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{{Short description|Prejudice and discrimination against Jews based on race or ethnicity}}
{{Antisemitism}}
{{more citations needed|date=December 2019}}
'''Racial antisemitism''' is hatred of ]s as a racial/ethnic group, rather than hatred of ] as a religion.
]") which demonstrates purportedly typical physical features of the Jews]]
{{Antisemitism|Manifestations}}{{Discrimination sidebar|state=collapsed}}


'''Racial antisemitism''' is prejudice against ] based on a belief or assertion that Jews constitute a distinct ] that has inherent traits or characteristics that appear in some way abhorrent or inherently inferior or otherwise different from the traits or characteristics of the rest of a ]. The abhorrence may find expression in the form of discrimination, stereotypes or caricatures. Racial antisemitism may present Jews, as a group, as a threat in some way to the values or safety of a society. Racial antisemitism can seem deeper-rooted than ], because for religious antisemites conversion of Jews remains an option and once converted the "Jew" is gone. In the context of racial antisemitism Jews cannot get rid of their Jewishness.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Roots of Hate|url= https://archive.org/details/rootshateantisem00brus_487|url-access= limited |last= Brustein|first= William|publisher= ]|year=2003|pages=}}</ref>
In the context of the ], following the ] and the '']'' (the Jewish ]), Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing ], the rise of ], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews soon led to the newer, and often more virulent, racist antisemitism.


The premise of racial antisemitism is that Jews constitute a distinct racial or ] which negatively impacts gentiles. Racial antisemitism differs from ], which involves prejudice against Jews and ] on the basis of their ].<ref>, ].</ref> According to William Nichols, one can distinguish historical religious antisemitism from "the new secular ]" based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion ... a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." However, with racial antisemitism: <blockquote>Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism ... From the ] onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear.<ref>Nichols, William: p. 314.</ref></blockquote>
==Pre-19th century==


In the context of the ], with the ] (1790s onwards) and the '']'' (the Jewish ] of the 18th and 19th centuries), many Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life and the simultaneous tempering of religious antisemitism, a combination of growing ], the rise of ], resentment of the perceived socio-economic success of Jews, and the influx of ] from ] to Central Europe, soon led to the newer, and often more virulent, racist antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007171|title= Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945|website= www.ushmm.org|access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref>
Racial antisemitism existed alongside religious antisemitism since the ]. The ] (derogatively called ]s), the offspring of ]c Jews who were forced to ] to ], were always under suspicion of apostasy and were persecuted by the ] since 1478 and ] since 1536.


], the ] that ] played a role in group behavior and characteristics, was highly respected and accepted as factual between 1870 and 1940. Historian ] lists numerous influential figures such as economist ], composer ], Biblical scholar ], and historian-philosophers like ] as important figures in the rise of racial antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laqueur |first1=Walter |title=The Changing Face of Antisemitism : from Ancient Times to the Present Day |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-19-530429-9 |page=93}}</ref> This acceptance of race science made it possible for antisemites to clothe their hatred of Jews in "scientific theory" and propose grand, sweeping political solutions in coming decades, from ] to ] to mass extermination.<ref>
It was believed that many New Christians were indeed practicing their original religion in secret and, in fact, large numbers were ]. The system and ideology of ] ostracized New Christians from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity as converts. In Portugal, the legal distinction between "New" and "Old" Christians was ended through a legal decree issued by the ] in 1772.
{{Cite book|title= Roots of Hate |url= https://archive.org/details/rootshateantisem00brus_487 |url-access=limited |last=Brustein |first=William |publisher= Cambridge University Press|year=2003|pages=–96}}
</ref>


In the ] (1933–1945), Nazis extended the logic of racial antisemitism, ] which assessed the "blood" or ethnicity of people (rather than their current religious affiliations), and prescribing—purely on that basis—the subsequent fate of those so assessed. When added to its views on Jewish racial traits which Nazi pseudoscience devised, the logic of racial antisemitism led to the ] of 1941–1945 as an attempt to eradicate conjured-up "Jewish traits" from the world.
Much of the discrimination against Christians of Jewish ethnic origin ("New Christians") in Portugal and Spain was due to the fact that they were the only educated class outside of the nobility at the time. Laws against them were meant to preserve aristocratic monopoly over lucrative Crown positions and contracts. Large portions, maybe majorities, of the embryonic middle classes such as merchants and professionals, were composed of "New Christians", which supported Monarchical power against the high nobility. Thus antagonism between the educated and merchant "New Christians" and the aristocratic and landed "Old Christians" is better understood as a class struggle. Marriages between nobles and ("Old Christian") peasants were considered even more demeaning to an aristocratic lineage than marriages with "New Christians", and were consequently much rarer. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}


