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{{allegations of apartheid}} |
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#REDIRECT ] |
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'''Allegations of apartheid''' have been made against numerous countries. The term ''apartheid'' historically referred to ], a former official policy of political, legal, and economic separation of the races, targeting non-whites. More recently, the term "apartheid" has been used to describe alleged wholesale discrimination based on race, ethnicity, culture, religion, economic status, gender, sexual orientation or other characteristics, in contexts other than South Africa. These allegations are often hotly contested, and the term's use in this sense dismissed as an ].<ref>"Apartheid is dead in South Africa but the word is alive in the world, especially as an epithet of abuse for Israel." ]. , ''Focus'', Issue 40, The ] Foundation, 2005. Retrieved July 26, 2007.</ref><ref>"Anti-Israel ideologues have a well-worn tactic of taking the latest world outrage and foisting it upon Israel, no matter how absurd the comparison or epithet. So in the 1960s Israel was branded a "colonialist power," in the 1970s Israel became an "apartheid state,"..." , ], ]. Retrieved October 25, 2006.</ref><ref>"The NPT contains a built-in difference in status, which has routinely been called over the years a form of “apartheid”. This kind of abusive epithet is excessive." Bruno Tertrais. "Saving the NPT: Past and Future Non-Proliferation Bargains", Nonproliferation Policy Education Center, January 29, 2005 (Presented at NPEC's Conference "Is Nuclear Proliferation Inevitable?" held in Paris, France November 2004). Retrieved October 25, 2006.</ref><ref>"All of these conflicts have resulted in suffering on a far greater scale than the conflict between Israel and its Arab adversaries. All of them are in part the outcomes of actions of regimes which in varying degrees actually deserve the epithets 'colonial', 'apartheid', 'Nazi'." Bernard Harrison. ''The Resurgence of Anti-Semitism: Jews, Israel, and Liberal Opinion'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2006, p. 134. ISBN 0742552276</ref> |
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{{R from less specific name}} |
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==Use== |
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{{R from short name}} |
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] writes in the bi-monthly magazine, '']'' of the modern use of the word in post-apartheid South Africa:<ref name="Tredoux">'']'': A bimonthly magazine issued on the Internet, pinc confronts political correctness, taboo subjects and latter-day shibboleths. Race, intelligence, feminism, postmodernism, higher education, speech codes and more. Volume 2, Number 2, December 1998. "" written by Gavan Tredoux. Accessed on July 22nd, 2007.</ref> |
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<blockquote>Unfortunately, many things are meant by "apartheid", confusing any discussion of it. Since history is often politics by other means, the term has been used pejoratively to denote anything disliked. As the political climate has changed, so too has the meaning of apartheid, as it is assigned to new targets. Major uses of the word, in order of descending generality, are: |
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<br /> |
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* Everything |
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* The White State |
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* Social Segregation |
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* Indirect Rule |
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</blockquote> |
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A 1986 op-ed published by the Toronto-based Urban Alliance on Race Relations argued that "South Africa is not the only country where the Native population has been set apart legally, geographically and economically on a purely genetic basis," and maintained that Canadian state policies towards its indigenous people were similar in kind though not degree to those of apartheid South Africa : |
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<blockquote>For those who shy away from the suggestion that parallel exist between conditions in Canada and South Africa, it is important realize that "simply because the framework of apartheidism is not written into a constitution does not mean that it is not a component nor a reality nation." Although the laws and policies of the two countries are not the same as the existence of racial repression which allies them, and not the degree or extent to which it occurs. While the intensity of personal oppression varies considerably, the result is the same as in South Africa: "The native population has been herded on to reduced territories in order to make way for others."<ref name="DuCharme">"", written by Michèle DuCharme. From: '']''. Summer, 1986, pp. 3-4. Accessed on July 22nd, 2007. </ref></blockquote> |
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== Definition of the International Criminal Court == |
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{{main|Crime of apartheid}} |
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According to the ], "'The crime of apartheid' means inhumane acts... committed in the context of an institutionalised regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any other racial group or groups and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime".<ref>, retrieved June 9, 2006.</ref></blockquote> |
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The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court came into effect on April 11, 2002 when it was ratified by the minimum of 60 nations. As of July 2007, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court has been ratified by 104 nations and signed by an additional 35 nations.<ref name="ICC list of signatories"></ref> The 58 remaining nations (of the 197 nations recognized by the ]) that have not signed it (or have unsigned it), notably the ], ], ] and ],<ref>"As of April 2007, the treaty had been ratified by 104 states. The four most prominent non-parties are the United States, Russia, India and China." Eric Neumayer, {{PDFlink||160 ]<!-- application/pdf, 164823 bytes -->}} , London School of Economics and Political Science and Center for the Study of Civil War, International Peace Research Institute, April 2007, p. 4.</ref> are not subject to ] unless the matter is referred to the ] by the ].<ref> of the Rome Statute. Accessed 2006-11-23.</ref> For further details on national ratification and exceptions, see the ]. |
