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{{Short description|Period of Romania under the Soviet occupation}} | |||
{{pov-title}} | |||
{{History of Romania}} | |||
]ers greet the ] entering the city on ], ].<br><small>Portrait by A. Novikov of the Soviet State Archive</small>.]] | |||
], ], and ] with ], ] and {{ill|Ivan Susaikov|ro}}, at the Soviet legation în Bucharest, 11 March 1945]] | |||
The '''Soviet occupation of Romania''' refers<ref>The term "occupation" is widely used by Western and post-Revolutionary Romanian historians. Examples include: | |||
* "Soviet forces occupied Romania in 1944 and stayed for more than a decade." ], ], ''Romania Versus the United States: Diplomacy of the Absurd, 1985–1989'', p. 2. ], 1994, {{ISBN|0-312-12059-1}}. | |||
During their ] offensive of 1944, the ] occupied ]. The northwestern part of ] was occupied through fighting from May to August, while ] was still an ally of ]. The rest was occupied after Romania changed sides in the ] as a result of the ] launched by ] on ]. On that date, the King announced that Romania had unilaterally ceased all military actions against the ], had accepted the Allied armistice offer,<ref>{{ro icon}} </ref> and had entered war against the ]. As no formal armistice offer existed, the ] occupied most of Romania as enemy territory prior to the signature of the Moscow Armistice of ], ]. | |||
* "Soviet occupation troops had been withdrawn in 1958." Gordon L. Rottman, Ron Volstad, ''Warsaw Pact Ground Forces'', p. 45. Osprey, 1987, {{ISBN|0-85045-730-0}}. | |||
* "The country had to endure a long Soviet occupation (until 1958), and to pay the Soviets massive reparations." ], ''Romania: Borderland of Europe'', p. 106. Reaktion Books, 2001, {{ISBN|1-86189-103-2}}. | |||
* "Soviet occupation forces in Romania unlimited interference in Romanian political life." Verona (''Military Occupation and Diplomacy: Soviet Troops in Romania, 1944-1958''), p. 31. | |||
* "In June 1958, based on complex arrangements between the Romanians, the Russians, and the Yugoslavs, the occupying Soviet Army units left Romania." Tismăneanu, p. 25. "Romanian communists remained an unappealing marginal group until the occupation of the country by the Red Army in 1944." ''ibid.'', p. 59. "The Soviet Army occupied Romanian territory and ... the Soviet-controlled political formation called the RCP was exploiting this state of affairs to establish a Stalinist regime as soon as possible, whatever the human cost." ''ibid.'', p. 91. | |||
* "The primary focus is the occupation of the rest of Romania from 1944 to 1958...There is little doubt that the Soviet occupation had a devastating economic, political, and social impact on Romania." ], review of ''The Red Army in Romania'', in '']'', Vol. 61, No. 1, 146-147, Spring 2002. | |||
* "The withdrawal of Soviet troops signified the end of the country's direct military occupation, which lasted 14 years." ''Istoria României în date'', p. 553. ], Bucharest, 2003, {{ISBN|973-45-0432-0}} | |||
* "] (who had, as an OSS officer, witnessed the brutal Soviet occupation of Romania)", David F. Rudgers, , ], vol. 35 , no. 2 (2000), 249–262 | |||
* Flori Stănescu, Dragoș Zamfirescu, ''Ocupația sovietică în România – Documente 1944-1946'' (''The Soviet Occupation in Romania – Documents 1944-1946''). Vremea, 1998, {{ISBN|973-9423-17-5}}. | |||
* "The first period of communist rule in Romania, 1944-1958 is defined by Stefan Fisher Galati as the loss of national identity by the destruction of the "bourgeois nationalist" legacy and the diminution of Romania's national sovereignty under a virtual Soviet occupation." Constantin Iordachi, "", MA Thesis, ], 1995-1996. | |||
</ref> to the period from 1944 to August 1958, during which the ] maintained a significant military presence in ]. The fate of the territories held by Romania after 1918 that were incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940 is treated separately in the article on ]. | |||
During the ] offensive of 1944, the Soviet Army occupied the northwestern part of ] ] that took place between the months of April and August of that year, while Romania was still an ally of ]. The rest of the territory was occupied after Romania changed sides in ], as a result of the ] launched by ] ] on August 23, 1944. On that date, the king announced that Romania had unilaterally ceased all military actions against the ], accepted the Allied armistice offer,<ref>{{in lang|ro}} Valeriu Râpeanu, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160228102833/http://www.curierulnational.ro/Specializat/2004-08-07/%E2%80%9CDictatura+a+luat+sfarsit+si+cu+ea+inceteaza+toate+asupririle%E2%80%9D |date=2016-02-28 }} (from the Proclamation to The Nation of King Michael I on the night of August 23, 1944), '']'', August 7, 2004</ref> and joined the war against the ]. As no formal armistice offer had been extended yet, the ] occupied most of Romania as enemy territory prior to the signing of the ] Armistice of September 12, 1944. | |||
The armistice convention and then the ] of 1947 gave a legal basis to the <!--duplicate-->the Soviet military presence in Romania, which lasted until August 1958, reaching a peak of some 615,000 in 1946.<ref>Verona, pp. 49–51</ref> | |||
The armistice convention and eventually the ] of 1947 provided a legal basis for the Soviet military presence in Romania, which lasted until 1958, reaching a peak of some 615,000 personnel in 1946.<ref>Verona, pp. 49–51</ref> | |||
Soviet authors and the ] referred to the events of 1944 as the "liberation of Romania by the glorious ]".<ref></ref> | |||
The Soviets and the Romanian communists referred to the events of August 1944 as the "liberation of Romania by the glorious Soviet Army" in the ],<ref>{{in lang|ro}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615131211/http://www.constitutia.ro/const1952.htm |date=2008-06-15 }}</ref> and August 23 (the day of ]) was celebrated as ]. On the other hand, most Western and Romanian anti-communist sources use the term "Soviet occupation of Romania," some applying it to the whole period from 1944 to 1958. | |||
However, most Romanian and Western sources use the term '''Soviet occupation of Romania''', some applying it to the whole period from 1944 to 1958.<ref>The term "occupation" is widely used by Western and post-Revolutionary Romanian historians. Examples include: | |||
*"Soviet forces occupied Romania in 1944 and stayed for more than a decade." Roger E. Kirk, ], ''Romania Versus the United States: Diplomacy of the Absurd, 1985-1989'', p. 2. ], 1994, ISBN 0312120591. | |||
*"Soviet occupation troops had been withdrawn in 1958." Gordon L. Rottman, Ron Volstad, ''Warsaw Pact Ground Forces'', p. 45. Osprey, 1987, ISBN 0850457300. | |||
*"The country had to endure a long Soviet occupation (until 1958), and to pay the Soviets massive reparations." ], ''Romania: Borderland of Europe'', p. 106. Reaktion Books, 2001, ISBN 1861891032. | |||
*"Soviet occupation forces in Romania unlimited interference in Romanian political life." Verona, p. 31. | |||
*"In June 1958, based on complex arrangements between the Romanians, the Russians, and the Yugoslavs, the occupying Soviet Army units left Romania." Tismăneanu, p. 25. "Romanian communists remained an unappealing marginal group until the occupation of the country by the Red Army in 1944." ''ibid.'', p. 59. "The Soviet Army occupied Romanian territory and ... the Soviet-controlled political formation called the RCP was exploiting this state of affairs to establish a Stalinist regime as soon as possible, whatever the human cost." ''ibid.'', p. 91. | |||
*"The primary focus is the occupation of the rest of Romania from 1944 to 1958...There is little doubt that the Soviet occupation had a devastating economic, political, and social impact on Romania." Aurel Braun, review of ''The Red Army in Romania'', in '']'', Vol. 61, No. 1, 146-147, Spring 2002. | |||
*"The withdrawal of Soviet troops signified the end of the country's direct military occupation, which lasted 14 years." ''Istoria României în date'', p. 553. ], Bucharest, 2003, ISBN 973-45-0432-0 | |||
*"] (who had, as an OSS officer, witnessed the brutal Soviet occupation of Romania)", David F. Rudgers, , Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 35 , no. 2 (2000), 249–262 | |||
