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{{short description|Modern history of slavery in Africa}} | |||
According to Dr. Kwaku Person-Lynn, "The saddest and most painful reality of this situation is, that same slave trading is occurring today, still in the name of Islam. It is primarily happening in the countries of Mauritania, located in northwest Afrika, and Sudan, in northeast Afrika."<ref>http://www.africaspeaks.com/articles/070699.html</ref> | |||
{{About|the modern history of slavery in Africa|historic forms of slavery|Slavery in Africa}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}} | |||
{{slavery|Contemporary}} | |||
The continent of ] is one of the regions most rife with ].<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Africa, One Continent and Many Religions: Towards Interreligious Dialogue in Africa|publisher=Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN)|first=David K.|last=Kusi|year=2000|doi=10.2986/tren.033-0550}}</ref> ] has a long history, within Africa since before historical records, but intensifying with the ] and ]<ref>{{Citation|title=Brazil and the slave trade, 1827–1839|date=1970-03-01|work=The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade|pages=62–87|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511759734.005|isbn=978-0-521-07583-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Zink, Robert James.|title="Uhuru wa Watumwa" as a documentary of the Arab slave trade in East Africa|date=1969|oclc=792751768}}</ref> and again with the ];<ref>{{Citation|last=Green|first=Toby|title=Rethinking the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade from a Cultural Perspective|work=The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589|year=2011|pages=1–28|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139016407.003|isbn=978-1-139-01640-7}}</ref> the demand for slaves created an entire series of kingdoms which existed in a state of ] in order to generate the prisoners of war necessary for the lucrative export of slaves.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Origins of Slaves Leaving West Central Africa|date=2017-06-26|work=The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa, 1780–1867|pages=73–99|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781316771501.005|isbn=978-1-316-77150-1}}</ref> These patterns persisted into the ] during the late 19th and early 20th century.<ref>{{Citation|last=Allen|first=Richard B.|title=Asian Indentured Labor in the 19th and Early 20th Century Colonial Plantation World|date=2017-03-29|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.33|isbn=978-0-19-027772-7}}</ref> Although the colonial authorities attempted to suppress slavery around 1900, their attempts were largely ineffective. Even after ], slavery continues in many parts of Africa despite being officially illegal.<ref>{{Citation|title=Which Way Africa-Towards Africa-Exit from Colonial Empire?|date=2017-12-17|work=Africa in the Colonial Ages of Empire|pages=443–495|publisher=Langaa RPCIG|doi=10.2307/j.ctvh9vtjn.13|isbn=978-9956-764-22-8}}</ref> | |||
Speaking of Sudan under modern Islamic rule and the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, the author Ronald Segal<ref>Author of "Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora," quoted by Suzy Hansen of Salon.com on 5 April 2001 - http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html</ref> describes that: <blockquote>"The resurgence of ] has a lot to do with slavery in both countries. Both describe themselves as Islamic states and pursue policies of Arab-Islamic ], but they are essentially exercises in the maintenance of control ... Also, it is partly a reaction to the power differentials in the world at large. Islam was a civilization that for hundreds of years was arguably the central civilization of the world and certainly dwarfed the cultures and powers of a West that is now unquestionably supreme. So there is a sense of humiliation. In such a situation you get a backlash ... a re-Islamization. There's nothing in the Koran that says someone can come along and free your slave."</blockquote> | |||
Slavery in the ] region (and to a lesser extent the ]) exists along the ] and cultural boundary of ]s in the north and darker Africans in the south.<ref>"The mobilization of local ideas about racial difference has been important in generating, and intensifying, civil wars that have occurred since the end of colonial rule in all of the countries that straddle the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. ... contemporary conflicts often hearken back to an older history in which blackness could be equated with slavery and non-blackness with predatory and uncivilized banditry." (cover text), Hall, Bruce S., ''A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960''. Cambridge University Press, 2011.</ref> Slavery in the ] states of ], ], ], ] and ] in particular, continues a centuries-old pattern of hereditary servitude.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=1974|title=Chad-Mali-Mauritania-Niger-Senegal-Upper Volta: Convention Establishing a Permanent Inter-State Drought Control Committee for the Sahel|journal=International Legal Materials|volume=13|issue=3|pages=537–539|doi=10.1017/s002078290004568x |s2cid=249000440 }}</ref> Other forms of traditional slavery exist in parts of ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{Citation|last=de Ste Croix|first=G. E. M.|chapter=Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree Labour |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203401514-2/slavery-forms-unfree-labour-1-de-ste-croix?context=ubx&refId=39baa717-4ded-458a-9139-9646f673e173|year=1988|pages=19–32|place=Abingdon, UK|publisher=Taylor & Francis|doi=10.4324/9780203401514_chapter_one|isbn=978-0-203-33181-1}}</ref> There are other, non-traditional forms of slavery in Africa today, mostly involving ] and the enslavement of ] and ]ers, e.g. ], and human ] from ], ] and ] to ] and ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=news-from-human-rights-watch-vol-l5-no8a-borderline-slavery-child-trafficking-in-togo-april-2003-84-pp|journal=Human Rights Documents Online|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-2156-0326}}</ref><ref>, ], Society's Secretary-General broadcast on the ] on 9 March 2005 at 9.30 pm.</ref> | |||
==Sudan== | |||
], author and escaped former Sudanese slave. At the age of seven, he was captured and enslaved during a raid in Southern Sudan. For ten years he was slave to a family that called him "abeed" (black slave). In that time he states that he was neglected and abused, given an Arab name and forced to perform Islamic prayers.<ref>http://www.speakingmatters.org/francis_bok.html</ref>(Courtesy Unitarian Universalist Association/Jeanette Leardi)]]{{main|Slavery in Sudan}} | |||
There has been a recrudescence of jihad slavery since 1983 in the Sudan.<ref>The ]. December 1999, Vol.6:Number 4. John Eibner, “My career redeeming slaves”</ref><ref>http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=17747 under 'Extent and Persistence', final para</ref> | |||
Modern day slavery in Africa according to the ] includes exploitation of subjugate populations even when their condition is not technically called "slavery":<ref>{{Cite book|last=Washington |first=Booker T. |author-link=Booker T. Washington |title=Up from slavery|date=4 January 2020 |publisher=Magdalene Press |isbn=978-1-77335-133-9|oclc=1141252700}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Brace|first=Laura|title=Glimpses of Slavery|date=2018-03-01|work=The Politics of Slavery|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9781474401142.003.0010|isbn=978-1-4744-0114-2}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Allain|first=Jean|title=When Forced Marriage is Slavery|date=2015-01-01|work=The Law and Slavery|pages=466–474|publisher=]|doi=10.1163/9789004279896_022|isbn=978-90-04-27989-6}}</ref> | |||
Slavery in the Sudan predates Islam, but continued under Islamic rulers and has never completely died out in Sudan. According to ], slaves have been sold for $50 apiece. In 2001 ] reported the ] was under pressure from Congress, including conservative Christians concerned about religious oppression and slavery, to address issues involved in the Sudanese conflict.<ref>http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/04/us.sudan/index.html</ref> CNN has also quoted the ]'s allegations: "The government's support of slavery and its continued military action which has resulted in numerous deaths are due in part to the victims' ]." | |||