==''Limpieza de sangre''==
==Nationalism and antisemitism==
Throughout the ], racial antisemitism has existed alongside ] since at least the ], if not before.
Racial antisemitism was preceded, especially in Germany, by antisemitism arising from ] ]. As racial theories developed, especially from the mid nineteenth-century onwards, these nationalist ideas were subsumed within them. But their origins were quite distinct from racialism. On the one hand they derived from an exclusivist interpretation of the 'Volk' ideas of ]. This led to antisemitic writing and journalism in the second quarter of the 19th century of which ]'s '']'' (''Jewry in Music'') is perhaps the most notorious example. On the other hand, radical socialists such as ] identified Jews as being both victims and enforced perpetrators of the ] system - e.g. in his article '']''. From sources such as these, and encouraged by the broad acceptance of racial theories as the century continued, antisemitism entered the vocabularies and policies of both the right and the left in political thought.


All Jews and all people of Jewish ancestry were barred from public office, universities and many professions, a policy which was enforced for centuries after no Jews were left on the ].<ref name="Laqueur 70">{{cite book |last1=Laqueur |first1=Walter |title=The changing face of antisemitism : from ancient times to the present day |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=9780195304299 |page=70}}</ref>
==The rise of racial antisemitism==
]; he is glaring at unacceptably "racially alien" Jewish converts to Christianity.]]
Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century theories—now mostly considered as ]—that said that the Semitic peoples, including the Jews, are entirely different from the ], or ], populations, and that they can never be amalgamated with them. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their ], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic ]: greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aversion to hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, low cunning, and especially lack of ]. Later, ] propaganda also dwelt on supposed physical differences, such as the shape of the "Jewish nose." <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/story3.htm|title=How to Tell a Jew}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/education/lessonplan/english/antisemitism/antisemitism.htm|title=Education - Lesson Plan: Antisemitism}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=2614&lang=EN&type_id=2&addr=/IMAGE_TYPE/2614.JPG|title=Antisemitic Caricature: 'The Jewish Nose is Wide at the End and Looks like the Number Six '}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.somethingjewish.co.uk/articles/522_jews_and_their_noses.htm|title= Jews and their noses}}</ref>


In ] even before the ] of 1492, ] who ] to ] ('']'' in Spanish), and their descendants, were called ]. They were frequently accused of lapsing back into their former religious practices (being "]"). To isolate the ''conversos'', the Spanish nobility developed an ideology which it called "]".
While enlightened European intellectual society of that period viewed prejudice against people on account of their religion to be declassé and a sign of ignorance, because of this supposed 'scientific' connection to ] they felt fully justified in prejudice based on nationality or 'race'. In order to differentiate between the two practices, the term antisemitism was developed to refer to this 'acceptable' bias against Jews as a nationality, as distinct from the 'undesirable' prejudice against Judaism as a religion. Concurrently with this usage, ] began to use the term 'Palestinians' when referring to Jews as a people, rather than as a religious group.


The ''conversos'' were called "New Christians" in order to indicate their inferior status within society. That ideology was a form of ], because in the past, there were no grades of Christianity and converts to Christianity had equal standing with life-long Christians. Cleanliness of blood was an issue of ancestry, not an issue of personal religion. The first statute of purity of blood appeared in ] in 1449,<ref name="Chami">, Pablo A. Chami.</ref> where an anti-''converso'' riot lead to ''conversos'' being banned from most official positions. Initially these statutes were condemned by both the monarchy and the Church. However, the New Christians were later hounded and persecuted by the ] after 1478, the ] after 1536, the ] after 1570 and the ] after 1571, as well as the Inquisition in Colombia after 1610.
Actually, it is questionable whether ]s in general looked significantly different from the populations conducting "racial" antisemitism. This was especially true in places like ], ] and ] where the Jewish population tended to be more secular (or at least less Orthodox) than that of Eastern Europe, and did not wear clothing (such as a ]) that would particularly distinguish their appearance from the non-Jewish population. Many anthropologists of the time such as ] tried to use complex physical measurements like the ] and visual surveys of hair/eye color and skin tone of Jewish vs. non-Jewish European populations to prove that the notion of a separate "Jewish race" was a myth. The 19th and early 20th century view of race should be distinguished from the efforts of modern population genetics to trace the ancestry of various Jewish groups, see ].


