. ISBN 9780595221349. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
31. "동천왕". 민족문화대백과사전. Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
32. "장수왕". 민족문화대백과사전. Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
33. Guo, Rongxing (29 August 2009). Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 42. ISBN 9781441908490. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
34. Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms. Vol. 30. 建安中，公孫康出軍擊之，破其國，焚燒邑落。拔奇怨爲兄而不得立，與涓奴加各將下戶三萬餘口詣康降，還住沸流水。
35. de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms, Brill, p. 988
36. 'Gina L. Barnes', "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, pp. 22–23'
37. Charles Roger Tennant (1996). A history of Korea (illustrated ed.). Kegan Paul International. p. 22. ISBN 0-7103-0532-X. Retrieved 9 February 2012. Wei. In 242, under King Tongch'ŏn, they attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Yalu in an attempt to cut the land route across Liao, in return for which the Wei invaded them in 244 and sacked Hwando.
38. Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (15 December 2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 9781107098466. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
39. Kim Bu-sik. Samguk Sagi. Vol. 17. 十二年冬十二月王畋于杜訥之谷魏將尉遲楷名犯長陵諱將兵來伐王簡精騎五千戰於梁貊之谷敗之斬首八千餘級
40. 'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 20
41. ^ Tennant, Charles Roger (1996). A History of Korea. Routledge. p. 22. ISBN 9780710305329. Retrieved 10 October 2016. Soon after, the Wei fell to the Jin and Koguryŏ grew stronger, until in 313 they finally succeeded in occupying Lelang and bringing to an end the 400 years of China's presence in the peninsula, a period sufficient to ensure that for the next 1,500 it would remain firmly within the sphere of its culture. After the fall of the Jin in 316, the proto-Mongol Xianbei occupied the North of China, of which the Murong clan took the Shandong area, moved up to the Liao, and in 341 sacked and burned the Koguryŏ capital at Hwando. They took away some thousands of prisoners to provide cheap labour to build more walls of their own, and in 346 went on to wreak even greater destruction on Puyŏ, hastening what seems to have been a continuing migration of its people into the north-eastern area of the peninsula, but Koguryŏ, though temporarily weakened, would soon rebuild its walls and continue to expand.
42. Chinul (1991). Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen. Translated by Robert E. Buswell (abridged ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 3. ISBN 0824814274. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
43. Chinul (1991). Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen. Translated by Robert E. Buswell (abridged ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 4. ISBN 0824814274. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
44. ^ 이윤섭 (7 March 2014). 광개토대왕과 장수왕 (in Korean). ebookspub(이북스펍). pp. 93–95. ISBN 9791155191323. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
45. ^ 김상훈 (22 March 2010). 통 세계사 1: 인류 탄생에서 중세 시대까지: 외우지 않고 통으로 이해하는 (in Korean). Dasan Books. ISBN 9788963702117. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
46. "King Gwanggaeto the Great (2)". KBS World Radio. Korea Communications Commission. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
47. 조한성 (6 December 2012). 역사의터닝포인트14_삼국의전성기 (in Korean). Book21 Publishing Group. ISBN 9788950944087. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
48. Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. pp. 38–40. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
49. "Sui dynasty | Chinese history". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
50. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 151. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
51. Connolly, Peter; Gillingham, Emeritus Professor of History at the London School of Economics John; Gillingham, John; Lazenby, John (13 May 2016). The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 9781135936747. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
52. Peterson, Barbara Bennett (16 September 2016). Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century. Routledge. ISBN 9781317463726. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
53. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
54. ^ White, Matthew (7 November 2011). Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 78–79. ISBN 9780393081923. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
55. Chan), 陳志海 (Warren (28 October 2015). All Kinds of Everything: From Chinese Civilization to World History (until 1912) 2nd edition (精裝本). Red Publish. p. 147. ISBN 9789888380008. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
56. Grant, Reg G. (2011). 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History. Universe Pub. p. 104. ISBN 9780789322333. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
57. (in Korean) "Battle of Salsu", Encyclopædia Britannica Korean Edition Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine
58. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 153. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
59. ^ Bedeski, Robert (12 March 2007). Human Security and the Chinese State: Historical Transformations and the Modern Quest for Sovereignty. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 9781134125975. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
60. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 152. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
61. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. p. 106. ISBN 978-1111808150. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
62. Tanner, Harold Miles (13 March 2009). China: A History. Hackett Publishing. p. 170. ISBN 978-0872209152. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
63. ^ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. p. 106. ISBN 978-1111808150. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
64. Library, British (2004). The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. Serindia Publications, Inc. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-932476-13-2.
65. Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