*Flori Stănescu, Dragoş Zamfirescu, ''Ocupaţia sovietică în România - Documente 1944-1946'' (''The Soviet Occupation in Romania - Documents 1944-1946''). Vremea, 1998, ISBN 9739423175. | |||
* "The first period of the communist regime in Romania, 1944-1958 is defined by Stefan Fisher Galati as the loss of national identity by the destruction of the "bourgeois nationalist" legacy and the diminution of Romania's national sovereignty under a virtual Soviet occupation." Constantin Iordachi, "", MA Thesis, ], 1995-1996. | |||
</ref> | |||
==Background and beginning of the occupation== | == Background and beginning of the occupation == | ||
{{See also|Romania during World War II|1944 Romanian coup d'état}} | |||
After having withdrawn its troops from ] and Northern ] in response to the ], ] entered an alliance with ] and declared war on the ]. ]n troops entered ] in June 1941 as part of ], under the ]. Following the recapturing of the territory annexed by the Soviet Union in June 1940, Romanian troops occupied Southern ] all the way to the ]. However, Romania's eastern campaign ended in disaster, notably at the ]. | |||
''See also: ] and ]'' | |||
By the end of 1943, the ] had regained control over most of the Soviet territory, and was advancing westward beyond the borders of USSR to defeat ] and its allies. It was in this context that the ] and occupied Northern and Eastern ]. | |||
After having withdrawn from ] and Northern ] following the ], ] allied with ] and declared war on the ]. ]n troops, placed under the ], entered ] in 1941, as part of ]. After reoccupying the territory annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940, Romania also occupied Southern ] all the way to the ]. However Romania's eastern campaign ended in desaster, notably at ]. | |||
] entering Bucharest on August 31, 1944]] | |||
By the end of 1943, the ] had liberated most of the Soviet territory, advancing westward from its borders to defeat ] and its allies. It was in this context that the ] and occupied Northern and Eastern ]. | |||
On August 23, 1944, King Michael, supported by all major parties, launched ], thereby overthrowing the pro-Nazi government of ], and putting ] on the side of the ]. As a result, King Michael was the last monarch behind the ] to lose his throne, on December 30, 1947. | |||
The coup facilitated the advance of the Red Army into Romania at an accelerated pace,<ref name="US Cong"/> and enabled the combined Romanian and Soviet armies to liberate the country from the German occupation. In the absence of an actual signed armistice,<ref name="arta mil">Ioan Vlad, Alexandru Baboș, ''Războiul României pentru reîntregirea națională (1941–1945)'', Ch. 3, in ''Istoria artei militare'', Sibiu, 1996.</ref> the Soviet troops continued to treat the Romanians as a hostile force. The armistice was signed three weeks later, on September 12, 1944, "on terms ] virtually dictated."<ref name= "US Cong"></ref> The coup effectively amounted to a "capitulation",<ref>, '']'', August 25, 1944</ref> an "unconditional"<ref>, '']'', August 24, 1944</ref> "surrender"<ref name="US Cong"/><ref> </ref> to the Soviets and the rest of the Allies. In the wake of the cease fire order given by King Michael,<ref>{{in lang|ro}} Alexandru Duțu and Florica Dobre, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007125337/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi1998/current1/mi22.htm |date=2007-10-07 }}</ref> between 114,000<ref name="arta mil"/> and 160,000 Romanian soldiers were taken ] by the Soviets without resisting, and they were forced to march to remote detention camps, located in the Soviet Union; according to survivors interviewed in a 2004 documentary, up to a third of the prisoners perished on the way.<ref>Vartan Arachelian , '']'', August 16, 2004</ref> | |||
On ], ], in order to avoid fighting on Romanian territory in an increasingly unpopular war, King ] launched ], overthrowing the pro-Nazi government of ], and putting ] on the side of the ]. As a result, King Michael was spared the fate of another former German ally, ], executed by the Soviets in 1945; as a matter of fact, King Michael was the last monarch behind the ] to lose his throne, on ], ]. | |||
By August 30, Soviet troops had reached Bucharest;<ref name="Udrea2024">{{cite news|url=https://www.aktual24.ro/80-de-ani-de-la-ocuparea-bucurestiului-de-armata-rosie-30-august-1944-prin-soseaua-colentina-au-intrat-in-oras-hoarde-de-salbatici-zdrentarosi-si-desculti-calare-pe-tancuri-camioane-si-motociclet/|title=80 de ani de la ocuparea Bucureștiului de Armata Roșie. 30 august 1944: "Prin Șoseaua Colentina au intrat în oraș hoarde de sălbatici zdrențăroși și desculți călare pe tancuri, camioane și motociclete americane"|language=ro| first=Matei| last=Udrea|website=www.aktual24.ro|date=August 30, 2024|access-date=August 30, 2024}}</ref> by September 12, the Red Army had already gained control over much of the Romanian territory. Under the terms of its Armistice Agreement with the Allies, Romania became subject to an ], composed of representatives of the Soviet Union, the ], and the ], while the Soviet military command exercised predominant, de facto authority. Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina were again incorporated into the Soviet Union. | |||
The coup speeded the ]'s advance into Romania<ref></ref> and gave the Romanian Army the chance to liberate the country from the German occupation. In the absence of an actual signed armistice,<ref name= "arta mil">Ioan Vlad, Alexandru Baboş, ''Războiul României pentru reîntregirea naţională(1941-1945)'', Ch. 3, in ''Istoria artei militare'', Sibiu, 1996{{Verify source|date=July 2007}}</ref> the Soviet troops continued to treat the Romanians as a hostile force. The armistice was signed three weeks later, on ], ], "on terms ] virtually dictated."<ref></ref> The coup effectively amounted to a "capitulation",<ref>, '']'', ], ]</ref> and an "unconditional surrender"<ref>, '']'', ], ]</ref> to the Allies. Inter-Allied negotiations had delayed the signing{{Fact|date=April 2007}} of the Armistice in order for the Soviets to occupy as much of Romania as possible so as to dictate the terms of the Armistice. During that time, between 114,000<ref name="arta mil"/> and 160,000 Romanian soldiers were taken as ] by the Soviets without any fight as result of the cease fire order given by King Michael,<ref>{{ro icon}} Alexandru Dutu and Florica Dobre, </ref> and sent on foot to camps in the Soviet Union; about a third of them perished on the way.<ref>Vartan Arachelian , ''Ziua'', ], ]</ref> | |||
At the beginning of the occupation, pillaging and rapes of Romanian women by Soviet soldiers were recorded,<ref name="Udrea2024"/> prefiguring the eventual epidemic of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naimark |first=Norman M. |title=The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945–1949 |year=1995 |publisher=Belknap Press of ] |isbn=0-674-78405-7 |location=Cambridge, Mass. |oclc=32276211|page=70}}</ref> To this day, this remains a sensitive subject; for instance, in late 2018, the Russian Embassy in Romania denounced "the existence in Romania of a campaign of denigration against the Red Army," by means of which the Soviet soldiers were presented as "a gang of robbers and rapists," instead of "liberators of Romania."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.veridica.ro/en/analyses/the-red-army-rapes|title=The Red Army rapes|newspaper=Veridica|first=Ionuț|last=Iamandi| date=March 5, 2021|access-date=March 19, 2022}}</ref> Historians {{ill|Mădălin Hodor|ro}} and Vadim Guzun disputed these assertions, the latter noting that "the USSR occupied, dismembered and Sovietized Romania. Red Army atrocities cannot be washed away with offensive statements, which disagree with the truth."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://newsweek.ro/politica/ambasada-rusiei-mistifica-istoria-sustinand-ca-soldatii-sovietici-n-au-comis-atrocitati-in-romania|title=Ambasada Rusiei mistifică istoria: Soldații sovietici n-au comis atrocități în România. Reacția MAE|lang=ro| first=Octavia|last=Constantinescu|magazine=]|date=December 30, 2018|access-date=March 19, 2022}}</ref> | |||