{{Blockquote|text=Although this exploitation is often not called slavery, the conditions are the same. People are sold like objects, forced to work for little or no pay and are at the mercy of their "employers".|author=Antislavery Society|source=What is Modern Slavery?}} | |||
Forced labor in ]<ref>{{Citation|last=Bratton|first=Michael|title=22. Sub-Saharan Africa|date=2009-01-29|work=Democratization|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/hepl/9780199233021.003.0022|doi-broken-date=13 November 2024 |isbn=978-0-19-923302-1}}</ref> is estimated at 660,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/mapEN.pdf |title=Workers' Alliance against Forced Labour and Trafficking - ITUC |access-date=2015-10-14}}</ref> This includes people involved in the illegal diamond mines of ] and ], which is also a direct result of the civil wars in these regions.<ref name="ForcedLabour">{{Cite web |title=Forced Labour |url=http://www.antislavery.org/english/slavery_today/forced_labour/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026112927/http://antislavery.org/english/slavery_today/forced_labour.aspx |archive-date=2010-10-26 |access-date=2015-10-14 |publisher=] |location=London}}{{pb}}{{Cite web |title=What is modern slavery? |archive-date=2009-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090701053059/http://www.antislavery.org/english/slavery_today|url=http://www.antislavery.org/english/slavery_today |url-status=dead|access-date=2023-12-16 |publisher=] |location=London}}</ref> In 2017, the ] estimated that 7 in every 1,000 people in Africa are victims of slavery.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ukomadu |first1=Angela |last2=Chile |first2=Nneka |date=7 August 2019 |title=West African slavery lives on, 400 years after transatlantic trade began |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-africa-slavery-nigeria/west-african-slavery-lives-on-400-years-after-transatlantic-trade-began-idUSKCN1UX1NF |work=Reuters |access-date=8 August 2019 }}</ref> | |||
In the Sudan, Christian captives in the ongoing civil war are often enslaved, and female prisoners are often used sexually, with their Muslim captors claiming that Islamic law grants them permission.<ref>http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Pages/islamandslavery.html</ref> | |||
== Types of contemporary slavery== | |||
==Chad== | |||
] | |||
] (Integrated Regional Information Networks) of the ] reports children being sold to Arab herdsmen in ]. As part of a new identity imposed on them the herdsman "...change their name, forbid them to speak in their native dialect, ban them from conversing with people from their own ] and make them adopt Islam as their religion."<ref> </ref> | |||
== |
===Sex trade=== | ||
{{Main|Sex slavery}} | |||
A system exists now by which Arab Muslims -- the bidanes -- own black slaves, the haratines.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/search/?title=Islam_and_slavery&action=edit§ion=24</ref> Malouma Messoud, a former muslim slave has explained her enslavement to a religious leader:<blockquote>"We didn't learn this history in school; we simply grew up within this ] and lived it. Slaves believe that if they do not obey their masters, they will not go to paradise. They are raised in a social and religious system that everyday reinforces this idea.<ref>] News-letter 'SMIR talk exposes modern slavery' - Brendan Schreiber and Maria Andrawis, 5 December 2003]</ref>"</blockquote> | |||
While institutional slavery has been banned worldwide, there are numerous reports of female sex slaves in areas without an effective government control, such as Sudan and ],<ref>. ''BBC News'' (3 July 2007). Retrieved 2011-03-08.</ref> ],<ref>. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 2011-03-08.</ref> northern ],<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103165556/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/07/27/uganda13863.htm |date=3 November 2008 }}. Human Rights Watch.org (4 March 2011). Retrieved 2011-03-08.</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2007/03/04/news/nation/17_58_563_3_07.txt|title=Latest North San Diego County headlines|work=U-T San Diego|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> ]<ref>Andersson, Hilary. (11 February 2005) . ''BBC News''. Retrieved 2011-03-08.</ref> and ].<ref>. ''BBC News'' (9 August 2007). Retrieved 2011-03-08.</ref> In ], ], and ], a form of (forced) ] known as ''trokosi'' ("]") forcibly keeps thousands of girls and women in traditional shrines as "wives of the gods", where priests perform the sexual function in place of the gods.<ref name="Ghana's trapped slaves">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/1158115.stm|title=Ghana's trapped slaves|last=Hawksley|first=Humphrey|date=8 February 2001|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> | |||
===Forced labour=== | |||
In ], despite slave ownership having been made punishable by law in 1981, hereditary slavery continues.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4091579.stm</ref> Moreover, according to ]: <blockquote>"Not only has the government denied the existence of slavery and failed to respond to cases brought to its attention, it has hampered the activities of organisations which are working on the issue, including by refusing to grant them official recognition".<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4091579.stm</ref></blockquote> | |||
Forced labor, which can be different from slavery,<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Brachet| first1 = Julien| last2 = Scheele| first2 = Judith|title=Captives at Large: On the Political Economy of Human Containment in the Sahara|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/00323292211014373|journal=] |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=255–278 |year=2022 |doi=10.1177/00323292211014373| s2cid = 236365246}}</ref> is defined as any work or services which people are forced to do against their will under the threat of some form of punishment. In the ], the ] are usually victims of their ] neighbors, who have replaced the positions once held by Arabs and Europeans.<ref name="ForcedLabour"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Boddy-Evans|first=Alistair|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/types-of-slavery-in-africa-44542|title=Types of Enslavement in Africa and the World Today|date=20 June 2019|publisher=ThoughtCo|access-date=29 April 2022}}</ref> | |||
{{Blockquote|text=We must work for the Bantu masters. We cannot refuse to do so because we are likely to be beaten or be victims of insults and threats. Even though we agree to work all day in the fields, we are still asked to work even more, for example, to fetch firewood or go hunting. Most of the time, they pay us in kind, a worn loincloth for 10 workdays. We cannot refuse because we do not have a choice.|author=Antislavery Society|source=Interview with an indigenous man in the Congo}} | |||
Imam El Hassan Ould Benyamin of Tayarat in 1997 expressed his views about earlier proclamations ending slavery in his country as follows:<blockquote>" is contrary to the teachings of the fundamental text of Islamic law, the Quran ... amounts to the expropriation from muslims of their goods; goods that were acquired legally. The state, if it is Islamic, does not have the right to seize my house, my wife or my slave."<ref>Segal, p.206</ref></blockquote> | |||
=== Child slave trade === | |||
An estimated 90,000 black Mauritanians remain essentially enslaved to Arab/Berber owners.<ref>http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Pages/islamandslavery.html</ref> | |||
{{further|Human trafficking in Nigeria|Human trafficking in Benin|Human trafficking in Togo}} | |||