==Concept of a "Semitic race"==
The advent of racial antisemitism was also linked to the growing sense of ] in many countries. The nationalist context viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided, a prejudice exploited by the elites of many governments.
{{main|Semitic people}}
], depicting ] as the home of the descendants of ] (Sem). Africa is ascribed to Ham and Europe to Japheth.]]
In ] ], all ]s were thought of as being the descendants of ]. By the 19th century, the term Semitic was confined to the ]s which have historically spoken ] or had origins in the ], as the Jews in Europe did. These peoples were often considered to be a distinct ]. However, some antisemitic racial theorists of the time argued that the ]s arose from the blurring of distinctions between previously separate races. This supposed process was referred to as ] by the race-theorist ].<ref name=":0" />


Gobineau himself did not consider the Semites (descendants of Shem) to be a ]. He divided people into three races: white, black, and yellow. The Semites, like the ] (and ]) came from Asia and were white. Over time, each of the groups had mixed with black blood. The Aryans had stayed pure for a longer period of time and it was not until more recent times that they had ]. It was this mixing of the races that would lead to man's downfall.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Roots of Hate|url=https://archive.org/details/rootshateantisem00brus_487|url-access=limited|last=Brustein|first=William|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|pages=}}</ref> This idea of racial "confusion" was taken up by the Nazi ideologue ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007123|title=Alfred Rosenberg|website=www.ushmm.org|access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref> It was used by the Nazis to perpetuate the idea that the Jews were going to destroy Germany.<ref name=":0" />
==Elites and the use of antisemitism==
]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!"]]
Many analysts of modern antisemitism have pointed out that its essence is ]ing: features of modernity felt by some group to be undesirable (e.g. materialism, the power of money, economic fluctuations, war, secularism, socialism, Communism, movements for racial equality, social welfare policies, etc.) are believed to be caused by the machinations of a conspiratorial people whose full loyalties are not to the national group. Traditionalists anguished at the supposedly decadent or defective nature of the modern world have sometimes been inclined to embrace such views. Some are of the opinion that many of the conservative members of the ] establishment of the ] as well as other comparable Western elites (e.g. the ]) have harbored such attitudes, and in the aftermath of the ], some antisemites have imagined world ] to be a Jewish conspiracy.<ref name=Thernstrom>Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'', Belknap Press, 1980, p. 590. ISBN 0-674-37512-2</ref>


The term semiticization was first used by Gobineau to label the blurring of racial distinctions that, in his view, had occurred in the ]. Gobineau had created an ] model of race which was based on the three distinct racial groups, but he did not give a clear account of how this division arose. When these races mixed, they caused their "]". Since the place where these three supposed races first met each other was located in the Middle East, Gobineau theorized that their mixing and dilution also occurred there, and he also theorized that Semitic peoples embodied this "confused" racial identity.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
The modern form of antisemitism is identified in the ] of the '']'' as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European ], whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society. The Jews of Europe, then recently emancipated, were relatively literate, entrepreneurial and unentangled in aristocratic patronage systems, and were therefore disproportionately represented in the ascendant ] class. As the ] (and its hangers-on) lost out to this new center of power in society, they found their scapegoat - exemplified in the work of ]. That the Jews were singled out to embody the 'problem' was, by this theory, no more than a symptom of the ]'s own prejudices concerning the importance of breeding (on which its own ] was founded).


This concept suited the interests of ], since it provided a theoretical model for the rationalization of ] antisemitism. Variations of this theory were espoused in the writings of many antisemites in the late 19th century. The ] ideologue ] developed a variant of this theory in his writings, arguing that Jewish people were not a "real" race. According to Rosenberg, their evolution resulted from the mixing of pre-existing races rather than ]. The theory of semiticization was typically associated with other longstanding racist fears about the dilution of racial differences through ], which were manifested in negative images of ] and negative images of members of other mixed groups.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
==Dreyfus affair==
] demonstrated French antisemitism.]]
The ] was a political scandal which divided ] for many years during the late 19th century. It centered on the 1894 treason conviction of ], a Jewish officer in the French army. Dreyfus was, in fact, innocent: the conviction rested on false documents, and when high-ranking officers realized this they attempted to cover up the mistakes. The writer ] exposed the affair to the general public in the literary newspaper ''L'Aurore'' (The Dawn) in a famous open letter to the ] ], titled ''J'accuse !'' (I Accuse!) on January 13, 1898.


== Rise ==
The Dreyfus Affair split France between the ''Dreyfusards'' (those supporting Alfred Dreyfus) and the ''Antidreyfusards'' (those against him). The quarrel was especially violent since it involved many issues then highly ] in a heated political climate.