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==Countries== |
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===Afghanistan=== |
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{{seealso|Taliban treatment of women}} |
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], under ] religious leadership, has been characterized by ] groups and others as a "]" system where women are segregated from men in public and do not enjoy legal equality or equal access to employment or education.<ref>Hunter, D. Lyn. ''The Berkleyan'', March 17, 1999.</ref> <ref>, ] website, Accessed June 25, 2006.</ref> In 1997 the ] launched a "Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid in Afghanistan", which urged the ] government and the ] to "do everything in their power to restore the human rights of Afghan women and girls." The campaign included a petition to U.N. ] ] and U.N. Assistant Secretary General ] which stated, in part, that "We, the undersigned, deplore the Taliban’s brutal decrees and gender apartheid in Afghanistan."<ref>{{PDFlink||55.1 ]<!-- application/pdf, 56424 bytes -->}}, Global Petition Flyer, ].</ref> In 1998 activists from the ] picketed ]'s ] office, arguing that its proposed pipeline through Afghanistan was collaborating with "gender apartheid".<ref>, ], Fall 1998.</ref> In a weekly presidential address in November 2001 ] also accused the Taliban of practising "gender apartheid".<ref>Otis, John. , ''] News Service, November 18, 2001.</ref> '']'' referred to the Taliban's 1997 order that medical services for women be partly or completely suspended in all hospitals in the capital city of ] as "Health apartheid".<ref>Block, Max. , '']'', November 24, 1997.</ref> According to the Women's Human Rights Resource Programme of the ] ] Law Library "Throughout the duration of Taliban rule in Afghanistan, the term "Gender Apartheid" was used by a number of women's rights advocates to convey the message that the rights violations experience by Afghan women were in substance no different than those experienced by blacks in Apartheid South Africa." <ref>, Women's Human Rights Resource Programme, ] ] Law Library.</ref> |
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===Australia=== |
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{{seealso|White Australia policy}} |
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'''Allegations of apartheid''' based on race have been made against ]. Though the ], which had segregated ], no longer exists, their poor socio-economic conditions typically leave them segregated from the rest of Australian society. The situation in ] led one activist to suggest that the country could be led "back to apartheid".<ref>http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/054.html</ref> In fact, Australian government policy from earlier years is viewed by some as the original impetus for the Apartheid system in South Africa.<ref>http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/177.html </ref><ref>http://www.jcu.edu.au/aff/history/articles/limb.htm </ref> |
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===Brazil=== |
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{{main|Allegations of Brazilian apartheid}} |
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===Bosnia and Herzegovina=== |
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] of '']'' has argued that ] is "a dependent, stifled, apartheid regime". In his view, the ] control of Bosnia under the ], which he described as "UN-sanctioned liberal imperialism", creates "dependency, stifles civil society, and produces a highly visible financial apartheid in which an international salariat lords it over a war-wounded and jobless local population." <ref>]. . '']'', November 11, 2005.</ref> |
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===Canada=== |
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]'s treatment of its native peoples has been described as "Canada's Apartheid".<ref>http://www.theglobeandmail.com/series/apartheid/stories/introduction.html</ref> In 1966, ] stated: |
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<blockquote>The history of the Indian people for the last century has been the history of the impingement of white civilization upon the Indian: the Indian was virtually powerless to resist the white civilization; the white community of B.C. adopted a policy of apartheid. This, of course, has already been done in eastern Canada and on the Prairies, but the apartheid policy adopted in B.C. was of a particularly cruel and degrading kind. They began by taking the Indians' land without any surrender and without their consent. Then they herded the Indian people on to ]s. This was nothing more nor less than apartheid, and that is what it still is today.<ref>http://collections.ic.gc.ca/magic/mt3.html</ref></blockquote> |
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In the 1980s, the Urban Alliance on Race Relations compared Canada's practices to Apartheid, and stated "Perhaps the most severe and yet overlooked example of discriminatory practices towards Canadians is to be found in the treatment of our own indigenous people, the Native Canadians".<ref>http://collections.ic.gc.ca/magic/mt3.html</ref> Canada's citizenship laws (described as "apartheid laws") did not grant full citizenship to native peoples until 1985.<ref>http://www.danielnpaul.com/Col/1994/RegisteredIndianCitizenship.html</ref> Even in the 21st century, according to Canada's '']'' newspaper, "Economically, socially, politically, culturally, we have come to accept a quiet apartheid that segregates, and thus weakens, native and non-native society",<ref>http://www.theglobeandmail.com/series/apartheid/stories/introduction.html</ref> and in 2004 the Canadian Taxpayers Federation described Canada's Indian Act, and reserve system for native Indians, as "Apartheid: Canada's ugly secret".<ref>http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/admin/events/files/Apartheid%20Study.pdf</ref> |
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===People's Republic of China=== |
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{{main|Allegations of Chinese apartheid}} |
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===Cuba=== |
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{{main|Allegations of tourist apartheid in Cuba}} |