The trading of children has been reported in modern ] and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/africa/412628.stm|title=AFRICA – West Africa's child slave trade|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> The children are kidnapped or purchased for $20–70 each by slavers in poorer states, such as Benin and Togo, and sold into slavery in sex dens or as unpaid domestic servants for $350 each in wealthier oil-rich states, such as Nigeria and Gabon.<ref>{{Citation|title=9. The Well-Being of Purchased Female Domestic Servants (Mui Tsai) in Hong Kong in the Early Twentieth Century|work=Children in Slavery through the Ages|year=2009|pages=152–166|publisher=Ohio University Press|doi=10.1353/chapter.258114|isbn=978-0-8214-4339-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,20855855-28737,00.html |title=West is master of slave trade guilt |work=The Australian |access-date=2015-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613155944/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,20855855-28737,00.html |archive-date=13 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gvnet.com/humantrafficking/Nigeria.htm|title=Human Trafficking & Modern-day Slavery – Nigeria|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> | |||
In April 2014, ] ] from ], Borno.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nigeria: Government Still Failing Victims of Boko Haram Four Years On From Chibok|journal=Human Rights Documents Online|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9211-20181220}}</ref> More than 50 of them soon escaped, but the remainder have not been released. Instead, the leader of Boko Haram, ], who has a reward of $7 million offered by the ] since June 2013 for information leading to his capture, announced his intention of selling them into ].<ref>{{Citation|last1=Nwankpa|first1=Michael|title=Boko Haram State (2013–2015)|date=2018-07-01|work=The Boko Haram Reader|pages=285–288|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-090830-0|last2=Shekau|first2=Abubakar|doi=10.1093/oso/9780190908300.003.0081}}</ref> | |||
==Niger== | |||
In Niger, slavery is a real and current phenomenon. A Nigerian study has found that almost 8% of the population are slaves. Slavery dates back for centuries in Niger and was finally criminalised in 2003, after five years of lobbying by ] and Nigerian human-rights group, Timidria. | |||
=== Ritual slavery === | |||
Descent-based slavery, where generations of the same family are born into bondage, is traditionally practised by at least four of Niger’s eight ethnic groups. The slave masters are mostly from the nomadic tribes — the ], ], ] and ].. It is especially rife among the warlike ], in the wild deserts of north and west Niger, who roam near the borders with Mali and Algeria. In the region of Say on the right bank of the river Niger, it is estimated that three-quarters of the population around 1904-1905 was composed of slaves. | |||
{{Main|Ritual servitude}} | |||
'''Ritual servitude''' (Trokosi) is a practice in ], ], and ] where traditional religious shrines take human beings, usually young virgin girls, in payment for services, or in religious atonement for alleged misdeeds of a family member—almost always a female.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Female Ritual Servitude|url=https://www.cbeinternational.org/resource/article/mutuality-blog-magazine/female-ritual-servitude|publisher=CBE International|access-date=2020-05-28|archive-date=26 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126204853/https://www.cbeinternational.org/resource/article/mutuality-blog-magazine/female-ritual-servitude|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2021}} In Ghana and in Togo, it is practiced by the Ewe people in the Volta Region, and in Benin, it is practiced by the Fon.<ref>FAQ About the Form of Slavery Called Trokosi, ECM Publications, 2002, p. 1</ref> | |||
==Slavery by country== | |||
Historically, the Tuareg swelled the ranks of their slaves during war raids into other peoples’ lands. War was then the main source of supply of slaves, although many were bought at slave markets, run mostly by indigenous peoples. | |||
== |
===Chad=== | ||
{{main|Slavery in Chad}} | |||
The practice of slavery in Chad, as in the Sahel states in general, is an entrenched phenomenon with a long history, going back to the trans-Saharan slave trade in the Sahelian kingdoms, and it continues today. As elsewhere in Central and West Africa, the situation reflects an ethnic, racial and religious rift.<ref>{{Citation|last=Haour|first=Anne|title=The Early Medieval Slave Trade of the Central Sahel: Archaeological and Historical Considerations|date=2011-11-17|work=Slavery in Africa|publisher=British Academy|doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197264782.003.0004|isbn=978-0-19-726478-2}}</ref> ] (Integrated Regional Information Networks) of the ]<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933247237|title=Figure 4.5. Relatively smaller contributions from non-DAC providers to the UN MPTF Office-administered funds|doi=10.1787/888933247237}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Annan, Kofi A. (Kofi Atta)|title=We the peoples : a UN for the 21st century|year=2014|publisher=Paradigm Publishers |isbn=978-1-61205-558-9|oclc=862929007}}</ref> ]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gerhart|first=Gail M.|year=2002|title=UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=81|issue=5|pages=197|doi=10.2307/20033282|jstor=20033282 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=((United Nations. General Assembly. United Nations. Economic and Social Council. United Nations. Security Council. United Nations. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Policy Development and Studies Branch.))|title=Reference guide : normative developments on the coordination of humanitarian assistance in the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council since the adoption of General Assembly resolution 46/182|date=2011|publisher=United Nations|oclc=778802331}}</ref> reports children being sold to Arab herdsmen in ] by their parents due to poverty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=52490|title=IRIN Africa – CHAD: Children sold into slavery for the price of a calf – Chad – Children – Economy – Governance – Human Rights|agency=IRIN|access-date=8 May 2015|date=2004-12-21}}</ref> | |||
===Congo=== | |||
The Malian government denies that slavery exists, however, the slavery in Timbuktu is obvious. Slavery (sometimes called indentured servitude) still continues with some Tuaregs holding Bella people. | |||
]-like slavery is rife in parts of Congo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.longreads.com/2016/03/08/your-phone-was-made-by-slaves-a-primer-on-the-secret-economy/|title=Your Phone Was Made By Slaves: A Primer on the Secret Economy|website=Longreads Blog|access-date=2016-03-28|date=2016-03-08}}</ref> According to the ],<ref>{{Citation|title=Index|date=2017-12-31|work=Modern Slavery|pages=327–342|publisher=Columbia University Press|doi=10.7312/kara15846-016|isbn=978-0-231-52802-3}}</ref> approximately, over one million people are enslaved in the region of the Democratic Republic of Congo.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/2018/findings/regional-analysis/africa/|title=Africa|website=Global Slavery Index}}</ref> | |||
===Ethiopia=== | |||
{{main|Human trafficking in Ethiopia}} | |||
Mahider Bitew, Children's Rights and Protection expert at the ],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=FOR THE YEAR ENDED 30 JUNE 2014 Ministry of Women�s Affairs Annual Report|journal=Human Rights Documents Online|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-4027-2014003}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Western Samoa. Ministry of Women's Affairs.|title=Women in Western Samoa : policy and programme development through the Ministry of Women's Affairs|date=1994|publisher=Rivers Buchan/Wiser Associates|oclc=48199046}}</ref> says that some remote studies conducted in ], ], ], and three other towns of the country indicate that the problem of child trafficking is very serious. According to a 2003 study, about one thousand children were trafficked via Dire Dawa to countries of the ]. The majority of those children were girls, most of whom were forced to be prostitutes after leaving the country. The ] has identified prostitution as the worst form of child labor.<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Labour Standards on Child labour|url=https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/subjects-covered-by-international-labour-standards/child-labour/lang--en/index.htm|website=ilo.org|language=en|access-date=2020-05-28}}</ref> | |||