Modern European antisemitism has its origins in 19th century theories—now most of them are considered ], but back then, they were accepted as credible—that said that the Semitic peoples, including the Jews, are entirely different from the ], or ], populations, and they would not be able to assimilate. In fact, these theories may extend even further back in time, at least back to ]'s 1543 treatise, '']'', in which he writes that Jews are a "base, whoring people, that is, no people of God, and their boast of ], ], and ] must be accounted as filth".<ref>Luther, Martin. ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', 154, 167, 229, cited in Michael, Robert. ''Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 111.</ref> Though many argue that Luther expressed prejudice against Judaism as a religion, not Jews as a race, Franklin Sherman, editor of the American Edition of Luther's Works, writes that "Luther's writings against the Jews…are not ‘merely a set of cool, calm and collected theological judgments. His writings are full of rage, and indeed hatred, against an identifiable human group, not just against a religious point of view."<ref>Helmut T. Lehmann, gen. ed., Luther's Works, Vol. 47: The Christian in Society IV, edited by Franklin Sherman, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971), iii.</ref> ''On the Jews and Their Lies'' was popular among supporters of the Nazi party during the early 20th century.<ref>Ellis, Marc H. "Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism" Archived 2007-07-10 at the Wayback Machine, Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004, slide 14. Also see "Nuremberg Trial Proceedings" Archived 2006-03-21 at the Wayback Machine, Vol. 12, p. 318, Avalon Project, Yale Law School, April 19, 1946.</ref>
Dreyfus was pardoned in 1899, readmitted into the army, and made a knight in the ]. An Austrian Jewish journalist named ] was assigned to report on the trial and its aftermath. The injustice of the trial and the antisemitic passions it aroused in France and elsewhere turned him into a determined and leading ]; ultimately turning the movement into an international one.


] explained that before the 1870s, the Jewish population was a defined and dethatched group amongst western society. They were given rights and civil liberties for as long as they served the state in which they lived in. However, due to their apolitical standing, they became a target and they were visible to the public eye in their position in state finance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hannaford |first=Ivan |title=Race: The History of an Idea in the West |publisher=The Woodrow Wilson Center Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780801852220 |location=Washington D.C. |pages=315 |language=en}}</ref>
==Pogroms==
] in ].]]
]s were a form of race riots, most commonly Russia and Eastern Europe, aimed specifically at Jews and often government sponsored. Pogroms became endemic during a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots that swept southern ] in 1881, after Jews were wrongly blamed for the assassination of Tsar ]. In the 1881 outbreak, thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed, many families reduced to extremes of poverty; women sexually assaulted, and large numbers of men, women, and children killed or injured in 166 Russian towns. The new tzar, ], blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a ] on Jews. Large numbers of pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit inactivity by the authorities. An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in 1903-1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead, and many more wounded. A wave of 887 pogroms in Russia and Ukraine occurred during the ], in which between 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed by riots led by various sides. About 40% by the forces were led by ] fighting for the ]; 25% by the ] and various nationalist and anarchist gangs;
17% by the ], especially forces of ]; 8.5% by the ].<ref>] ''200 Years Together''. Note: in the source the numbers don't add up to full 100%</ref>


In the view of racial antisemitism, Jews are not opposed on account of their ], instead, they are opposed on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic ]: greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aversion to hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, low cunning, and especially, lack of ]. Later, ] also dwelt on the supposed physical differences of Jews, such as the shape of the "]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/story3.htm|title=How to Tell a Jew}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/education/lessonplan/english/antisemitism/antisemitism.htm|title=Education - Lesson Plan: Antisemitism}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/education/lesson_plans/antisemitism_january27.asp|title=Antisemitic Caricature: 'The Jewish Nose is Wide at the End and Looks like the Number Six '|access-date=2014-07-06|archive-date=2018-06-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616122354/http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/education/lesson_plans/antisemitism_january27.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.somethingjewish.co.uk/articles/522_jews_and_their_noses.htm|title=Jews and their noses|access-date=2007-03-11|archive-date=2020-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331223721/http://www.somethingjewish.co.uk/articles/522_jews_and_their_noses.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
During the early to mid-1900s, pogroms also occurred in Poland, Argentina, and throughout the Arab world. Extremely deadly pogroms also occurred during ], including the Romanian ] in which 14,000 Jews were killed, and the ] in Poland which killed between 380 and 1,600 Jews. The last mass pogrom in Europe was the post-war ] of 1946.