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===France=== |
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{{main|Allegations of French apartheid}} |
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===French Algeria=== |
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{{seealso|French rule in Algeria}} |
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Following its conquest of ] controlled ] in 1830, for well over a century ] maintained ] in the territory which has been described as "quasi-apartheid".<ref name=Bell>"Algeria was in fact a colony but constitutionally was a part of France and not thought of in the 1950s (even by many on the left) as a colony. It was a society of nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians who were dominated by the million settlers of diverse origins (but fiercely French) who maintained a quasi-apartheid regime." Bell, David Scott. ''Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France'', Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36.</ref> The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and Berber Algerians to apply for French citizenship only if they abandoned their Muslim identity; Azzedine Haddour argues that this established "the formal structures of a political apartheid".<ref>" ''senatus-consulte'' of 1865 stipulated that all the colonised indigenous were under French jurisdiction, i.e., French nationals subjected to French laws, but it restricted citizenship only to those who renounced their Muslim religion and culture. There was an obvious split in French legal discourse: a split between nationality and citizenship which established the formal structures of a political apartheid encouraging the existence of 'French subjects' disenfranchised, without any rights to citizenship, treated as objects of French law and not citizens". Debra Kelly. ''Autobiography And Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French'', Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43.</ref> Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, "n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates", this "colonial apartheid society" was unique to Algeria.<ref name=Bonora-Waisman>"In contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates, Algeria was made an integral part of France and became a colony of settlement for more than one million Europeans... under colonial rule, Algerians encountered France's 'civilising mission' only through the plundering of lands and colonial apartheid society..." Bonora-Waisman, Camille. ''France and the Algerian Conflict: Issues in Democracy and Political Stability, 1988-1995'', Ashgate Publishing, 2003, p. 3.</ref> |
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This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the ].<ref name=Wall>"As a settler colony with an internal system of apartheid, administered under the fiction that it was part of metropolitan France, and endowed with a powerful colonial lobby that virtually determined the course of French politics with respect to its internal affairs, it experienced insurrection in 1954 on the part of its Muslim population." Wall, Irwin M. ''France, the United States, and the Algerian War'', University of California Press, 2001, p. 262.</ref></blockquote> |
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===India=== |
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]'s treatment of its lower-class ]s has been described by ] as "India's hidden apartheid".<ref>http://www.unesco.org/courier/2001_09/uk/doss22.htm</ref> According to Rajeev Dhavan, of India's leading English-language newspaper '']'', "''casteism'' is India's apartheid which will continue in its most vicious and persistent forms for decades to come."<ref>http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/08/24/stories/05242523.htm</ref> ] has claimed that India "frantically tr to prevent its caste system, which is often called ‘hidden apartheid" from being put on the agenda of the 2001 ] in ].<ref>http://www.ericmargolis.com/archives/2001/08/indias_hidden_a.php</ref> |
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Critics of the accusations point out the substantial improvements in the rights of Dalits (former "Untouchables") enshrined in the ] (primarily written by a ], ]), which is the principal object of article 17 in the Constitution as implemented by the Protection of Civil rights Act, 1955 <ref>The Constitution of India by P.M. Bakshi, Universal Law Publishing Co, ISBN 8175345004</ref> and the fact that India has had a ], ], for a ], as well as the disappearance of the practise in urban public life<ref name "Mendelsohn">Mendelsohn, Oliver & Vicziany, Maria, "The Untouchables, Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India", Cambridge University Press, 1998</ref>.{{page number}} Sociologists Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman, Angela Bodino, while being critical of casteism, conclude that modern India does not practice any "apartheid" since there is no state sanctioned discrimination.<ref name="Reilley et al">Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman, Angela Bodino, Racism: A Global Reader P21, M.E. Sharpe, 2003 ISBN 0765610604.</ref> They write that ]ism in India is presently "not apartheid. In fact, untouchables, as well as tribal people and members of the lowest castes in India benefit from broad ] and are enjoying greater political power."<ref name="Reilley et al"/> |
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According to William A. Haviland, however: |
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<blockquote>Although India's national constitution of 1950 sought to abolish cast discrimination and the practice of untouchability, the caste system remains deeply entrenched in Hindu culture and is still widespread throughout southern Asia, especially in rural India. In what has been called India's "hidden apartheid", entire villages in many Indian states remain completely segregated by caste. Representing about 15 percent of India's population—or some 160 million people—the widely scatter Dalits endure near complete social isolation, humiliation, and discrimination based exclusively on their birth status. Even a Dalit's shadow is believed to pollute the upper classes. They may not cross the line dividing their part of the village from that occupied by higher castes, drink water from public wells, or visit the same temples as the higher castes. Dalit children are still often made to sit in the back of classrooms.<ref>William A. Haviland, ''Anthropology: The Human Challenge'', 10th edition, Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, ISBN 0534623611, p. 575.</ref></blockquote> |