In ], children are trafficked into ], to provide cheap or unpaid labor, and to work as domestic servants or beggars.<ref>{{Cite journal<!-- Citation bot bypass-->|last=Glazer|first=Nona Y.|year=1984|title=Servants to Capital: Unpaid Domestic Labor and Paid Work|journal=Review of Radical Political Economics|volume=16|issue=1|pages=60–87|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/048661348401600106|url-access=subscription|doi=10.1177/048661348401600106|s2cid=154838886 }}</ref> The ages of these children are usually between 10 and 18, and their trafficking is from the country to urban centers and from cities to the country.<ref>{{Cite book |section=Table 5.A.10 Cross-country correlations between answers to questions on job insecurity from different non-official surveys|publisher=]|date=7 July 2017|title=OECD Guidelines on Measuring the Quality of the Working Environment |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/employment/oecd-guidelines-on-measuring-the-quality-of-the-working-environment_9789264278240-en |doi=10.1787/888933606528 |type=Excel download}}</ref> Boys are often expected to work in activities such as herding cattle in rural areas and in the weaving industry in ] and other major towns. Girls are expected to take responsibilities for domestic chores, childcare, and looking after the sick, and to work as prostitutes.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933157638|title=Figure 28. Inactive women who cite family commitments (childcare, looking after incapacitated adults, or other family reasons) as the main reason for not looking for work, 2012-13|doi=10.1787/888933157638}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawrance |first1=Benjamin N. |last2=Roberts |first2=Richard L. |title=Trafficking in Slavery's Wake: Law and the Experience of Women and Children in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-4418-4 }}{{pn|date=April 2021}}</ref> | |||
===Ghana, Togo, Benin=== | |||
{{main|Human trafficking in Ghana|Human trafficking in Benin|Human trafficking in Togo}} | |||
In parts of ] among the ], a family may be punished for an offense by having to turn over a virgin female to serve as a sex slave within the offended family.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sos-sexisme.org/English/slavery.htm|title=Slavery in Ghana|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> In this instance, the woman does not gain the title of "wife".<ref>{{Cite journal|year=1911|title=Adverse Possession. Who May Gain Title. Wife against Husband|journal=Harvard Law Review|volume=24|issue=4|pages=316–317|doi=10.2307/1324067|jstor=1324067 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=CONTENTS|date=2020-12-31|work=Sex Rewarded, Sex Punished|pages=xi–xiv|publisher=Academic Studies Press|doi=10.1515/9781644693292-toc|isbn=978-1-64469-329-2|doi-access=free}}</ref> In parts of Ghana, ], and ], shrine slavery persists, despite being illegal in Ghana since 1998.<ref>{{Citation|title=Benjamin, Jonathan, (Jon), (born 19 Jan. 1963), HM Diplomatic Service; High Commissioner to Ghana and non-resident Ambassador to Togo, Burkina Faso and Benin, since 2014|date=2010-12-01|work=Who's Who|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u250548}}</ref> This system of slavery is sometimes called ] (in Ghana), or ] in Togo and Benin, or ritual servitude.<ref>{{Citation|last=Venkatachalam|first=Meera|title=Conclusion: Ritual Servitude, Trans-Atlantic Conversations, and Religious Change|work=Slavery, Memory, and Religion in Southeastern Ghana,c. 1850–Present|year=2015|pages=187–214|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781316257852.009|isbn=978-1-316-25785-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mensah, Wisdom Yaw.|title=Female ritual servitude : the Trokosis in Ghana|date=2010|publisher=Authorhouse|isbn=978-1-4389-4949-9|oclc=610001078}}</ref> Young virgin girls are given as slaves in traditional shrines and are used sexually by the priests, in addition to providing free labor for the shrine.<ref>{{Citation|last=Charles|first=Gore|title=Priests and Shrines|date=2007-10-26|work=Art, Performance and Ritual in Benin City|pages=47–73|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9780748633166.003.0004|isbn=978-0-7486-3316-6}}</ref><ref name="Ghana's trapped slaves"/> | |||
Many Chinese prostitutes are trafficked to Ghana to service expatriate communities in the country, the Enslavement Protection Alliance-West Africa (EPAWA) investigations reveal.<ref>{{Citation|date=1986-12-31|work=Peasants, Proletarians and Prostitutes|pages=77–89|place=Singapore|publisher=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute Singapore|doi=10.1355/9789814345989-008|isbn=978-981-4345-98-9|title=Vi. Amah in Paid Domestic Service}}</ref> The Accra-based non-governmental organization told Citi Newsroom that victims are recruited under the guise of working as restaurant assistants. They are then confined and forced to provide sexual services.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=LaChance|first1=Nancy|last2=Adda-Balinia|first2=Terence|year=2017|title=Strengthening school-based sexual and reproductive health education and services in Accra, Ghana|doi=10.31899/rh4.1006|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
===Madagascar=== | |||
Domestic servitude and forced labor are a continuing problem and increasing as a result of exacerbated poverty in Madagascar, according to a 2012 mission by the United Nations Special Rapporteur for contemporary forms of slavery.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Fudge|first1=Judy|title=Migrants, Unfree Labour, and the Legal Construction of Domestic Servitude: Migrant Domestic Workers in the United Kingdom|work=Revisiting the Law and Governance of Trafficking, Forced Labor and Modern Slavery|pages=524–555|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-67580-9|last2=Strauss|first2=Kendra|editor1-first=Prabha|editor1-last=Kotiswaran|year=2017|doi=10.1017/9781316675809.019}}</ref> The UN Special Rapporteur identified children as particularly vulnerable and was particularly concerned about the enslavement of youth in mining and sexual exploitation or servile marriages.<ref>{{cite web|title=Madagascar: "Poverty and impunity have increased contemporary forms of slavery," warns UN Expert|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12902&LangID=E|publisher=UN Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights|access-date=20 February 2013|date=19 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
===Mali=== | |||
{{main|Slavery in Mali}} | |||
Slavery continues to exist in Mali in all ethnic groups of the country but particularly among the ] communities.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Klute|first1=Georg|title=Separatistische Bestrebungen der Tuareg in Mali|date=2016-01-01|work=Mali|publisher=Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh|isbn=978-3-657-78661-9|last2=Lecocq|first2=Baz|doi=10.30965/9783657786619_008|doi-broken-date=2 November 2024 }}</ref> The French formally abolished slavery in 1905, but many slaves remained with their masters until 1946 when large emancipation activism occurred.<ref name=Mauxion>{{cite journal|last=Mauxion|first=Aurelien|title=Moving to Stay: ''Iklan'' Spatial Strategies Towards Socioeconomic Emancipation in Northern Mali, 1898–1960|journal=The Journal of African History|year=2012|volume=53|issue=2|pages=195–213|doi=10.1017/s0021853712000394|s2cid=161662370}}</ref> The first government of independent Mali tried to end slavery, but these efforts were undermined with the military dictatorship from 1968 until 1991.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=help-bring-justice-and-reunite-families-who-were-victims-of-argentinas-military-dictatorship|journal=Human Rights Documents Online|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-2714-0049}}</ref> Slavery persists today with thousands of people still held in servitude; however, an active social movement called ] (which won the 2012 ]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anti-Slavery International|title=Enslaved peoples in the 1990s : indigenous peoples, debt bondage and human rights ; |date=1997|publisher=Anti-Slavery International|isbn=0-900918-40-3|oclc=832978675}}</ref> award) has been pressuring the government for ending slavery in the country.<ref name=Hahonou>{{cite journal|last1=Hahonou|first1=Eric|last2=Pelckmans|first2=Lotte|title=West African Antislavery Movements: Citizenship Struggles and the Legacies of Slavery|journal=Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für Kritische Afrikastudien|year=2011|issue=20|pages=141–162|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512042058/http://www.univie.ac.at/ecco/stichproben/20_Pelckmans_Hahonou.pdf|archive-date=12 May 2013}}</ref><ref name=Tran>{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=Mali conflict puts freedom of 'slave descendants' in peril|newspaper=The Guardian|date=23 October 2012|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/oct/23/mali-conflict-freedom-slave-descendants-peril|access-date=2012-11-24|location=London}}</ref> | |||