By ], the Red Army already controlled much of the Romanian territory. Under the Armistice Agreement between Romania and the Allies, Romania subjected itself to an ], consisting of the Soviet Union, the ], and the ], while the Soviet military command de-facto exercised predominant authority. Bessarabia and Norhern Bukovina were again incorporated into the Soviet Union. | |||
==Founding documents== | ==Founding documents== | ||
] was awarded the ] (the highest Soviet order) for his personal courage in overthrowing ] in the ] and for putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. |
] was awarded the ] (the highest Soviet order) for his personal courage in overthrowing ] in the ] and for putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies.]] | ||
=== The Armistice Agreement === | |||
===The Armistice Agreement=== | |||
In the Armistice Agreement with Romania<ref></ref> (in ] on ], ]), it was stipulated in Article 3 that | |||
Article 3 of the Armistice Agreement with Romania<ref>{{cite web|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/rumania.asp| title=The Armistice Agreement with Rumania|date=September 12, 1944}}</ref> (signed in ] on September 12, 1944), stipulated that | |||
::"''The Government and High Command of Rumania will ensure to the Soviet and other Allied forces facilities for free movement on Rumanian territory in any direction if required by the military situation, the Rumanian Government and High Command of Rumania giving such movement every possible assistance with their own means of communications and at their own expense on land, on water and in the air.''" | |||
and in Article 18 that | |||
<blockquote>The Government and High Command of Rumania will ensure to the Soviet and other Allied forces facilities for free movement on Rumanian territory in any direction if required by the military situation, the Rumanian Government and High Command of Rumania giving such movement every possible assistance with their own means of communications and at their own expense on land, on water and in the air.</blockquote> | |||
::"''An ] will be established which will undertake until the conclusion of peace the regulation of and control over the execution of the present terms under the general direction and orders of the Allied (Soviet) High Command, acting on behalf of the Allied Powers''. In the Annex to Article 18, it was made clear that "''The Rumanian Government and their organs shall fulfill all instructions of the Allied Control Commission arising out of the Armistice Agreement''", and that The Allied Control Commission would have its seat in ]. | |||
Article 11 of the same agreement stipulated that Romania will compensate the Soviet Union for losses suffered in the war "to the amount of three hundred million United States dollars payable over six years in commodities (oil products, grain, timber products, seagoing and river craft, sundry machinery, et cetera)." Article 18 stipulated that | |||
<blockquote>An ] will be established which will undertake until the conclusion of peace the regulation of and control over the execution of the present terms under the general direction and orders of the Allied (Soviet) High Command, acting on behalf of the Allied Powers.</blockquote> | |||
In the Annex to Article 18, it was made clear that | |||
<blockquote>The Rumanian Government and their organs shall fulfill all instructions of the Allied Control Commission arising out of the Armistice Agreement</blockquote> | |||
and that The Allied Control Commission would have its seat in ]. | |||
In line with Article 14 of the Armistice Agreement, two ] were set up |
In line with Article 14 of the Armistice Agreement, two ] were set up for the purpose of trying suspected ], one in Bucharest, and the other in ]. | ||
The ] signatories to the armistice as indicated therein were: | The ] signatories to the armistice as indicated therein were: | ||
* Allied powers: "''representative of the Allied (Soviet) High Command, Marshal of the Soviet Union, ], duly authorized hereto by the Governments of the ]; the Soviet Union, and the ].''" | * Allied powers: "''representative of the Allied (Soviet) High Command, Marshal of the Soviet Union, ], duly authorized hereto by the Governments of the ]; the Soviet Union, and the ].''" | ||
* Romania: "''Minister of State and Minister of Justice ], Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, Adjutant of His Majesty the King of Rumania ], ], and |
* Romania: "''Minister of State and Minister of Justice ], Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, Adjutant of His Majesty the King of Rumania ], ], and {{ill|Ghiță Popp|lt=Mr. G. Popp|ro|Ghiță Popp}}.''" | ||
=== |
===Paris Peace Treaties, 1947=== | ||
{{main|Paris Peace Treaties, 1947}} | {{main|Paris Peace Treaties, 1947}} | ||
The effect of the Armistice Agreement ceased on |
The effect of the Armistice Agreement ceased on September 15, 1947, when the ] entered into force. Article 21, paragraph 1 of the new treaty provided the legal foundation for continued and unlimited Soviet military presence in Romania: | ||
::''Upon the coming into force of the present Treaty, all Allied Forces shall, within a period of 90 days, be withdrawn from Roumania, subject to the right of the Soviet Union to keep on Roumanian territory such armed forces as it may need for the maintenance of the lines of communication of the Soviet Army with the ].'' | |||
The Romanian delegation at the ] Conference was headed by ] ]. The Peace Treaty with Romania was signed on ], ], in the Salon de l’Horloge of the ]. On the Romanian side, the four signatories were ], ], ], and ]. The signatories for the Allied powers included ] ], ] ], and ] ]. | |||
<blockquote>Upon the coming into force of the present Treaty, all Allied Forces shall, within a period of 90 days, be withdrawn from Roumania, subject to the right of the Soviet Union to keep on Roumanian territory such armed forces as it may need for the maintenance of the lines of communication of the Soviet Army with the ].</blockquote> | |||
==Soviet forces in Romania, 1944–1956== | |||
After the Armistice Agreement was concluded in 1944, Soviet troops occupied the entire territory of Romania. Estimates over troop levels vary between 750,000 and 1 million (estimates of British military officials), to between 1 and 1.5 million (estimates of the Romanian General Staff); many Western diplomats and experts refer to more than 1 million Soviet troops.<ref>Verona, pp. 46–47</ref> | |||
The Romanian delegation at the ] Conference was headed by ] ]. The Peace Treaty with Romania was signed on February 10, 1947, in the Salon de l'Horloge of the ]. On the Romanian side, the four signatories were ], ], ], and ]. The signatories for the Allied powers included ] ], ] ], and British ] ]. | |||
The estimated strength of Soviet forces in Romania (including air, navy, ground, and security troops), from ] to 1952, is as follows: | |||
<center> | |||
==Soviet forces in Romania, 1944–1956== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
{{see also|Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina}} | |||
|+'''Estimated strength of Soviet forces in Romania'''<ref>Verona, pp. 47–51</ref> | |||
] | |||
{| class="wikitable" align=right style="margin-left:10px;" | |||
|+'''Estimated strength of Soviet forces in Romania''' <ref>Verona, pp. 47–51</ref> | |||
! Date | ! Date | ||
! Strength | ! Strength | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| May 8, 1945 | ||
| 80,000 | | 80,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| November 1, 1945 | ||
| 500,000 | | 500,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| January 4, 1946 | ||
| 420,000 | | 420,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| March 1, 1946 | ||
| 615,000 | | 615,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| June 1, 1946 | ||
| 400,000 | | 400,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| November 1, 1946 | ||
| 240,000 | | 240,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| 1947 | ||
| 60,000 |
| 60,000 – 130,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| May 1 – July 1, 1948 | ||
| 35,000 | | 35,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| October 1, 1948 | ||