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===Iran=== |
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Iranian human rights activist ] has described Iran's government as "dangerous" because it "is willing to create gender apartheid in the name of religion."<ref></ref> |
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In an article titled "Islamic gender apartheid", the feminist human rights activist ] asserted that: "In a democratic, modern, and feminist era, women in the Islamic world are not treated as human beings. Women in Iran and elsewhere in the Islamic world are viewed as the source of all evil. Their every move is brutally monitored and curtailed. The smallest infraction – a wanton wisp of hair escaping a headscarf – merits maximum punishment: Flogging in public, or worse. This is happening in Iran even as we speak. In 2005, a hospital in Tehran was accused of refusing entry to women who did not wear head-to-toe covering.."<ref> Phyllis Chesler, "", '']'', December 16, 2005</ref> |
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===Israel=== |
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{{main|Allegations of Israeli apartheid}} |
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===Jordan=== |
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Jordan's allows Palestinian nationals who were resident in Jordan (or the Jordanian occupied West Bank) from 1949 to 1954 to acquire Jordanian citizenship, unless Jewish: |
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{{quotation|The following shall be deemed to be Jordanian nationals: ...Any person who, not being Jewish, possessed Palestinian nationality before 15 May 1948 and was a regular resident in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan between 20 December 1949 and 16 February 1954.|Law No. 6 of 1954 on Nationality|}} Jordan's laws against Jewish citizenship or land ownership have been described by ]<ref>{{cite book |
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| last = Natanyahu |
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| first = Benjamin |
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| authorlink = Benjamin Natanyahu |
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| title = A Durable Peace: Israel and its Place Among the Nations |
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| year = 2000 |
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| month = January |
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| publisher = ] |
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| location = ] |
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| id = ISBN 0446523062 |
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| pages = |
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| quote =Jordanian apartheid laws forbidding Jewish residence go unnoticed |
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}} |
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</ref>, ]<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.jewishjournal.com/home/preview.php?id=16892 |
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| title = Jimmy Carter Mideast book shows his anti-Israel bias |
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| accessdate = 2007-07-19 |
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| last =Dershowitz |
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| first = Alan |
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| authorlink = Alan Dershowitz |
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| date = ], ] |
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| publisher = Jewish Journal |
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|quote = The reality is that other Arab and Muslim nations do in fact practice apartheid. In Jordan, no Jew can be a citizen or own land. |
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}}</ref> and Menachem Kellner<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.biu.ac.il/academic_freedom/Resisting%20Falsehood%20and%20Protecting%20Integrity%20-%20Menachem%20Kellner.rtf |
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| title = "Resisting Falsehood and Protecting Integrity" |
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| accessdate = 2007-07-23 |
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| last = Kellner |
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| first = Menachem |
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| date = ], ] |
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| publisher = ] |
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|quote = If I were to look for truly apartheid societies in the world, it is not to Israel that I would look, but to many countries in the Arab world...the fact that not a single Jewish community exists in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan... |
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}}</ref> as ]. |
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] has accused the ] of ignoring Jordanian apartheid laws during its ] which prevented Jews from accessing the ].<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.factsandlogic.org/flame_hotline_051806-p.html |
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| title = 16 Important Facts About Jews, Arabs and Israel |
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| accessdate = 2007-07-23 |
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| date = ], ] |
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| publisher = ] |
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|quote = ...it remained silent when Jordan enforced apartheid laws preventing Jews from accessing the Temple Mount and Western Wall. |
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}}</ref> |
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===Malaysia=== |
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{{main|Bumiputra}} |