==Antisemitic legislation== ==Racial antisemitic legislation==
] of 1935, which used a pseudo-scientific racial basis for discrimination against Jews]]
] of 1935 used a pseudo-scientific basis for racial discrimination against Jews. People with four German grandparents (white circles) were of "German blood," while people were classified as Jews if they descended from three or more Jewish grandparents (black circles in top row right). One or two Jewish grandparents made someone "mixed blood." Since the racial differences between Jews and Germans are small, the Nazis used the religious observance of a person's grandparents to determine their "race." (1935 Chart from ] used to explain the ])]]


{{main|Nazi racial theories|Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|Racial policy of Nazi Germany}}
Anti-semitism was officially adopted by the German Conservative Party at the ] in 1892, on the instigation of Dr. Klasing but in the teeth of opposition led by the moderate Werner ].
In ], the ] of 1935 placed severe restrictions on "aliens" such as Jews or anyone of Jewish heritage. These laws deprived Jews of citizenship rights and prohibited sexual relations and marriage between any Aryan and Jew (such relations under Nazi ideology was a crime punishable under the race laws as '']'' or "racial pollution"). These laws established that on the basis of their race, all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, were no longer citizens of their own country (their official title became "subject of the state"). This meant that they had no basic citizens' rights, e.g., to vote. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them having any influence in politics, higher education and industry. On 15 November 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either been confiscated, collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been persuaded to sell out to the Nazi government. This further reduced their human rights; they were legally reduced to second-class compared to the non-Jewish populace.


Racial antisemitic laws were also passed elsewhere. In the 19th century, King Frederick II of Prussia enacted multiple laws harmful against Jewish people of the time such as laws restricting marriage between them. In Austria, laws also fell upon the limit of children Jewish families can have with the law only allowing one child per family as to prevent rise in Jewish population.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Llewellyn, Thompson |first=Jennifer, Steve |date=July 23, 2020 |title=19TH-CENTURY ANTI-SEMITISM |url=https://alphahistory.com/holocaust/19th-century-anti-semitism/ |access-date=January 4, 2023 |website=alphahistory.com}}</ref>
Official antisemitic legislation was enacted in various countries, especially in Imperial Russia in the 19th century and in ] Germany and its Central European allies in the 1930s. These laws were passed against Jews as a group, regardless of their religious affiliation - in some cases, such as Nazi Germany, having a Jewish grandparent was enough to qualify someone as Jewish.

In Germany, for example, the ] of 1935 prevented marriage between any Jew and non-Jew, and made it that all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, were no longer citizens of their own country (their official title became "]"). This meant that they had no basic citizens' rights, e.g., to vote. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them having any influence in education, politics, higher education and industry. On 15 November of 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been persuaded to sell out to the Nazi government. This further reduced their rights as human beings; they were in many ways officially separated from the German populace. Similar laws existed in ]- ] , ], ], and ].

Even when antisemitism was not an official state policy, governments in the early to middle parts of the 20th century often adopted more subtle measures aimed at Jews. For example, the ] of 1938 delegates from thirty-two countries neither condemned Hitler's treatment of the Jews nor allowed more Jewish refugees to flee to the West.

==The Holocaust and Holocaust denial==
{{main|Holocaust}}
Racial antisemitism reached its most horrific manifestation in ] during ], in which about 6 million ]an ]s, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered.

] often claim that "the Jews" or "]" are responsible for the exaggeration or wholesale fabrication of the events of the Holocaust. Critics of such revisionism point to an overwhelming amount of physical and historical evidence that supports the mainstream historical view of the Holocaust. Almost all academics agree that there is no evidence for any such conspiracy.

==Antisemitic conspiracy theories==
]n edition of '']'' includes a "historical and contemporary investigative study" that repeats the ] and other antisemitic accusations, and argues that the Torah and Talmud encourage Jews "to commit treason and to conspire, dominate, be arrogant and exploit other countries".]]
The rise of views of the Jews as a malevolent "race" generated antisemitic ] that the Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary ], ''],'' published by the Tsar's secret police, a key element of anti-Semitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

The Jewish community of East End London has often been accused of the notorious ] crimes, with many of the contemparary and current suspects being of jewish background. These accusations were furthered by chalked graffiti upon a wall at one of the murder scenes, reading "The Juwes are the men that will not be blamed for nothing". Conclusive evidence is yet to surface.

In a recent incarnation, extremist groups, such as ] parties and ] groups, claim that the aim of ] is ]; they call this the ''Zionist ]'' and use it to support antisemitism. This position is associated with ] and ], though it is becoming a tendency within parts of the ] as well, and termed ].