| 32,000 | | 32,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| July 1, 1949 | ||
| 28,000 | | 28,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| October 1, 1949 | ||
| 19,000 | | 19,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| January 1, 1950 | ||
| 32,000 | | 32,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| April 1, 1950 | ||
| 33,000 | | 33,000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
| |
| September 1, 1950 –<br> September 1952 | ||
| 32,000 | | 32,000 | ||
|} | |||
|} </center> | |||
After the conclusion of the Armistice Agreement in 1944, Soviet troops occupied the entire territory of Romania. Estimates of troop levels vary between 750,000 and 1 million (estimates of British military officials), to between 1 and 1.5 million (estimates of the Romanian General Staff); many Western diplomats and experts refer to more than 1 million Soviet troops.<ref>Verona, pp. 46–47</ref> | |||
On November 8, 1945, King Michael's ], an ] demonstration in front of the ] in ] was met with force, resulting in dozens of casualties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rfi.ro/politica-99115-pagina-de-istorie-manifestatia-anti-comunista-1945-inabusita-sange|title=Manifestația anti-comunistă din 8 noiembrie 1945, înabușită în sânge|first=Bianca|last= Pădurean|language=ro|website=rfi.ro|date=November 8, 2017|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref> Soviet officers restrained Romanian soldiers and police from firing on civilians, and Soviet troops restored order.<ref name="Stone">], , Diplomacy & Statecraft, Volume 17, no. 1, March 2006, pp. 93–112.</ref> | |||
During the second part of 1946, more than half of the frontline strength of the ] was stationed outside the USSR, with the largest portion in ] and ] (2,500 planes in each country).<ref>Verona, p. 49</ref> The troop levels surged to a high of 615,000 in March 1946, but were drawn down after the conclusion of the Peace Treaty in 1947. By the end of 1946, Soviet units were concentrated in five areas: ]–], ]–], ], and ]–]. Troop levels reach a relatively stable level from May 1948 until October 1956: two full divisions, plus supporting units adding up to roughly a third division.<ref>Verona, pp. 58–59</ref> | |||
The estimated strength of Soviet forces stationed in Romania (including air, navy, ground, and security troops), from ] to 1952, is shown in the table on the right. | |||
With the ] in 1955 the reason for the presence of troops as stated in the Paris Peace Treaties ceased to exist, but Premier ] announced the troops would stay as long as there are foreign soldiers in ].<ref>'''' - ] September 05, ] </ref> | |||
] ] at a military parade, Bucharest 1949]] | |||
Soviet troops in Romania were used to suppress the ] in November 1956. Romania aided and abetted the attack on ] by permitting Soviet troops to cross its territory to the Hungarian border, and by affording them additional bases; Soviet troop facilities inside Romania were off limits to all Romanians at the time.<ref>Verona, p. 104</ref> | |||
During the second half of 1946, more than half of the combat capabilities of the ] were residing outside the USSR, with the largest portion in ] and ] (2,500 planes in each country).<ref>Verona, p. 49</ref> The troop levels surged to a high of 615,000 in March 1946, but they were drawn down after the conclusion of the Peace Treaty in 1947. By the end of 1946, Soviet units in Romania were concentrated in four areas: ]–], ]–], ], and ]–]. Troop levels reached a relatively stable level from May 1948 until October 1956: two full divisions, plus supporting units adding up to roughly a third division.<ref>Verona, pp. 58–59</ref> | |||
Although with the signing of the ] in 1955 the reason for the presence of Soviet troops as stated in the Paris Peace Treaties ceased to exist, Premier ] announced that these troops would stay as long as foreign soldiers continue to be stationed in ].<ref>'''' – ] September 05, 1955</ref> | |||
Soviet troops stationed in Romania participated in the suppression of the ] of November 1956. Soviet troop facilities inside Romania were off limits to all Romanians at the time.<ref>Verona, p. 104</ref> | |||
==Reorganization of the Romanian Army== | ==Reorganization of the Romanian Army== | ||
The Soviet occupation of Romania led to a complete reorganization of the ], under the supervision of the ]. At the onset, pro-] elements were purged from the Romanian armed forces. In 1944–45, two divisions were formed out of Romanian volunteers—ex-prisoners of war, trained and indoctrinated in the Soviet Union during the war, but also of Communist activists such as ]. One was the ] First Volunteer Division, under the command of Colonel ], and the other the ], under the command of General ] (who was to serve as ] from 1946 to 1947). These two units were to form the nucleus of the new Romanian Army under Soviet control. Once the ] was in charge, 30% of officers and noncommissioned officers (mostly experienced soldiers, and a potential source of opposition to the ] of the Army) were purged from the military.<ref>, from the ] and the ]</ref> | |||
{| class="wikitable" align=right style="margin-left:10px;" | |||
After the ] seized political power, the Sovietization of the army commenced, under the supervision of the new ], ]. This involved copying the Soviet model of military and political organization, and changing the military doctrine of combat and defense, also in the context of Romania's integration in the strategic system of the Soviets, at the beginning of the ].<!--ro:determinate, între altele, şi de includerea României în sistemul strategic al Sovietelor, la începutul Războiului rece--><ref>Oroian, p. 28</ref> | |||
|+'''Treaty limited Romanian forces'''<ref name="ACEN_1st_pt1">Assembly of Captive European Nations, First Session, pp. 65–67</ref> | |||
! Type | |||
! Strength | |||
|- | |||
| Land forces | |||
| 120,000 officers and troops | |||
|- | |||
| Anti-aircraft forces | |||
| 5,000 officers and troops | |||
|- | |||
| Naval forces | |||
| 5,000 officers and troops | |||
|- | |||
| Air forces | |||
| 8,000 officers and troops | |||
|- | |||
| '''Total''' | |||
| 138,000 officers and troops | |||
|} | |||
The Soviet occupation of Romania led to a complete reorganization of the ] under the supervision of ] representatives. The manpower of the Romanian army was limited by the Paris Peace Treaty to a total of 138,000 (officers and troops); however, under the Soviet occupation it grew far beyond the limits imposed by the treaty, through increasing militarization of Romania's population. By 1953, regular army forces had grown to approximately 300,000; reserve army forces to approximately 135,000; and "interior" forces (border guards, security brigades, et al.) under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior to over 325,000.<ref name="ACEN_1st_pt1" /> | |||
Soviet officers were appointed as counsellors to supervise the efficient reorganization of the army. They had leading control and surveillance roles in the main institutions of the state, but also in areas of lesser importance. In the beginning, they only had a few positions in the Ministry of Defense, the ], the political sections inside the army<!--DSPA - how to translate it?-->. Their number gradually increased, while their positions became permanent. In November 1952, there were 105 permanent counsellors and 17 temporary positions in military schools. After 1955, their number started to decrease: 72 in 1955, 63 in 1956, 25 in 1957 and 10 in 1958.<ref>Oroian, p. 29-30</ref> | |||
At the inception of this organizational overhaul, pro-] elements were purged from the Romanian armed forces. In 1944–45, two divisions composed of Romanian volunteers— former prisoners of war, trained in the Soviet Union during the war, and also Communist activists such as ]— were formed: the ], under the command of Colonel ], and the ], under the command of General ] (who was to serve as ] from 1946 to 1947). These two units were to form the nucleus of the new Romanian Army under Soviet control. Once the ] took the reins of power, 30% of officers and noncommissioned officers (mostly experienced soldiers, but at the same time a potential source of opposition to the ] of the Army) were purged from the military.<ref>, from the ] and the ]</ref> | |||