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In 2006 Marina Mahathir, the daughter of ]'s former Prime Minister, and a campaigner for women's rights, described the status of ] women in Malaysia as similar to that of Black South Africans under apartheid. She was apparently doing so in response to new family laws which make it easier for Muslim men to divorce wives, or take multiple wives, or gain access to their property. Mahathir stated ""In our country, there is an insidious growing form of apartheid among Malaysian women, that between Muslim and non-Muslim women."<ref name="bbcm">http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4795808.stm</ref> According to the '']'', she sees Muslim Malaysian women as "subject to a form of apartheid - second-class citizens held back by discriminatory rules that do not apply to non-Muslim women."<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4784784.stm</ref> Her comments were strongly criticized: the Malaysian Muslim Professionals Forum stated "Her prejudiced views and assumptions smack of ignorance of the objectives and methodology of the Sharia, and a slavish capitulation to western feminism's notions of women's rights, gender equality and sexuality," and Dr Harlina Halizah Siraj, women's chief of the reform group ] said "Women in Malaysia are given unlimited opportunities to obtain high education level, we are free to choose our profession and career besides enjoying high standard of living with our families."<ref name="bbcm"/> |
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=== New Zealand === |
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In the 1950s the still-current practice of reserving ] ] was described by some politicians as "as a form of 'apartheid', like in South Africa".<ref>"In the 1950s and 1960s the National government occasionally talked of abolishing the Maori seats. Some politicians described special representation as a form of 'apartheid', like in South Africa." , Elections New Zealand website, April 9 2005. Retrieved November 3, 2006.</ref> In June, 2000, ], leader of the ] party, described New Zealand's "]" program, its allocation of almost a billion dollars for Māori and Pacific Islanders, as "]".<ref>, '']'', Jun 15, 2000.</ref> |
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=== Pakistan === |
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Pakistan has a separate electoral system for different religions which has been described as 'political Apartheid'. Hindu community leader Sudham Chand protested against the system but was murdered . |
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=== Puerto Rico === |
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====History==== |
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Rose Clemente, a black Puerto Rican columnist wrote ''Until 1846, Blacks on the island had to carry a ] to move around the island, like the passbook system in apartheid South Africa'' <ref>http://www.finalcall.com/perspectives/who_is_black07-10-2001.htm</ref> |
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====Socio-economic==== |
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In ''Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History'' by Barbara N. Ramusack & Sharon L. Sievers, the comparison is made between the sterilization of Females in Puerto Rico and the South African apartheid governments birth control programs for blacks in South Africa. |
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{{cquote|In Puerto Rico one-third of the women of childbearing age were sterilized by the government in the 1960s in one the early attempts at widespread population control following policies initiated by the US government. The White regime in South Africa promoted 'birth control' among blacks as apart of the larger plan of apartheid.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PR30&dq=puerto+rico+apartheid&sig=2Qgbhs9qeBRUUZ_UJWZ7gm23dLo</ref>|cquote}} |
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Suzanne Irizarry de Lopez a Puerto Rican woman of the Eastern Research Services wrote an article ' ''The apartheid of American marketing'' ' In which she talks of the apartheid she suffered.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =The apartheid of American marketing |
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| work = |
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| publisher =Hispanic MPR |
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| date =February 12, 1999 |
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| url =http://www.hispanicmpr.com/resources/articles/the-apartheid-of-american-marketing/ |
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| accessdate = 2007-7-22 }}</ref> |
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====Relations with the US federal government==== |
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In the ''Caribbean Studies'' journal (Resea de "Foreign in a domestic sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion and the constitution") Carlos Ivan Gorrin Peralta describes the relationship between the United States and its territories, specifically Puerto Rico, as one that "compromises the founding values of the Republic by establishing an apartheid-like regime of "two constitutions."<ref>{{cite journal |
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| last = Peralta |
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| first = Gorin, Ivan Carlos |
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| authorlink = Carlos Ivan Gorrin Peralta |
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| title =Caribbean studies, Resea de "Foreign in a domestic sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion and the constitution |
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| year = 2004 |
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| month = July-December |
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| publisher = ] |
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| location = ] |
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| pages = 275-281 |
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| volume = 32 |
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| number = 002 |
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| url =http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/pdf/392/39232213.pdf |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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Roberto Guzman of the The San Juan Star wrote of Puerto Rico and the United States argues against the position that the current status is the "best of both worlds" saying it is "nonsense that keeps Puerto Rico in a permanent state of political apartheid."<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =US Congressman Urging Independence for PR Lives Paradox |