==See also==
{{commonscat|Anti-Semitism}}
* ]s and ]
** ]
* Other articles on antisemitism:
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
* Related topics:
** '']'', a 1900s ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
*** '']'' (1893 book)
** ]
* Topics related to ]:
** ]
** ]
** ]
*** ] in Russia, 1913
** ]
** ]
* Antisemitic laws, policies, and government actions
** ]s in Russia
** ] in Russia
** ]
** ] in France
** ] in Iraq
** ] of ]
** ]
* ] Germany and the ]
** ]
** ]
* Antisemitic websites
** ]
** ]
** ]
* Organizations fighting antisemitism
** ]
** ]
** ]


==Notes== ==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>


==References== ==References==
* Jewish encyclopedia, .
* Bodansky, Yossef. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument''. Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999.
* Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II''. Cambridge University Press, 2001. * Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II''. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
* Chanes, Jerome A. '']''. ABC-CLIO, 2004. * ] '']''. ABC-CLIO, 2004.
* Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide''. Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996. * Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide''. Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.
* Ehrenreich, Eric. ''The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution''. ], 2007.
* Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament''. University Press of America, 1994. * Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament''. University Press of America, 1994.
* ]. '']''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes. * ]. '']''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.
Line 132: Line 67:
* Prager, Dennis, Telushkin, Joseph. ''Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism''. Touchstone (reprint), 1985. * Prager, Dennis, Telushkin, Joseph. ''Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism''. Touchstone (reprint), 1985.
* Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!": A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America''. New York, 1972. * Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!": A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America''. New York, 1972.
* Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X. * Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. ], 2006. {{ISBN|0-674-02205-X}}.


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
* *
* (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today) * (with up to date calendar of antisemitism today)
* hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA) * hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
* *
* hosted by the Tel Aviv University - (includes an annual report) * hosted by the Tel Aviv University – (includes an annual report)
* *
* - an analysis of Anti-Semitism" by ] in '']''
*
*
* - an analysis of Anti-Semitism" by ] in '']''
*
*
*
*
*
*
* at Zionism and Israel Information Center.
*
* : Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists.
* - documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media.
*
* at Zionism and Israel Information Center.
*
* : Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists.
*
*
*
*


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Latest revision as of 00:59, 24 October 2024

Prejudice and discrimination against Jews based on race or ethnicity
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Find sources: "Racial antisemitism" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
A fragment of the Nazi antisemitic propaganda film Der ewige Jude ("The Eternal Jew") which demonstrates purportedly typical physical features of the Jews
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Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews based on a belief or assertion that Jews constitute a distinct race that has inherent traits or characteristics that appear in some way abhorrent or inherently inferior or otherwise different from the traits or characteristics of the rest of a society. The abhorrence may find expression in the form of discrimination, stereotypes or caricatures. Racial antisemitism may present Jews, as a group, as a threat in some way to the values or safety of a society. Racial antisemitism can seem deeper-rooted than religious antisemitism, because for religious antisemites conversion of Jews remains an option and once converted the "Jew" is gone. In the context of racial antisemitism Jews cannot get rid of their Jewishness.

The premise of racial antisemitism is that Jews constitute a distinct racial or ethnic group which negatively impacts gentiles. Racial antisemitism differs from religious antisemitism, which involves prejudice against Jews and Judaism on the basis of their religion. According to William Nichols, one can distinguish historical religious antisemitism from "the new secular antisemitism" based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion ... a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." However, with racial antisemitism:

Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism ... From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear.

In the context of the Industrial Revolution, with the emancipation of the Jews (1790s onwards) and the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th and 19th centuries), many Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life and the simultaneous tempering of religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, resentment of the perceived socio-economic success of Jews, and the influx of Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe to Central Europe, soon led to the newer, and often more virulent, racist antisemitism.

Scientific racism, the ideology that genetics played a role in group behavior and characteristics, was highly respected and accepted as factual between 1870 and 1940. Historian Walter Lacquer lists numerous influential figures such as economist Eugen Duehring, composer Richard Wagner, Biblical scholar Paul de Lagarde, and historian-philosophers like Houston Stewart Chamberlain as important figures in the rise of racial antisemitism. This acceptance of race science made it possible for antisemites to clothe their hatred of Jews in "scientific theory" and propose grand, sweeping political solutions in coming decades, from relocation to Madagascar to compulsory sterilization to mass extermination.

In the Third Reich (1933–1945), Nazis extended the logic of racial antisemitism, enshrining racial antisemitic ideas into laws which assessed the "blood" or ethnicity of people (rather than their current religious affiliations), and prescribing—purely on that basis—the subsequent fate of those so assessed. When added to its views on Jewish racial traits which Nazi pseudoscience devised, the logic of racial antisemitism led to the Holocaust of 1941–1945 as an attempt to eradicate conjured-up "Jewish traits" from the world.