After 1945, new military regulations were elaborated following the model of the Red Army, and they were finalized in 1949–1952.<ref>Oroian, p. 37</ref> As a consequence, a number of officers and military students were sent to the Soviet Union for training.<ref>Oroian, p. 38-40</ref> Between 1949 and 1952, 717 students went in USSR for studies, while in 1958 there were 471 military students in USSR. Their number decreased in the following years.<ref>Oroian, p. 40-41</ref> <!--Is this sentence needed? It seems it was also a local initiative in adopting Soviet doctrines, fighting methods and procedures, largely justified by Soviet military occupation of Romania.<ref>Oroian, p. 32-33</ref>--> | |||
Following the ] seizure of political power, the Sovietization of the Romanian army went into full gear, under the supervision of the new ], ]. This reorganization involved the adoption of the Soviet model of military and political organization, and a change of the ] of combat and defense, in the context of Romania's integration into the Soviet strategic system, at the dawn of the ].<!--ro:determinate, între altele, și de includerea României în sistemul strategic al Sovietelor, la începutul Războiului rece--><ref>Oroian, p. 28</ref> | |||
==Reorganization of the security services== | |||
Soviet officers were appointed as advisers charged with supervising the thorough reorganization of the army. They held leadership and surveillance positions in the main institutions of the state, but also in areas of lesser importance. In the beginning, they only held a few positions in the Ministry of Defense, the ], and the political sections inside the army<!--DSPA – how to translate it? Happy to help. Would you please spell out this abbreviation?-->. With the passage of time, the number of Soviet advisers gradually increased, while at the same time their positions became permanent. In November 1952, there were 105 permanent and 17 temporary Soviet adviser positions in military schools. After 1955, their number began to decrease: 72 in 1955, 63 in 1956, 25 in 1957, and 10 in 1958.<ref>Oroian, pp. 29–30</ref> | |||
After 1945, new military regulations were developed, following the templates of the Red Army, and they were finalized in 1949–1952.<ref>Oroian, p. 37</ref> Consequently, a number of officers and military students were sent to the Soviet Union to complete their training.<ref>Oroian, pp. 38–40</ref> Between 1949 and 1952, 717 Romanian students were being trained in the USSR, while in 1958 471 Romanian military students were pursuing education in the USSR. Their number decreased in the following years.<ref>Oroian, pp. 40–41</ref> <!--Is this sentence needed? It seems it was also a local initiative in adopting Soviet doctrines, fighting methods and procedures, largely justified by the Soviet military occupation of Romania.<ref>Oroian, pp. 32–33</ref>--> | |||
==Reorganization of the intelligence services== | |||
{{main|Securitate}} | {{main|Securitate}} | ||
Immediately following the August 23, 1944, events, ] began to infiltrate the ] on a large scale. Starting in October 1944, the chief of ] operations in Romania was colonel Nikolai Petrovich Zudov.<ref name="Aparaschivei">{{citation|url=https://historia.ro/sectiune/general/statul-sovietic-paralel-in-romania-reteaua-2254318.html|title=Statul sovietic paralel în România. Rețeaua colonelului Zudov|lang=ro|first=Sorin |last=Aparaschivei|magazine=Historia|access-date=October 28, 2023}}</ref> The General Directorate of the Security of the People (Romanian initials: DGSP, but more commonly just called the ]) was officially founded on August 30, 1948, by Decree 221/30. The Securitate was set up by ], an NKVD unit charged with dismantling the existing intelligence agencies and replacing them with ]-style bodies in the Soviet-occupied countries of ]. The SMERSH unit in Romania, called ], was led until 1948 by the former NKVD operative ]. Its stated purpose was to "defend ] conquests and guarantee the safety of the Romanian People's Republic against both internal and external enemies." The first Director of the Securitate was Soviet intelligence operative ]. Alexandru Nicolschi (by then a general) and another Soviet officer, ] {{ill|Vladimir Mazuru|ro}}, held the two deputy director positions. | |||
==Expulsion of Germans== | ==Expulsion of Germans== | ||
{{main|Expulsion of Germans from Romania after World War II}} | {{main|Expulsion of Germans from Romania after World War II}} | ||
The Red Army |
The Red Army took part in the expulsion of up to 70,000 ] from Romania that was initiated in January 1945. In October 1944, the ] government, at the request of the Allied Control Commission, began arresting young Romanian citizens of German descent, who were eventually placed at the disposal of the Soviet command. At the request of the Allied Commission, the ] government ordered the forced transportation by train of Transylvanian Saxons to the Soviet Union. In a protest dated January 13, 1945, the Rădescu government affirmed the Romanian government's duty to protect each of its citizens, regardless of ethnic origin, and noted the absence of a legal basis for the deportation of the Transylvanian Saxons.<ref>Marga</ref> The expellees were gradually allowed to return to Romania between late 1945 and 1949, though it is estimated that up to 10,000 perished during the expulsion or while in the Soviet Union. Such deportations would be outlawed in 1949 by the ]. | ||
==SovRoms== | ==SovRoms== | ||
{{main| |
{{main|SovRom}} | ||
] ''Sovrompetrol'' stock certificate, Bucharest, 1946]] | |||
The ''SovRoms'' were Soviet-Romanian joint ventures established on Romanian territory at the end of World War II, and lasting until 1954–1956. An agreement between the two countries regarding the establishment of these enterprises was signed in ] on May 8, 1945. In theory, the purpose of these ventures was to generate funding for post-war reconstruction efforts. However, their real purpose was to provide resources for the Soviet side. Generally, they were a contributing factor to the draining of Romania's resources, in addition to the ]s demanded by the Armistice Agreement and the ], which had been initially set at 300 million ].<ref name="Cioroianu">Cioroianu</ref> At the agreement on reparations signed in Bucharest on January 16, 1945, the Soviets imposed the dollar as the reference currency at its exchange rate in 1938; due to the dollar's devaluation in the meantime, in actuality the reparations amounted to 384 million dollars.<ref name="Udrea">{{cite news|url=https://www.aktual24.ro/lista-produselor-luate-de-rusi-din-romania-incepand-cu-1944-ca-despagubiri-de-razboi-cum-au-generat-jaful-facut-de-moscova-si-interdictia-de-a-participa-la-planul-marshall-retardul-economic-sever-f/|title=Lista produselor luate de ruși din România, incepând cu 1944, ca despăgubiri de război. Cum au generat jaful făcut de Moscova și interdicția de a participa la Planul Marshall retardul economic sever față de Europa pe care țara noastră se chinuie și azi să-l recupereze| lang=romanian|first=Matei|last=Udrea|website=www.aktual24.ro|date=January 28, 2024|access-date=January 31, 2024}}</ref> | |||
The |
The Soviet contribution to the creation of the SovRoms consisted mostly in reselling leftover ] equipment to Romania, at systematically overvalued prices.<ref>Alexandrescu</ref> The total value of goods sent from Romania to the Soviet Union was estimated at 2 billion dollars, exceeding by far the amount of war reparations demanded by the Soviets.<ref>Roper</ref> By 1952, 85% of Romanian exports were directed towards the Soviet Union.<ref name="Cioroianu"/> The last Sovrom was dissolved in 1956. | ||
One of these companies was ''Sovromcuarț'', which started its operations in 1950 at the ] in ], under a name that was meant to conceal the true object of its activity.<ref>Banu, pp. 28–29; Cioroianu, p. 70</ref> Its initial workforce consisted of 15,000 ]s; after most of them died of ], they were replaced by local villagers, who were completely unaware of the fact that they were working with radioactive material.<ref>Khrushchev, p. 720</ref> Romania secretly<ref>Banu, p. 29; Cioroianu, p. 70</ref> delivered 17,288 tons of ] ore to the Soviet Union between 1952 and 1960,<ref>Banu, p. 30</ref> which was used, at least in part, in the ].<ref>Cioroianu, p. 70</ref> Uranium mining continued there until 1961.<ref name="Diehl">Diehl</ref> All ore was shipped abroad for processing, initially to ] in the ]; the uranium concentrate was then used exclusively by the Soviet Union.<ref name="Diehl"/> | |||