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| publisher =San Juan Star |
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| date =February 12, 1999 |
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| url =http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/vol3n08/Gutierrez-en.html |
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| accessdate = 2007-7-22 }}</ref> |
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Alejandro Luis Molina, of the ''National Boricua Human Rights Network Coordinating Committee'' points out that Puerto Rico is a colony where the "incarceration rate for Black men in 2005 was higher than for Blacks under Apartheid South Africa."<ref>{{cite web |
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| last =Molina |
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| first =Luis, Alejandro |
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| authorlink = Alejandro Luis Molina |
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| title =Not Enough Space |
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| work = |
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| publisher =National Boricua Human Rights Network Coordinating Committee |
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| date = |
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| url =http://www.boricuahumanrights.org/not_enough_space/next_chapter.html |
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| accessdate = 2007-7-22 }}</ref> |
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During the ], a newspaper article in the ] was entitled ''Welcome to our cozy tropical apartheid'' arguing the violations of the civil rights of Puerto Ricans in Vieques - who are US citizens - by the US Navy constituted a form of apartheid.<ref>http://www.cosmos.ne.jp/~miyagawa/nagocnet/data/viequeste.html</ref>.<!-- ref is for title of article, article itself not available online, but the quote from the source is correct--> |
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===Saudi Arabia=== |
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{{main|Allegations of Saudi Arabian apartheid}} |
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===Former Soviet Union=== |
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Soviet writers often used the term "apartheid" as a political epithet during the ],<ref>{{ru icon}} (BBC)</ref> in order to contrast the "rotting capitalism"<ref>]'s expression</ref> as colonialist and racist, with declared advantages of ] such as ]. After the ], the pejorative is still being used in the political discourse, for example to describe national problems within Russia<ref>{{ru icon}} (2001)</ref><ref>{{ru icon}} (], 2005)</ref>, or the status of ethnic Russian minority in the ]<ref>{{ru icon}} (1996)</ref><ref>{{ru icon}} (2004)</ref><ref>{{ru icon}} (2003)</ref> or the situation in ].<ref>{{ru icon}} (2006)</ref> |
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===Sri Lanka=== |
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Some ]s have accused the ruling ] government in ] of discriminating against them, exhibiting attitudes identical to those of apartheid South Africa, and of collaborating with that government. According to ''People Against Sri Lankan Oppression'' (PASLO) "No matter how the Sri Lankan government tries to camouflage the discrimination against the Tamil people of Ceylon, it is exactly the same as apartheid was in South Africa. We firmly believe that due to the collaboration between the Apartheid government of South Africa and the Sri Lankan government, the Sri Lankan government have learnt and is using the same tactics used by the White Racist government. The Sri Lankan government cannot deny that they received arms from the Apartheid regime."<ref>, People Against Sri Lankan Oppression (PASLO) Press Release, November 14, 1998.</ref> Opponents of Tamil separatism have in turn have accused the Tamils of apartheid; the ''Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity'' has stated that Tamil separatists wish to create an "apartheid-style state called 'Tamil Eelam'", and that attempts at devolution are examples of "apartheid and racism".<ref>, Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity, publication no. 25b.</ref> |
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===United Kingdom=== |
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The ] has been accused of "sleepwalking toward apartheid" by ], chair of that country's ]. Philips has said that Britain is fragmenting into isolated racial communities: "literal black holes into which no one goes without fear and trepidation and nobody escapes undamaged". Philips believes that racial segregation in Britain is approaching that of the United States. "You can get to the point as they have in the U.S. where things are so divided that there is no turning back." <ref name=Freeman>Freeman, Simon. , The Times, September 22, 2005.</ref> |
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The BBC has reported that the latest crime statistics appear to support Phillips' concerns. They show that race-hate crimes increased by almost 600 per cent in ] in the month after the ], with 269 more offenses allegedly "motivated by religious hatred" reported to the ], compared to the same period last year. <ref name=Freeman/> |
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Archbishop ] has likened the British government's detention of ] suspects without charge to South Africa under apartheid. Tutu told the BBC: "Ninety days for a South African is an awful ] because we had in South Africa in the bad old days a 90-day detention law." <ref name=GuardianTutu>, '']'', February 17, 2006.</ref> |
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===United States=== |
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In ''Lombard v. Louisiana''<ref> '''' (1963).</ref> and ''Bell v. Maryland''<ref> '''' (1964).</ref>, ] ] ] described segregation in the American South as apartheid. |
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In '']'', ] and ] argue that while ] is typically viewed as something that ended in the 1960's, it exists to this day. Massey and Denton cite the inequality in living conditions of American blacks compared to the rest of the populace, as well as the cultural desolation of black ghettos. The arguments of this book were found largely convincing by ] of '']'': |