Limpieza de sangre

Throughout the history of antisemitism, racial antisemitism has existed alongside religious antisemitism since at least the Middle Ages, if not before.

All Jews and all people of Jewish ancestry were barred from public office, universities and many professions, a policy which was enforced for centuries after no Jews were left on the Iberian Peninsula.

In Spain even before the Edict of Expulsion of 1492, Spanish Jews who converted to Catholicism (conversos in Spanish), and their descendants, were called New Christians. They were frequently accused of lapsing back into their former religious practices (being "Crypto-Jews"). To isolate the conversos, the Spanish nobility developed an ideology which it called "cleanliness of blood".

The conversos were called "New Christians" in order to indicate their inferior status within society. That ideology was a form of racism, because in the past, there were no grades of Christianity and converts to Christianity had equal standing with life-long Christians. Cleanliness of blood was an issue of ancestry, not an issue of personal religion. The first statute of purity of blood appeared in Toledo in 1449, where an anti-converso riot lead to conversos being banned from most official positions. Initially these statutes were condemned by both the monarchy and the Church. However, the New Christians were later hounded and persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition after 1478, the Portuguese Inquisition after 1536, the Peruvian Inquisition after 1570 and the Mexican Inquisition after 1571, as well as the Inquisition in Colombia after 1610.

Concept of a "Semitic race"

Main article: Semitic people
A stylised T and O map, depicting Asia as the home of the descendants of Shem (Sem). Africa is ascribed to Ham and Europe to Japheth.

In Medieval Europe, all Asian peoples were thought of as being the descendants of Shem. By the 19th century, the term Semitic was confined to the ethnic groups which have historically spoken Semitic languages or had origins in the Fertile Crescent, as the Jews in Europe did. These peoples were often considered to be a distinct race. However, some antisemitic racial theorists of the time argued that the Semitic peoples arose from the blurring of distinctions between previously separate races. This supposed process was referred to as semiticization by the race-theorist Arthur de Gobineau.

Gobineau himself did not consider the Semites (descendants of Shem) to be a lesser race. He divided people into three races: white, black, and yellow. The Semites, like the Aryans (and Hamites) came from Asia and were white. Over time, each of the groups had mixed with black blood. The Aryans had stayed pure for a longer period of time and it was not until more recent times that they had mixed. It was this mixing of the races that would lead to man's downfall. This idea of racial "confusion" was taken up by the Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg. It was used by the Nazis to perpetuate the idea that the Jews were going to destroy Germany.

The term semiticization was first used by Gobineau to label the blurring of racial distinctions that, in his view, had occurred in the Middle East. Gobineau had created an essentialist model of race which was based on the three distinct racial groups, but he did not give a clear account of how this division arose. When these races mixed, they caused their "degeneration". Since the place where these three supposed races first met each other was located in the Middle East, Gobineau theorized that their mixing and dilution also occurred there, and he also theorized that Semitic peoples embodied this "confused" racial identity.

This concept suited the interests of antisemites, since it provided a theoretical model for the rationalization of racialised antisemitism. Variations of this theory were espoused in the writings of many antisemites in the late 19th century. The Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg developed a variant of this theory in his writings, arguing that Jewish people were not a "real" race. According to Rosenberg, their evolution resulted from the mixing of pre-existing races rather than natural selection. The theory of semiticization was typically associated with other longstanding racist fears about the dilution of racial differences through miscegenation, which were manifested in negative images of mulattos and negative images of members of other mixed groups.

Rise

Modern European antisemitism has its origins in 19th century theories—now most of them are considered pseudo-scientific, but back then, they were accepted as credible—that said that the Semitic peoples, including the Jews, are entirely different from the Aryan, or Indo-European, populations, and they would not be able to assimilate. In fact, these theories may extend even further back in time, at least back to Martin Luther's 1543 treatise, On the Jews and Their Lies, in which he writes that Jews are a "base, whoring people, that is, no people of God, and their boast of lineage, circumcision, and law must be accounted as filth". Though many argue that Luther expressed prejudice against Judaism as a religion, not Jews as a race, Franklin Sherman, editor of the American Edition of Luther's Works, writes that "Luther's writings against the Jews…are not ‘merely a set of cool, calm and collected theological judgments. His writings are full of rage, and indeed hatred, against an identifiable human group, not just against a religious point of view." On the Jews and Their Lies was popular among supporters of the Nazi party during the early 20th century.