==Comparison with Soviet occupation of Bulgaria== | |||
Comparing the Soviet occupation of Romania to that of ], David Stone notes: "Unlike Bulgaria, Romania had few cultural and historical ties with ], and had actually waged war on the Soviet Union. As a result, Soviet occupation weighted heavier on the Romanian people, and the troops themselves were less disciplined."<ref name="Stone"/> | |||
==In popular culture== | ==In popular culture== | ||
* ''Davai ceas, davai palton''. The well-known Romanian stage actor ] was performing in Bucharest a year after the arrival of Soviet troops. |
* ''Davai ceas, davai palton'' (eng.: ''give the wristwatch, give the overcoat''). The well-known Romanian stage actor ] was performing in Bucharest a year after the arrival of Soviet troops. He used to satirize the soldiers' habit of "requisitioning" all personal property in sight (in particular, wristwatches and coats), demanding them by saying, "Davai ceas, davai palton". There are differing accounts of his demise, in August 1945, but one of them states that he was found dead two days after one of his satirical acts.<ref>{{in lang|ro}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601191405/http://jurnalul.ro/articol_70009/a_cazut_cortina_.html |date=2013-06-01 }}, ], January 15, 2007.</ref> | ||
* |
* The writer ] was among the eyewitnesses to the events of 1944. In his diary (''Journal, 1935–1944: The Fascist Years''), he described the atmosphere in Bucharest at the time, as follows: "Bewilderment, fear, doubt. Russian soldiers rape women (as Dina Cocea was saying yesterday). Soldiers stop cars, let the driver and passengers out, get behind the wheel, and take off. Stores looted. This afternoon, at Zaharia, three of them broke in the safe, taking watches (The watch is the toy they like the best)".<ref>Micu</ref> Sebastian died in a tram accident just weeks after the Soviet Army occupied Romania. In 2004, American playwright ] wrote a one-man play, entitled ''The Journals of Mihail Sebastian''; it made its debut the same year in ], starring actor Stephen Kunken in the role of Sebastian. | ||
* ''The 25th Hour''. ]'s best-known book depicts the plight of a young farmhand, Johann Moritz, under ] and Soviet occupation. Johann is sent to a labor camp by a police captain who covets his wife, Suzanna. At first, he is tagged as a ]. Later, he is "rescued" by a ] officer, who forces him into service as a model for German propaganda. Imprisoned after the war, he is severely beaten by his Russian captors, then put on trial by Allied forces because of his work for the Nazis. |
* ''The 25th Hour''. ]'s best-known book depicts the plight of a young farmhand, Johann Moritz, under ] and Soviet occupation.<ref>, '']'', November 6, 1950</ref> Johann is sent to a labor camp by a police captain who covets his wife, Suzanna. At first, he is tagged as a ]. Later, he is "rescued" by a ] officer, who forces him into service as a model for German propaganda. Imprisoned after the war, he is severely beaten by his Russian captors, then put on trial by Allied forces because of his work for the Nazis. In 1967, ] produced ] based on this book; directed by ], it featured ] as Johann and ] as Suzanna.<ref>, '']'', February 24, 1967</ref> | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
Line 155: | Line 204: | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
* ": comes from the Country Studies Program, formerly the Army Area Handbook Program. The Country Studies Series presents a description and analysis of the historical setting and the social, economic, political, and national security systems and institutions of countries throughout the world." |
* ": comes from the Country Studies Program, formerly the Army Area Handbook Program. The Country Studies Series presents a description and analysis of the historical setting and the social, economic, political, and national security systems and institutions of countries throughout the world." See sections "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation" and "Postwar Romania, 1944-85." | ||
* {{in lang|ro}} Andrei Marga, | |||
**Romania - Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation | |||
* {{in lang|ro}} Ion Alexandrescu, "1945–1956: Din "cleștele" German — în brațele "fratelui" de la răsărit. Societățile mixte sovieto-române (Sovrom)" ("1945–1956: From the German "Tongs" — into the Arms of the Eastern "Brother". Mixed Soviet-Romanian Societies (Sovrom)"), in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 3/1996 | |||
**Romania - POSTWAR ROMANIA, 1944-85 | |||
* {{in lang|ro}} Florian Banu, "Uraniu românesc pentru "marele frate"" ("Romanian Uranium for the "Big Brother""), in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 9/2005 | |||
* {{ro icon}} | |||
* {{in lang|ro}} ], ''Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc'' ("On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"), ], Bucharest, 2005. {{ISBN|973-669-175-6}} | |||
* {{ro icon}} Ion Alexandrescu, "1945–1956: Din «cleştele» German — în braţele «fratelui» de la răsărit. Societăţile mixte sovieto-române (Sovrom)" ("1945–1956: From the German «Tongs» — into the Arms of the Eastern «Brother». Mixed Soviet-Romanian Societies (Sovrom)"), in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 3/1996 | |||
* {{in lang|ro}} Cristina Diac and Florin Mihai, , '']'', August 23, 2006. | |||
*{{ro icon}} Vartan Arachelian, , '']'', ], ] | |||
* {{ill|Stephen Fischer-Galați|ro}}, "The New Rumania: from People's Democracy to Socialist Republic", ], Cambridge, MA, 1967. {{OCLC|243006}} | |||
* {{ro icon}} ], ''Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc'' ("On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"), ], Bucharest, 2005. ISBN 9736691756 | |||
* Constantin Hlihor and Ioan Scurtu, "The Red Army in Romania", Center for Romanian Studies, ], ], 2000. {{ISBN|973-98392-5-8}} | |||
* {{ro icon}} Cristina Diac and Florin Mihai, , ''Jurnalul Naţional'', ], ]. | |||
* {{cite book |author1=]|author2= ] |title=Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev |publisher=] |location=University Park |year=2004 |isbn= 978-0-271-02332-8 |oclc=51931170 }} | |||
* Stephen Fischer-Galati, "The New Rumania: from People's Democracy to Socialist Republic", ], Cambridge, MA, 1967. {{OCLC|243006}} | |||
* {{in lang|ro}} Cornel Micu, , '']'', October 26, 2005. | |||
* Constantin Hlihor and Ioan Scurtu, "The Red Army in Romania", Center for Romanian Studies, ], ], 2000. ISBN 9739839258 | |||
*Stephen D. Roper, ''Romania: The Unfinished Revolution'', ], ], 2000. {{ISBN|90-5823-027-9}} | |||
* {{ro icon}} Cornel Micu, , ''Jurnalul Naţional'', ], ]. | |||
* ], ''Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism'', ], ], 2003, {{ISBN|0-520-23747-1}} | |||
*Stephen D. Roper, ''Romania: The Unfinished Revolution'', ], ], 2000. ISBN 9058230279 | |||
* |
* Sergiu Verona, "Military Occupation and Diplomacy: Soviet Troops in Romania, 1944-1958", ], ], 1992, {{ISBN|0-8223-1171-2}} | ||
* {{in lang|ro}} ], ""Umbrela protectoare" a consilierilor sovietici. Armata Roșie în România (Prolonged and Defying Stationing of Soviet Troops in Romania)", in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 12/2003, pp. 22-28 | |||
* Sergiu Verona, "Military Occupation and Diplomacy: Soviet Troops in Romania, 1944-1958", ], ], 1992, ISBN 0822311712 | |||
* {{ |
* {{in lang|ro}} ], "Scurtă "cronică" a consilierilor (Soviet Counsellors in the Romanian Army. A Brief Historical Perspective)", in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 12/2003, pp. 28-32 | ||
* {{ |
* {{in lang|ro}} ], "Doctrină, metode și procedee de luptă de inspirație sovietică (War Doctrine, Fighting Methods and Procedures of Soviet Inspiration)", in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 12/2003, pp. 32–33, 35-41 | ||
* {{ |