Although the Malian government denies that slavery continues, '']'' writer Kira Salak claimed in 2002 that slavery was quite conspicuous and that she herself bought and then freed two slaves in ].<ref>; Handwerk, Brian; 5 December 2002.</ref> In addition, with the ],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stamm|first1=O.|last2=Latscha|first2=U.|last3=Janecek|first3=P.|last4=Campana|first4=A.|date=1976-01-15|title=Development of a special electrode for continuous subcutaneous pH measurement in the infant scalp|journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology|volume=124|issue=2|pages=193–195|doi=10.1016/s0002-9378(16)33297-5 |pmid=2012}}</ref> there are reports of ex-slaves being recaptured by their former masters.<ref name=Tran /> | |||
===Mauritania=== | |||
{{main|Slavery in Mauritania}}According to the Global Security Index Mauritania has one of the highest rates of vulnerability to slavery, ranking at number 4 in the region.<ref name=":0" /> A system exists now by which ]—the bidanes—own black slaves, the ]es. An estimated 90,000 Mauritanians remain essentially enslaved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/muslim/slavery.html|title=Essays - The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project - Brandeis University|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> The ruling bidanes (the name means literally white-skinned people) are descendants of the ] ] and ] Arab tribes who emigrated to northwest ] and present-day ] and ] during the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=70522|title=IRIN Africa – MAURITANIA: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance – Mauritania – Governance – Human Rights|agency=IRIN|access-date=8 May 2015|date=2007-03-05}}</ref> According to some estimates, up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20% of the population, are still enslaved, many of them used as ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1458_abolition/page4.shtml|title=BBC World Service – The Abolition season on BBC World Service|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6938032.stm|title=Africa – Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> Malouma Messoud, a former Muslim slave has explained her enslavement to a religious leader: | |||
{{Blockquote|text="We didn't learn this history in school; we simply grew up within this ] and lived it. Slaves believe that if they do not obey their masters, they will not go to paradise.<ref>{{Citation|title=Conclusion: Lost in Paradise|year=2014|work=Unbelievable|publisher=I.B.Tauris|doi=10.5040/9780755624058.0006|isbn=978-1-78076-735-2}}</ref> They are raised in a social and religious system that everyday reinforces this idea.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Greenhill|first1=Anita|title=11. Life, Death and Everyday Experience of Social Media|work=Social Media and Religious Change|place=Berlin, Boston|publisher=DE GRUYTER|isbn=978-3-11-027048-8|last2=Fletcher|first2=Gordon|year=2013|doi=10.1515/9783110270488.201|url=https://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/30678/1/10_Greenhill_thana_final%5B1%5D%5B2t%5D%5Bchecked%5D_named%5Brevs_removed%5D.docx }}</ref><ref>{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – Brendan Schreiber and Maria Andrawis, The ] News-letter, 5 December 2003</ref>"}} | |||
In ], despite slave ownership having been banned by law in 1981, hereditary slavery continues.<ref>"The last law, in 1981, banned it but failed to criminalise it. However much it is denied, an ancient system of bondage, with slaves passed on from generation to generation, still plainly exists." , '']''</ref> Moreover, according to ]:<ref>{{Citation|year=1981|pages=126|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-028902-1.50016-1|isbn=978-0-08-028902-1|chapter=List of Amnesty Sections|title=Amnesty International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Amnesty International|title=Amnesty International|date=2006|publisher=Amnesty International|oclc=488996561}}</ref> | |||
{{Blockquote|text=Not only has the government denied the existence of slavery and failed to respond to cases brought to its attention, it has hampered the activities of organizations which are working on the issue, including by refusing to grant them official recognition.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4091579.stm|title=Africa – Slavery: Mauritania's best kept secret|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref>}} | |||
Imam El Hassan Ould Benyamin of Tayarat in 1997 expressed his views about earlier proclamations ending slavery in his country as follows: | |||
{{Blockquote|text= is contrary to the teachings of the fundamental text of Islamic law, the Quran {{omission}} amounts to the expropriation from Muslims of their goods; goods that were acquired legally. The state, if it is Islamic, does not have the right to seize my house, my wife or my slave.<ref>Segal, p. 206, in ''Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora'', quoted by Suzy Hansen of Salon.com on 5 April 2001 – {{cite web |url=http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html |title=Salon.com Books | Islam's black slaves |access-date=2009-11-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301113533/http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html |archive-date=1 March 2007}}.</ref><ref></ref>}} | |||
], often called the Mauritanian Nelson Mandela, "Le Spartacus Mauritanien",<ref name="unpo.org">{{cite web|url=http://unpo.org/article/17820|title=UNPO: A Look at Mauritania's Troubled History of Slavery|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> an anti-slavery activist and member of the Haratin ethnic group in Mauritania argues that | |||
{{Blockquote|text=there is a kind of informal coalition – Beydanes , the state, police, judges, and imams – that prevents slaves from leaving their masters. "Whenever a slave breaks free while IRA is not aware and not present, police officers and judges help Arab-Berbers to intimidate the slave until he returns in submission".<ref name=NYER-2014>{{cite magazine|last1=Okeowo|first1=Alexis|title=Freedom Fighter|magazine=The New Yorker|date=8 September 2014|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/09/08/freedom-fighter|access-date=16 October 2014}}</ref>}} | |||
Biram, along with 16 other activists, since 11 November 2014, is awaiting trial in Mauritania on multiple charges which include "violating public order" and "offending the authorities".<ref name="unpo.org"/> | |||
The story of ], a prominent anti-slavery activist on trial, illustrates the troubled history and continued prevalence of slavery in Mauritania. Yet, Mauritanian human rights campaigners remain hopeful and believe that the trial will ultimately lead to positive long-term changes.<ref name="unpo.org"/> | |||
===Niger=== | |||
{{main|Slavery in Niger}} | |||