Hannah Arendt explained that before the 1870s, the Jewish population was a defined and dethatched group amongst western society. They were given rights and civil liberties for as long as they served the state in which they lived in. However, due to their apolitical standing, they became a target and they were visible to the public eye in their position in state finance.

In the view of racial antisemitism, Jews are not opposed on account of their religion, instead, they are opposed on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic racial characteristics: greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aversion to hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, low cunning, and especially, lack of patriotism. Later, Nazi propaganda also dwelt on the supposed physical differences of Jews, such as the shape of the "Jewish nose".

Racial antisemitic legislation

A chart use to explain the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, which used a pseudo-scientific racial basis for discrimination against Jews
Main articles: Nazi racial theories, Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany, and Racial policy of Nazi Germany

In Nazi Germany, the Nuremberg Race Laws of 1935 placed severe restrictions on "aliens" such as Jews or anyone of Jewish heritage. These laws deprived Jews of citizenship rights and prohibited sexual relations and marriage between any Aryan and Jew (such relations under Nazi ideology was a crime punishable under the race laws as Rassenschande or "racial pollution"). These laws established that on the basis of their race, all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, were no longer citizens of their own country (their official title became "subject of the state"). This meant that they had no basic citizens' rights, e.g., to vote. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them having any influence in politics, higher education and industry. On 15 November 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either been confiscated, collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been persuaded to sell out to the Nazi government. This further reduced their human rights; they were legally reduced to second-class compared to the non-Jewish populace.

Racial antisemitic laws were also passed elsewhere. In the 19th century, King Frederick II of Prussia enacted multiple laws harmful against Jewish people of the time such as laws restricting marriage between them. In Austria, laws also fell upon the limit of children Jewish families can have with the law only allowing one child per family as to prevent rise in Jewish population.

Notes

  1. Brustein, William (2003). Roots of Hate. Cambridge University Press. pp. 173.
  2. "Anti-Semitism", Jewish Encyclopedia.
  3. Nichols, William: Christian Antisemitism, A History of Hate (1993) p. 314.
  4. "Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945". www.ushmm.org. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  5. Laqueur, Walter (2006). The Changing Face of Antisemitism : from Ancient Times to the Present Day. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-19-530429-9.
  6. Brustein, William (2003). Roots of Hate. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–96.
  7. Laqueur, Walter (2006). The changing face of antisemitism : from ancient times to the present day. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780195304299.
  8. Estatutos de Limpieza de Sangre, Pablo A. Chami.
  9. ^ Brustein, William (2003). Roots of Hate. Cambridge University Press. pp. 101.
  10. "Alfred Rosenberg". www.ushmm.org. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  11. Luther, Martin. On the Jews and Their Lies, 154, 167, 229, cited in Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 111.
  12. Helmut T. Lehmann, gen. ed., Luther's Works, Vol. 47: The Christian in Society IV, edited by Franklin Sherman, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971), iii.
  13. Ellis, Marc H. "Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism" Archived 2007-07-10 at the Wayback Machine, Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004, slide 14. Also see "Nuremberg Trial Proceedings" Archived 2006-03-21 at the Wayback Machine, Vol. 12, p. 318, Avalon Project, Yale Law School, April 19, 1946.
  14. Hannaford, Ivan (1996). Race: The History of an Idea in the West. Washington D.C.: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 315. ISBN 9780801852220.
  15. "How to Tell a Jew".
  16. "Education - Lesson Plan: Antisemitism".
  17. "Antisemitic Caricature: 'The Jewish Nose is Wide at the End and Looks like the Number Six '". Archived from the original on 2018-06-16. Retrieved 2014-07-06.
  18. "Jews and their noses". Archived from the original on 2020-03-31. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
  19. Llewellyn, Thompson, Jennifer, Steve (July 23, 2020). "19TH-CENTURY ANTI-SEMITISM". alphahistory.com. Retrieved January 4, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

References

  • Jewish encyclopedia, Anti-Semitism.
  • Carr, Steven Alan. Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
  • Chanes, Jerome A. Antisemitism: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO, 2004.
  • Cohn, Norman. Warrant for Genocide. Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.
  • Ehrenreich, Eric. The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution. Indiana University Press, 2007.
  • Freudmann, Lillian C. Antisemitism in the New Testament. University Press of America, 1994.
  • Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.
  • Lipstadt, Deborah. Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory. Penguin, 1994.
  • McKain, Mark. Anti-Semitism: At Issue. Greenhaven Press, 2005.
  • Prager, Dennis, Telushkin, Joseph. Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism. Touchstone (reprint), 1985.
  • Selzer, Michael (ed). "Kike!": A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America. New York, 1972.
  • Steinweis, Alan E. Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X.

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