* {{in lang|ro}} Mircea Tănase, "Relații româno-sovietice sub cupola parașutei (The Paratroopers and the Romanian-Soviet Relations)", in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 9/2005, pp. 11–16 | ||
* {{ |
* {{in lang|ro}} Liviu Țăranu, "RPR-URSS: Relații economice în numele "internaționalismului proletar" (Communist Romania and Soviet Union: Economic Relations in the 50s)", in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 9/2005, pp. 23–28 | ||
* {{ro icon}} Liviu Ţăranu, "RPR-URSS: Relaţii economice în numele «internaţionalismului proletar» (Communist Romania and Soviet Union: Economic Relations in the 50's)", in ''Dosarele Istoriei'', 9/2005, pp. 23-28 | |||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
* , on the website of ], |
* , on the website of ], January 31, 2005 | ||
* , by J. Calvitt Clarke III, at ]. | * , by J. Calvitt Clarke III, at ]. | ||
* {{ro |
* {{in lang|ro}} Paula Mihailov Chiciuc, , '']'', April 25, 2006 | ||
* , at the Honorary Consulate of Romania in ], has pictures of the Romanian delegation at the Paris Peace Conference | * , at the Honorary Consulate of Romania in ], has pictures of the Romanian delegation at the Paris Peace Conference | ||
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Latest revision as of 07:07, 19 October 2024
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The Soviet occupation of Romania refers to the period from 1944 to August 1958, during which the Soviet Union maintained a significant military presence in Romania. The fate of the territories held by Romania after 1918 that were incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940 is treated separately in the article on Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.
During the Eastern Front offensive of 1944, the Soviet Army occupied the northwestern part of Moldavia as a result of armed combat that took place between the months of April and August of that year, while Romania was still an ally of Nazi Germany. The rest of the territory was occupied after Romania changed sides in World War II, as a result of the royal coup launched by King Michael I on August 23, 1944. On that date, the king announced that Romania had unilaterally ceased all military actions against the Allies, accepted the Allied armistice offer, and joined the war against the Axis powers. As no formal armistice offer had been extended yet, the Red Army occupied most of Romania as enemy territory prior to the signing of the Moscow Armistice of September 12, 1944.
The armistice convention and eventually the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947 provided a legal basis for the Soviet military presence in Romania, which lasted until 1958, reaching a peak of some 615,000 personnel in 1946.
The Soviets and the Romanian communists referred to the events of August 1944 as the "liberation of Romania by the glorious Soviet Army" in the 1952 Constitution of Romania, and August 23 (the day of 1944 coup) was celebrated as Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day. On the other hand, most Western and Romanian anti-communist sources use the term "Soviet occupation of Romania," some applying it to the whole period from 1944 to 1958.
Background and beginning of the occupation
See also: Romania during World War II and 1944 Romanian coup d'étatAfter having withdrawn its troops from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina in response to the June 1940 Soviet Ultimatum, Romania entered an alliance with Nazi Germany and declared war on the Soviet Union. Romanian troops entered World War II in June 1941 as part of Operation Barbarossa, under the German High Command. Following the recapturing of the territory annexed by the Soviet Union in June 1940, Romanian troops occupied Southern Ukraine all the way to the Southern Bug. However, Romania's eastern campaign ended in disaster, notably at the Battle of Stalingrad.
By the end of 1943, the Red Army had regained control over most of the Soviet territory, and was advancing westward beyond the borders of USSR to defeat Nazi Germany and its allies. It was in this context that the Soviet forces crossed into Romania and occupied Northern and Eastern Moldavia.
On August 23, 1944, King Michael, supported by all major parties, launched a coup d'état, thereby overthrowing the pro-Nazi government of Ion Antonescu, and putting Romania's Army on the side of the Allies. As a result, King Michael was the last monarch behind the Iron Curtain to lose his throne, on December 30, 1947.
The coup facilitated the advance of the Red Army into Romania at an accelerated pace, and enabled the combined Romanian and Soviet armies to liberate the country from the German occupation. In the absence of an actual signed armistice, the Soviet troops continued to treat the Romanians as a hostile force. The armistice was signed three weeks later, on September 12, 1944, "on terms Moscow virtually dictated." The coup effectively amounted to a "capitulation", an "unconditional" "surrender" to the Soviets and the rest of the Allies. In the wake of the cease fire order given by King Michael, between 114,000 and 160,000 Romanian soldiers were taken prisoners of war by the Soviets without resisting, and they were forced to march to remote detention camps, located in the Soviet Union; according to survivors interviewed in a 2004 documentary, up to a third of the prisoners perished on the way.
By August 30, Soviet troops had reached Bucharest; by September 12, the Red Army had already gained control over much of the Romanian territory. Under the terms of its Armistice Agreement with the Allies, Romania became subject to an Allied Control Commission, composed of representatives of the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom, while the Soviet military command exercised predominant, de facto authority. Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina were again incorporated into the Soviet Union.
At the beginning of the occupation, pillaging and rapes of Romanian women by Soviet soldiers were recorded, prefiguring the eventual epidemic of rape during the occupation of Germany. To this day, this remains a sensitive subject; for instance, in late 2018, the Russian Embassy in Romania denounced "the existence in Romania of a campaign of denigration against the Red Army," by means of which the Soviet soldiers were presented as "a gang of robbers and rapists," instead of "liberators of Romania." Historians Mădălin Hodor [ro] and Vadim Guzun disputed these assertions, the latter noting that "the USSR occupied, dismembered and Sovietized Romania. Red Army atrocities cannot be washed away with offensive statements, which disagree with the truth."
Founding documents
The Armistice Agreement
Article 3 of the Armistice Agreement with Romania (signed in Moscow on September 12, 1944), stipulated that
The Government and High Command of Rumania will ensure to the Soviet and other Allied forces facilities for free movement on Rumanian territory in any direction if required by the military situation, the Rumanian Government and High Command of Rumania giving such movement every possible assistance with their own means of communications and at their own expense on land, on water and in the air.
Article 11 of the same agreement stipulated that Romania will compensate the Soviet Union for losses suffered in the war "to the amount of three hundred million United States dollars payable over six years in commodities (oil products, grain, timber products, seagoing and river craft, sundry machinery, et cetera)." Article 18 stipulated that
An Allied Control Commission will be established which will undertake until the conclusion of peace the regulation of and control over the execution of the present terms under the general direction and orders of the Allied (Soviet) High Command, acting on behalf of the Allied Powers.
In the Annex to Article 18, it was made clear that
The Rumanian Government and their organs shall fulfill all instructions of the Allied Control Commission arising out of the Armistice Agreement
and that The Allied Control Commission would have its seat in Bucharest.
In line with Article 14 of the Armistice Agreement, two People's Tribunals were set up for the purpose of trying suspected war criminals, one in Bucharest, and the other in Cluj.