Niger continues to have significant problems with three forms of contemporary slavery: hereditary slavery, what Anti-Slavery International terms "passive slavery", and servile marriages called ''wahaya''.<ref name=Abdelkader>{{cite web|last=Abdelkader|first=Galy kadir|title=Slavery in Niger:Historical, Legal, and Contemporary Perspectives|year=2004|url=http://www.antislavery.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2009/f/full_english_slavery_in_niger.pdf|publisher=Anti-Slavery International|access-date=8 February 2013|archive-date=29 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529195531/http://www.antislavery.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2009/f/full_english_slavery_in_niger.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Because of the continued problem of slavery and pressure from the ] organization, Niger became the first country in Western Africa to pass a law specifically criminalizing slavery.<ref>{{Citation|title=Slavery in the Western Sudan|date=1998-07-28|work=Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa|pages=1–18|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511584138.003|isbn=978-0-521-59678-7}}</ref> Despite the law, slavery persists throughout the different ethnic groups of the country, women are particularly vulnerable, and a 2002 census confirmed the existence of 43,000 slaves and estimated that the total population could be over 870,000 people.<ref name=Abdelkader /> In a landmark case in 2008, the ]<ref>{{Citation|last1=Antje C|first1=Berger|title=Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)|year=2017|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/e610|encyclopedia=Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-923169-0|access-date=2020-08-26|last2=Omar Ould D|first2=Hamady}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Economic Community of West African States.|title=Defense : agreement between the United States of America and the Economic Community of West African States ; effected by exchange of notes at Abuja, January 24 and February 14, 2003.|date=2011|publisher=U.S. Dept. of State|oclc=732871369}}</ref> (ECOWAS) Community Court of Justice found the government of Niger responsible for continuing a woman's slave status as part of a wahaya marriage and awarded her {{US$|21,500}}.<ref name=Duffy>{{cite journal|last=Duffy|first=Helen|title=HadijatouMani Koroua v Niger: Slavery Unveiled by the ECOWAS Court|journal=Human Rights Law Review|year=2008|pages=1–20|url=http://www.interights.org/files/28/HelenDuffyHRLR.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604021132/http://www.interights.org/files/28/HelenDuffyHRLR.pdf|archive-date=4 June 2015}}</ref> | |||
===Sudan=== | |||
{{main|Slavery in Sudan}} | |||
Sudan has seen a resurgence of slavery since 1983, associated with the ].<ref>'']''. December 1999, Vol.6: Number 4. John Eibner, "My career redeeming slaves"</ref> Estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/af/rls/rpt/2002/10445.htm|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=20 March 2014|date=22 May 2002}}</ref> | |||
In Sudan, ] and ] in the ] are often enslaved, and female prisoners are often used sexually, with their ] captors claiming that ] grants them permission.<ref>, Brandeis University</ref> According to ], slaves have been sold for $50 per person.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/curse-of-slavery-haunts-sudan/ | publisher=CBS News | title=Curse of Slavery Haunts Sudan | date=25 January 1999}}</ref> In 2001, ] reported that the ] was under pressure from Congress, including conservative Christians concerned about religious oppression and slavery, to address issues involved in the Sudanese conflict.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/04/us.sudan/index.html | publisher=CNN | title=Danforth to be named U.S. envoy to Sudan | date=4 September 2001 | access-date=23 May 2010 | archive-date=30 April 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430171042/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/04/us.sudan/index.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> CNN has also quoted the ]'s allegations:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934072144|title=Figure 2.13. Norway has also experienced job polarisation|doi=10.1787/888934072144}}</ref> "The government's support of slavery and its continued military action which has resulted in numerous deaths are due in part to the victims' ]."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Labott|first1=Elise|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/US/09/05/state.dept.religion/index.html|title=U.S. State Department report says 'religious intolerance remains far too common' around world |access-date=14 October 2015|publisher=]|date=6 September 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923220548/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/US/09/05/state.dept.religion/index.html|archive-date=23 September 2008}}</ref> | |||
Jok Madut Jok, professor of History at ],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Loyola Marymount University (LMU), African American Studies|journal=African Studies Companion Online|doi=10.1163/_afco_asc_1708}}</ref> states that the abduction of women and children of the south by north is slavery by any definition. The government of Sudan insists that the whole matter is no more than the traditional tribal feuding over resources.<ref>Jok Madut Jok (2001), p. 3</ref> | |||
===South Africa=== | |||
{{main|Human trafficking in South Africa}} | |||
Despite significant efforts made by the South African Government to combat trafficking in persons, the country has been placed on the "Tier 2 Watch List"<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Table 2: Watch list mutations and their effects on stability.|doi=10.7717/peerj.1674/table-2|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Franks, Quincy.|title=Criminal Justice.|date=2018|publisher=Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated|isbn=978-1-5361-4197-9|oclc=1050752152}}</ref> by the U.S. Department of Trafficking in Persons for the past four years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacbc.org.za/Site/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=286&Itemid=111|title=Human trafficking in South Africa: 2010 and beyond|date=5 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205080913/http://www.sacbc.org.za/Site/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=286&Itemid=111|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-date=5 December 2010}}</ref> South Africa shares borders with Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Mozambique and Eswatini. It has 72 official ports of entry "and a number of unofficial ports of entry where people come in and out without being detected"<ref>{{Citation|last=Saguy|first=Abigail C.|title=Come Out, Come Out, Wherever You Are|date=2020-02-20|work=Come Out, Come Out, Whoever You Are|pages=10–29|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780190931650.003.0002|isbn=978-0-19-093165-0|doi-access=}}</ref> along its 5 000 km-long land borderline.<ref>{{Citation|last1=McIntyre|first1=James Alasdair|title=Southern Africa (South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe)|year=2008|work=Public Health Aspects of HIV/AIDS in Low and Middle Income Countries|pages=289–330|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer New York|isbn=978-0-387-72710-3|last2=de Bruyn|first2=Guy|last3=Gray|first3=Glenda Elisabeth|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-72711-0_14}}</ref> The problem of porous borders is compounded by the lack of adequately trained employees, resulting in few police officials controlling large portions of the country's coastline.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=1983|title=A lack of adequately trained engineers|journal=Production Engineer|volume=62|issue=1|pages=46|doi=10.1049/tpe.1983.0018 }}</ref> | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
*] | *] | ||
*] | *] | ||
*] | |||
== References == | |||
{{reflist}} | |||
== External links == | |||
<references/> | |||
* Graham-Harrison, Emma. (May 2017), '']'' | |||
* Anti-Slavery Society. Retrieved 2007-07-09. | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Slavery In Modern Africa}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 07:09, 26 November 2024
Modern history of slavery in Africa This article is about the modern history of slavery in Africa. For historic forms of slavery, see Slavery in Africa.