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<blockquote>It seemed to me in 1974 that it was now basically up to the processes of social change, abetted by the expected continuing and increased economic and social mobility of blacks, to change the pattern of black segregation.... A decent respect for freedom of association and for the differences among people should be observed by government, and it should stand back from efforts to push the desired objective of integration. Integration would happen in any case, as a result of economic, political, and social changes that were inevitable. |
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<p> |
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These views, whatever evidence could have been collected to support them in the middle 1970s, now strike me as complacent. Some of these expected changes did take place. But the one area in which my seemingly reasonable expectations have remained unrealized has been housing and residential integration, and, as a consequence, school integration. |
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<p> |
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The facts have been developed most starkly and presented most effectively by Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton in American Apartheid. Thirty years after the civil rights revolution and the revolutionary change in the legal posture affecting discrimination, the situation can only be described as extremely depressing. The authors develop measures of both "segregation" and "isolation, " calculated on different bases and reflecting somewhat different realities, but the picture for both indices reflects so high a degree of separation that it is hardly necessary to go into the details.<ref>Glazer, Nathan (1997). ''We Are All Multiculturalists Now''. Harvard University, pg. 130. </ref></blockquote> |
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] ], ]]] |
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The claim of "American apartheid" has also been used in reference to the disparity between white and black schools in America. Those who compare this inequality to apartheid frequently point to unequal funding for predominantly black schools.<ref>Singer, Alan. </ref> ] covered these issues in depth in an article for '']'' entitled "Still Separate, Still Unequal: America's Educational Apartheid." Kozol wrote: |
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<blockquote>Many Americans who live far from our major cities and who have no firsthand knowledge of the realities to be found in urban public schools seem to have the rather vague and general impression that the great extremes of racial isolation that were matters of grave national significance some thirty-five or forty years ago have gradually but steadily diminished in more recent years. The truth, unhappily, is that the trend, for well over a decade now, has been precisely the reverse. Schools that were already deeply segregated twenty-five or thirty years ago are no less segregated now, while thousands of other schools around the country that had been integrated either voluntarily or by the force of law have since been rapidly resegregating. |
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<p> |
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In Chicago, by the academic year 2002-2003, 87 percent of public-school enrollment was black or Hispanic; less than 10 percent of children in the schools were white. In Washington, D.C., 94 percent of children were black or Hispanic; less than 5 percent were white. In St. Louis, 82 percent of the student population were black or Hispanic; in Philadelphia and Cleveland, 79 percent; in Los Angeles, 84 percent, in Detroit, 96 percent; in Baltimore, 89 percent. In New York City, nearly three quarters of the students were black or Hispanic. |
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<p> |
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Even these statistics, as stark as they are, cannot begin to convey how deeply isolated children in the poorest and most segregated sections of these cities have become.<ref>Kozol, John. Harper's Magazine v.311, n.1864 1sep2005</ref></blockquote> |
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Kozol expanded on this topic in his book ''The Shame of the Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling in America.'' |
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The "New American apartheid" refers to the allegation that US drug and criminal policies in practice target blacks on the basis of race. The radical left-wing web-magazine ] featured a series of 4 articles on "The New American Apartheid" in which it drew parrallels between the treatment of blacks by the American justice system and apartheid: |
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<blockquote>Modern prisoners occupy the lowest rungs on the social class ladder, and they always have. The modern prison system (along with local jails) is a collection of ghettos or poorhouses reserved primarily for the unskilled, the uneducated, and the powerless. In increasing numbers this system is being reserved for racial minorities, especially blacks, which is why we are calling it the New American Apartheid. This is the same segment of American society that has experienced some of the most drastic reductions in income and they have been targeted for their involvement in drugs and the subsequent violence that extends from the lack of legitimate means of goal attainment.<ref>Shelden, Randall G. |
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and William B. Brown. </ref></blockquote> |
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In her 2007 book, ''Medical Apartheid. The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans From Colonial Times to the Present'', ] describes past practices such as the "]," in which 400 black men with ] were left untreated for 40 years from 1932 until 1972.<ref>. NPR</ref><ref> by Denise Grady. IHT. January 24, 2007</ref> |
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==Other allegations== |
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===Global=== |
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'''Global apartheid''' is a term used by some on the left to describe the ]'s relationship to the ]. It is defined as a "an international system of ]" in which a largely white minority in ] keeps the rest of the world, particularly ], poor. According to the theory an international mostly white minority enjoy greater access to ], economic wealth and power by virtue of ] endemic in the world economic system and the international power structure. Global apartheid makes acceptable the existence of inferior rights for a majority of the world's population due to their race, origin, location or gender.<ref> |