66. Grenet, Frantz (2004). "Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole". Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales. 5/6: Fig. C.
67. Tucker, Spencer C. (23 December 2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 406. ISBN 9781851096725. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
68. Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 160. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
69. ^ Graff, David (2 September 2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 9781134553532. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
70. ^ Graff, David (2 September 2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 197. ISBN 9781134553532. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
71. Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
72. ^ Graff, David (2 September 2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900. Routledge. p. 198. ISBN 9781134553532. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
73. Lee, Kenneth B. (1997). Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 16. ISBN 9780275958237. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
74. Tucker, Spencer C. (23 December 2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. p. 406. ISBN 9781851096725. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
75. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. p. 106. ISBN 978-1111808150. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
76. Guo, Rongxing (29 August 2009). Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 42. ISBN 9781441908490. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
77. Chen, Jack Wei (2010). The Poetics of Sovereignty: On Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty. Harvard University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9780674056084. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
78. Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 161. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
79. ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (12 November 2012). Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 486. ISBN 9781136639791. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
80. Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (15 December 2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9781107098466. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
81. 이희진 (2 September 2013). 옆으로 읽는 동아시아 삼국지 1 (in Korean). EASTASIA. ISBN 9788962620726. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
82. "통일기". 한국콘텐츠진흥원. Korea Creative Content Agency. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
83. 김용만 (1998). 고구려의발견: 새로쓰는고구려문명사 (in Korean). 바다출판사. p. 486. ISBN 9788987180212. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
84. 보장왕(상) - 삼국사기 고구려본기 - 디지털한국학
85. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 67. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 5 August 2016. Loath to let slip such an opportunity, T'ang mounted a fresh invasion under Li Chi in 667 and Silla launched a coordinated offensive. This time the T'ang army received every possible assistance from the defector Namsaeng, and although Koguryŏ continued to hold out for another year, the end finally came in 668.
86. Walker, Hugh Dyson (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 164. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
87. Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (15 December 2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN 9781107098466. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
88. Hansen, Valerie (2003). "New Work on the Sogdians, the Most Important Traders on the Silk Road, A.D. 500-1000". T'oung Pao. 89 (1/3): 158. doi:10.1163/156853203322691347. JSTOR 4528925.
89. Hansen, Valerie (2015). "CHAPTER 5 The Cosmopolitan Terminus of the Silk Road". The Silk Road: A New History (illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-0190218423.
90. Rossabi, Morris (20 May 1983). China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries. University of California Press. p. 323. ISBN 9780520045620. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
91. Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 103. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
92. Kim, Djun Kil (30 January 2005). The History of Korea. ABC-CLIO. p. 57. ISBN 9780313038532. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
93. Grayson, James H. (5 November 2013). Korea - A Religious History. Routledge. p. 79. ISBN 9781136869259. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
94. Ryu, Howard Jisoo (12 July 2007). Orderly Korea Unification: With the Guarantee of Stability in East Asia. Xlibris Corporation. p. 145. ISBN 9781462803323. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
95. 박, 종기 (24 August 2015). 고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다 (in Korean). 휴머니스트. ISBN 9788958629023. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
96. Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 103. ISBN 067461576X. When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom.
97. Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele, ed. (1998). "Kwanggaet'o". Encyclopedia of World Biography: Kilpatrick-Louis. Gale Research. p. 94.
98. Holcombe, Charles (2001). The Genesis of East Asia : 221 B.C. - A.D. 907. Honolulu: Associate for Asian Studies p. 174. ISBN 9780824824655. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
99. Walker, Hugh Dyson (November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 137. ISBN 9781477265161. Retrieved 29 July 2016. He also conquered Sushen tribes in the northeast, Tungusic ancestors of the Jurcid and Manchus who later ruled Chinese "barbarian conquest dynasties" during the twelfth and seventeenth centuries.
100. 한나절에 읽는 백제의 역사 (in Korean). ebookspub(이북스펍). 4 October 2014. ISBN 9791155191965. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
101. Kamstra, Jacques H. Encounter Or Syncretism: The Initial Growth of Japanese Buddhism. p. 38.
102. Batten, Bruce Loyd. Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War And Peace, 500-1300. p. 16.

Further reading

• Graff, David A. (2002). Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23954-0.

• Military history of Goguryeo
• Military history of Korea