The continent of Africa is one of the regions most rife with contemporary slavery. Slavery in Africa has a long history, within Africa since before historical records, but intensifying with the trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean slave trade and again with the trans-Atlantic slave trade; the demand for slaves created an entire series of kingdoms which existed in a state of perpetual warfare in order to generate the prisoners of war necessary for the lucrative export of slaves. These patterns persisted into the colonial period during the late 19th and early 20th century. Although the colonial authorities attempted to suppress slavery around 1900, their attempts were largely ineffective. Even after decolonization, slavery continues in many parts of Africa despite being officially illegal.
Slavery in the Sahel region (and to a lesser extent the Horn of Africa) exists along the racial and cultural boundary of Arabized Berbers in the north and darker Africans in the south. Slavery in the Sahel states of Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad and Sudan in particular, continues a centuries-old pattern of hereditary servitude. Other forms of traditional slavery exist in parts of Ghana, Benin, Togo and Nigeria. There are other, non-traditional forms of slavery in Africa today, mostly involving human trafficking and the enslavement of child soldiers and child labourers, e.g. human trafficking in Angola, and human trafficking of children from Togo, Benin and Nigeria to Gabon and Cameroon.
Modern day slavery in Africa according to the Anti-Slavery Society includes exploitation of subjugate populations even when their condition is not technically called "slavery":
Although this exploitation is often not called slavery, the conditions are the same. People are sold like objects, forced to work for little or no pay and are at the mercy of their "employers".
— Antislavery Society, What is Modern Slavery?
Forced labor in Sub-Saharan Africa is estimated at 660,000. This includes people involved in the illegal diamond mines of Sierra Leone and Liberia, which is also a direct result of the civil wars in these regions. In 2017, the International Labour Office estimated that 7 in every 1,000 people in Africa are victims of slavery.
Types of contemporary slavery
Sex trade
Main article: Sex slaveryWhile institutional slavery has been banned worldwide, there are numerous reports of female sex slaves in areas without an effective government control, such as Sudan and Liberia, Sierra Leone, northern Uganda, Congo, Niger and Mauritania. In Ghana, Togo, and Benin, a form of (forced) religious prostitution known as trokosi ("ritual servitude") forcibly keeps thousands of girls and women in traditional shrines as "wives of the gods", where priests perform the sexual function in place of the gods.
Forced labour
Forced labor, which can be different from slavery, is defined as any work or services which people are forced to do against their will under the threat of some form of punishment. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Pygmy peoples are usually victims of their Bantu neighbors, who have replaced the positions once held by Arabs and Europeans.
We must work for the Bantu masters. We cannot refuse to do so because we are likely to be beaten or be victims of insults and threats. Even though we agree to work all day in the fields, we are still asked to work even more, for example, to fetch firewood or go hunting. Most of the time, they pay us in kind, a worn loincloth for 10 workdays. We cannot refuse because we do not have a choice.
— Antislavery Society, Interview with an indigenous man in the Congo
Child slave trade
Further information: Human trafficking in Nigeria, Human trafficking in Benin, and Human trafficking in TogoThe trading of children has been reported in modern Nigeria and Benin. The children are kidnapped or purchased for $20–70 each by slavers in poorer states, such as Benin and Togo, and sold into slavery in sex dens or as unpaid domestic servants for $350 each in wealthier oil-rich states, such as Nigeria and Gabon.
In April 2014, Boko Haram kidnapped 276 female students from Chibok, Borno. More than 50 of them soon escaped, but the remainder have not been released. Instead, the leader of Boko Haram, Abubakar Shekau, who has a reward of $7 million offered by the United States Department of State since June 2013 for information leading to his capture, announced his intention of selling them into slavery.
Ritual slavery
Main article: Ritual servitudeRitual servitude (Trokosi) is a practice in Ghana, Togo, and Benin where traditional religious shrines take human beings, usually young virgin girls, in payment for services, or in religious atonement for alleged misdeeds of a family member—almost always a female. In Ghana and in Togo, it is practiced by the Ewe people in the Volta Region, and in Benin, it is practiced by the Fon.
Slavery by country
Chad
Main article: Slavery in ChadThe practice of slavery in Chad, as in the Sahel states in general, is an entrenched phenomenon with a long history, going back to the trans-Saharan slave trade in the Sahelian kingdoms, and it continues today. As elsewhere in Central and West Africa, the situation reflects an ethnic, racial and religious rift. IRIN (Integrated Regional Information Networks) of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs reports children being sold to Arab herdsmen in Chad by their parents due to poverty.
Congo
Debt bondage-like slavery is rife in parts of Congo. According to the Global Slavery Index, approximately, over one million people are enslaved in the region of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Ethiopia
Main article: Human trafficking in EthiopiaMahider Bitew, Children's Rights and Protection expert at the Ministry of Women's Affairs, says that some remote studies conducted in Dire Dawa, Shashemene, Awassa, and three other towns of the country indicate that the problem of child trafficking is very serious. According to a 2003 study, about one thousand children were trafficked via Dire Dawa to countries of the Middle East. The majority of those children were girls, most of whom were forced to be prostitutes after leaving the country. The International Labour Organization has identified prostitution as the worst form of child labor.
In Ethiopia, children are trafficked into prostitution, to provide cheap or unpaid labor, and to work as domestic servants or beggars. The ages of these children are usually between 10 and 18, and their trafficking is from the country to urban centers and from cities to the country. Boys are often expected to work in activities such as herding cattle in rural areas and in the weaving industry in Addis Ababa and other major towns. Girls are expected to take responsibilities for domestic chores, childcare, and looking after the sick, and to work as prostitutes.