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* by Salih Booker and William Minter in '']'', ] ] |
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* resources from the Africa Action website. |
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* by ]. |
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* by ] |
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* from the ]</ref> |
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===Sexual=== |
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'''Sexual apartheid''' is a term specifically used by some ] advocates to describe a legal system that "subjects lesbians and gays to separate and unequal treatment in terms of the laws governing sexual behaviour, marriage, employment, child adoption, membership of the armed forces and so on."<ref>http://www.petertatchell.net/discrimination/discrimination%20-%20sexual%20apartheid.htm</ref> The concept of "sexual apartheid" is used to argue against legal discrimination in ] between heterosexual and homosexual sex and the non-recognition of ] or the advocacy of ] as a substitute<ref>http://www.scottishgreens.org.uk/site/id/3927/title/CIVIL_PARTNERSHIPS_BILL_DOES_NOT_END_SEXUAL_APARTHEID.html</ref> are cited. The term has also been used to describe differential treatment of women in institutions such as the ]<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,580180,00.html</ref> and the ].<ref>http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/jan1978/v34-4-article6.htm</ref> |
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===Social=== |
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'''Social apartheid''' is a term used to refer to ''de facto'' segregation on the basis of class or economic status in which an ] develops which is separated from the rest of the population.<ref></ref> The term has become common in societies where the polarization between rich and poor has become pronounced and has been identified in public policy as a problem that needs to be overcome, particularly ], where the term was coined to describe a situation where wealthy neighbourhoods are protected from the general population by walls, electric barbed wire and private security guards<ref>]. , '']'', Volume 2 Issue 2, Spring 2003.</ref> and where inhabitants of the poor slums are subjected to violence.<ref></ref> It has also been used to refer to ] where the supporters of ] identify social apartheid as a reality which the wealthy try to maintain<ref>Paul-Emile Dupret. '']''. September 14, 2004.</ref> |
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In ] the term has also been used to explain and describe the ghettoization of Muslim immigrants to Europe in impoverished suburbs<ref></ref> and as a cause of rioting and other violence. (See ]. In ], the term "social apartheid" has been used to describe persistent post-] forms of exclusion and de facto segregation which exist based on class but which have a racial component due to the fact that the poor are almost entirely African.<ref>Kate Stanley. , Star Tribune (Minneapolis, MN), October 1, 2000.]</ref><ref>Andrew Kopkind.]'', November 22, 1986.</ref> "Social apartheid" has been cited as a factor in the composition of ]/] in South Africa.<ref>Rochelle R. Davidson. , Villanova University (2004).</ref> |
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===Nuclear/scientific/technical=== |
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]'s foreign minister has described attempts to stop it from gaining nuclear capabilities as '''nuclear apartheid''' and '''scientific apartheid'''. In a November 2005 guest column in '']'', ] said that the West's demands Iran "surrender its inalienable right to fully master nuclear technology" were "nuclear apartheid". <ref>, Aljazeera, December 26, 2005.</ref> <ref>, News24.com, November 30, 2005.</ref> In subsequent statements in February 2006 he insisted that "Iran rejects all forms of scientific and nuclear apartheid by any world power", and asserted that this "scientific and nuclear apartheid" was "an immoral and discriminatory treatment of signatories to the ]", <ref>, globalsecurity.org, February 15, 2006.</ref> and that Iran has "the right to a peaceful use of nuclear energy and we cannot accept nuclear apartheid". <ref> Iran Press News, February 27, 2006.</ref> His words were later echoed in a June 2006 speech by Iran's deputy chief nuclear negotiator Javad Vaeedi, in which he claimed that "] are moving towards destroying technological apartheid". <ref>, '']'', June 23, 2006.</ref> |
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===Urban=== |
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In the context of ] in ], '''urban apartheid''' was a component of the apartheid system and referred to "the spatial separation of the four racial groups according to the ] of 1950 into group areas according to the ] of 1950." |
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Outside of South Africa it has been used to refer to ] of minority populations in cities within particular suburbs or neighborhoods. The term has been used in ] to describe the situation of largely impoverished Muslim immigrants being concentrated in particular suburban housing projects and being provided with an inferior standard of infrastructure and social services.. This issue has been heavily discussed in the aftermath of the ].. (see ]). |
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===Water=== |
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Kevin Watkins, the author of the 2006 ] report (titled "Beyond scarcity"), has decried what he describes as '''water apartheid''', the relative lack of access to clean water faced by poor people and people in poor countries. In his view, the reason little has been done about this, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, is because the children of the wealthy do not suffer from the disease and mortality caused by un-clean water.<ref>Lyon, David. , '']'', November 9, 2006.</ref> |
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==See also== |
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==References== |
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<div class="references-small"><references/></div> |
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