Ghana, Togo, Benin
Main articles: Human trafficking in Ghana, Human trafficking in Benin, and Human trafficking in TogoIn parts of Ghana among the Ewe people, a family may be punished for an offense by having to turn over a virgin female to serve as a sex slave within the offended family. In this instance, the woman does not gain the title of "wife". In parts of Ghana, Togo, and Benin, shrine slavery persists, despite being illegal in Ghana since 1998. This system of slavery is sometimes called trokosi (in Ghana), or voodoosi in Togo and Benin, or ritual servitude. Young virgin girls are given as slaves in traditional shrines and are used sexually by the priests, in addition to providing free labor for the shrine.
Many Chinese prostitutes are trafficked to Ghana to service expatriate communities in the country, the Enslavement Protection Alliance-West Africa (EPAWA) investigations reveal. The Accra-based non-governmental organization told Citi Newsroom that victims are recruited under the guise of working as restaurant assistants. They are then confined and forced to provide sexual services.
Madagascar
Domestic servitude and forced labor are a continuing problem and increasing as a result of exacerbated poverty in Madagascar, according to a 2012 mission by the United Nations Special Rapporteur for contemporary forms of slavery. The UN Special Rapporteur identified children as particularly vulnerable and was particularly concerned about the enslavement of youth in mining and sexual exploitation or servile marriages.
Mali
Main article: Slavery in MaliSlavery continues to exist in Mali in all ethnic groups of the country but particularly among the Tuareg communities. The French formally abolished slavery in 1905, but many slaves remained with their masters until 1946 when large emancipation activism occurred. The first government of independent Mali tried to end slavery, but these efforts were undermined with the military dictatorship from 1968 until 1991. Slavery persists today with thousands of people still held in servitude; however, an active social movement called Temedt (which won the 2012 Anti-Slavery International award) has been pressuring the government for ending slavery in the country.
Although the Malian government denies that slavery continues, National Geographic writer Kira Salak claimed in 2002 that slavery was quite conspicuous and that she herself bought and then freed two slaves in Timbuktu. In addition, with the 2012 Tuareg Rebellion, there are reports of ex-slaves being recaptured by their former masters.
Mauritania
Main article: Slavery in MauritaniaAccording to the Global Security Index Mauritania has one of the highest rates of vulnerability to slavery, ranking at number 4 in the region. A system exists now by which Arab Muslims—the bidanes—own black slaves, the haratines. An estimated 90,000 Mauritanians remain essentially enslaved. The ruling bidanes (the name means literally white-skinned people) are descendants of the Sanhaja Berbers and Beni Hassan Arab tribes who emigrated to northwest Africa and present-day Western Sahara and Mauritania during the Middle Ages. According to some estimates, up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20% of the population, are still enslaved, many of them used as bonded labour. Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007. Malouma Messoud, a former Muslim slave has explained her enslavement to a religious leader:
"We didn't learn this history in school; we simply grew up within this social hierarchy and lived it. Slaves believe that if they do not obey their masters, they will not go to paradise. They are raised in a social and religious system that everyday reinforces this idea."
In Mauritania, despite slave ownership having been banned by law in 1981, hereditary slavery continues. Moreover, according to Amnesty International:
Not only has the government denied the existence of slavery and failed to respond to cases brought to its attention, it has hampered the activities of organizations which are working on the issue, including by refusing to grant them official recognition.
Imam El Hassan Ould Benyamin of Tayarat in 1997 expressed his views about earlier proclamations ending slavery in his country as follows:
is contrary to the teachings of the fundamental text of Islamic law, the Quran ... amounts to the expropriation from Muslims of their goods; goods that were acquired legally. The state, if it is Islamic, does not have the right to seize my house, my wife or my slave.
Biram Dah Abeid, often called the Mauritanian Nelson Mandela, "Le Spartacus Mauritanien", an anti-slavery activist and member of the Haratin ethnic group in Mauritania argues that
there is a kind of informal coalition – Beydanes , the state, police, judges, and imams – that prevents slaves from leaving their masters. "Whenever a slave breaks free while IRA is not aware and not present, police officers and judges help Arab-Berbers to intimidate the slave until he returns in submission".
Biram, along with 16 other activists, since 11 November 2014, is awaiting trial in Mauritania on multiple charges which include "violating public order" and "offending the authorities".
The story of Biram Dah Abeid, a prominent anti-slavery activist on trial, illustrates the troubled history and continued prevalence of slavery in Mauritania. Yet, Mauritanian human rights campaigners remain hopeful and believe that the trial will ultimately lead to positive long-term changes.
Niger
Main article: Slavery in NigerNiger continues to have significant problems with three forms of contemporary slavery: hereditary slavery, what Anti-Slavery International terms "passive slavery", and servile marriages called wahaya. Because of the continued problem of slavery and pressure from the Timidria organization, Niger became the first country in Western Africa to pass a law specifically criminalizing slavery. Despite the law, slavery persists throughout the different ethnic groups of the country, women are particularly vulnerable, and a 2002 census confirmed the existence of 43,000 slaves and estimated that the total population could be over 870,000 people. In a landmark case in 2008, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Community Court of Justice found the government of Niger responsible for continuing a woman's slave status as part of a wahaya marriage and awarded her US$21,500.
Sudan
Main article: Slavery in SudanSudan has seen a resurgence of slavery since 1983, associated with the Second Sudanese Civil War. Estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000 people.
In Sudan, animist and Christian captives in the civil war are often enslaved, and female prisoners are often used sexually, with their Muslim captors claiming that Islamic law grants them permission. According to CBS News, slaves have been sold for $50 per person. In 2001, CNN reported that the Bush administration was under pressure from Congress, including conservative Christians concerned about religious oppression and slavery, to address issues involved in the Sudanese conflict. CNN has also quoted the U.S. State Department's allegations: "The government's support of slavery and its continued military action which has resulted in numerous deaths are due in part to the victims' religious beliefs."
Jok Madut Jok, professor of History at Loyola Marymount University, states that the abduction of women and children of the south by north is slavery by any definition. The government of Sudan insists that the whole matter is no more than the traditional tribal feuding over resources.
South Africa
Main article: Human trafficking in South AfricaDespite significant efforts made by the South African Government to combat trafficking in persons, the country has been placed on the "Tier 2 Watch List" by the U.S. Department of Trafficking in Persons for the past four years. South Africa shares borders with Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Mozambique and Eswatini. It has 72 official ports of entry "and a number of unofficial ports of entry where people come in and out without being detected" along its 5 000 km-long land borderline. The problem of porous borders is compounded by the lack of adequately trained employees, resulting in few police officials controlling large portions of the country's coastline.
See also
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External links
- Graham-Harrison, Emma. Africa’s new slave trade: how migrants flee poverty to get sucked into a world of violent crime (May 2017), The Guardian
- The Modern West African Slave Trade Anti-Slavery Society. Retrieved 2007-07-09.