The plenipotentiary signatories to the armistice as indicated therein were:
- Allied powers: "representative of the Allied (Soviet) High Command, Marshal of the Soviet Union, R. Y. Malinovski, duly authorized hereto by the Governments of the United States of America; the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom."
- Romania: "Minister of State and Minister of Justice L. Patrascanu, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, Adjutant of His Majesty the King of Rumania General D. Damaceanu, Prince Stirbey, and Mr. G. Popp [ro]."
Paris Peace Treaties, 1947
Main article: Paris Peace Treaties, 1947The effect of the Armistice Agreement ceased on September 15, 1947, when the Paris Peace Treaty with Romania entered into force. Article 21, paragraph 1 of the new treaty provided the legal foundation for continued and unlimited Soviet military presence in Romania:
Upon the coming into force of the present Treaty, all Allied Forces shall, within a period of 90 days, be withdrawn from Roumania, subject to the right of the Soviet Union to keep on Roumanian territory such armed forces as it may need for the maintenance of the lines of communication of the Soviet Army with the Soviet zone of occupation in Austria.
The Romanian delegation at the Paris Conference was headed by Minister of Foreign Affairs Gheorghe Tătărescu. The Peace Treaty with Romania was signed on February 10, 1947, in the Salon de l'Horloge of the Ministère des Affaires Étrangères. On the Romanian side, the four signatories were Gheorghe Tătărescu, Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu, Ștefan Voitec, and Dumitru Dămăceanu. The signatories for the Allied powers included United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, and British Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Ernest Bevin.
Soviet forces in Romania, 1944–1956
See also: Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern BukovinaDate | Strength |
---|---|
May 8, 1945 | 80,000 |
November 1, 1945 | 500,000 |
January 4, 1946 | 420,000 |
March 1, 1946 | 615,000 |
June 1, 1946 | 400,000 |
November 1, 1946 | 240,000 |
1947 | 60,000 – 130,000 |
May 1 – July 1, 1948 | 35,000 |
October 1, 1948 | 32,000 |
July 1, 1949 | 28,000 |
October 1, 1949 | 19,000 |
January 1, 1950 | 32,000 |
April 1, 1950 | 33,000 |
September 1, 1950 – September 1952 |
32,000 |
After the conclusion of the Armistice Agreement in 1944, Soviet troops occupied the entire territory of Romania. Estimates of troop levels vary between 750,000 and 1 million (estimates of British military officials), to between 1 and 1.5 million (estimates of the Romanian General Staff); many Western diplomats and experts refer to more than 1 million Soviet troops.
On November 8, 1945, King Michael's name day, an anti-communist demonstration in front of the Royal Palace in Bucharest was met with force, resulting in dozens of casualties. Soviet officers restrained Romanian soldiers and police from firing on civilians, and Soviet troops restored order.
The estimated strength of Soviet forces stationed in Romania (including air, navy, ground, and security troops), from VE Day to 1952, is shown in the table on the right.
During the second half of 1946, more than half of the combat capabilities of the Soviet Air Forces were residing outside the USSR, with the largest portion in Poland and Romania (2,500 planes in each country). The troop levels surged to a high of 615,000 in March 1946, but they were drawn down after the conclusion of the Peace Treaty in 1947. By the end of 1946, Soviet units in Romania were concentrated in four areas: Craiova–Slatina, Sibiu–Alba-Iulia, Constanța, and Brăila–Focșani. Troop levels reached a relatively stable level from May 1948 until October 1956: two full divisions, plus supporting units adding up to roughly a third division.
Although with the signing of the Austrian State Treaty in 1955 the reason for the presence of Soviet troops as stated in the Paris Peace Treaties ceased to exist, Premier Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej announced that these troops would stay as long as foreign soldiers continue to be stationed in West Germany.
Soviet troops stationed in Romania participated in the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of November 1956. Soviet troop facilities inside Romania were off limits to all Romanians at the time.
Reorganization of the Romanian Army
Type | Strength |
---|---|
Land forces | 120,000 officers and troops |
Anti-aircraft forces | 5,000 officers and troops |
Naval forces | 5,000 officers and troops |
Air forces | 8,000 officers and troops |
Total | 138,000 officers and troops |
The Soviet occupation of Romania led to a complete reorganization of the Romanian People's Army under the supervision of Soviet Army representatives. The manpower of the Romanian army was limited by the Paris Peace Treaty to a total of 138,000 (officers and troops); however, under the Soviet occupation it grew far beyond the limits imposed by the treaty, through increasing militarization of Romania's population. By 1953, regular army forces had grown to approximately 300,000; reserve army forces to approximately 135,000; and "interior" forces (border guards, security brigades, et al.) under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior to over 325,000.
At the inception of this organizational overhaul, pro-German elements were purged from the Romanian armed forces. In 1944–45, two divisions composed of Romanian volunteers— former prisoners of war, trained in the Soviet Union during the war, and also Communist activists such as Valter Roman— were formed: the Tudor Vladimirescu Division, under the command of Colonel Nicolae Cambrea, and the Horea, Cloșca și Crișan Division, under the command of General Mihail Lascăr (who was to serve as Minister of Defense from 1946 to 1947). These two units were to form the nucleus of the new Romanian Army under Soviet control. Once the Romanian Communist Party took the reins of power, 30% of officers and noncommissioned officers (mostly experienced soldiers, but at the same time a potential source of opposition to the Sovietization of the Army) were purged from the military.
Following the Romanian Workers' Party seizure of political power, the Sovietization of the Romanian army went into full gear, under the supervision of the new Minister of Defense, Emil Bodnăraș. This reorganization involved the adoption of the Soviet model of military and political organization, and a change of the military doctrine of combat and defense, in the context of Romania's integration into the Soviet strategic system, at the dawn of the Cold War.
Soviet officers were appointed as advisers charged with supervising the thorough reorganization of the army. They held leadership and surveillance positions in the main institutions of the state, but also in areas of lesser importance. In the beginning, they only held a few positions in the Ministry of Defense, the General Staff, and the political sections inside the army. With the passage of time, the number of Soviet advisers gradually increased, while at the same time their positions became permanent. In November 1952, there were 105 permanent and 17 temporary Soviet adviser positions in military schools. After 1955, their number began to decrease: 72 in 1955, 63 in 1956, 25 in 1957, and 10 in 1958.
After 1945, new military regulations were developed, following the templates of the Red Army, and they were finalized in 1949–1952. Consequently, a number of officers and military students were sent to the Soviet Union to complete their training. Between 1949 and 1952, 717 Romanian students were being trained in the USSR, while in 1958 471 Romanian military students were pursuing education in the USSR. Their number decreased in the following years.
Reorganization of the intelligence services
Main article: SecuritateImmediately following the August 23, 1944, events, communists began to infiltrate the Ministry of Internal Affairs on a large scale. Starting in October 1944, the chief of NKVD operations in Romania was colonel Nikolai Petrovich Zudov. The General Directorate of the Security of the People (Romanian initials: DGSP, but more commonly just called the Securitate) was officially founded on August 30, 1948, by Decree 221/30. The Securitate was set up by SMERSH, an NKVD unit charged with dismantling the existing intelligence agencies and replacing them with Soviet-style bodies in the Soviet-occupied countries of Eastern Europe. The SMERSH unit in Romania, called Brigada Mobilă, was led until 1948 by the former NKVD operative Alexandru Nicolschi. Its stated purpose was to "defend democratic conquests and guarantee the safety of the Romanian People's Republic against both internal and external enemies." The first Director of the Securitate was Soviet intelligence operative Gheorghe Pintilie. Alexandru Nicolschi (by then a general) and another Soviet officer, Major General Vladimir Mazuru [ro], held the two deputy director positions.
Expulsion of Germans
Main article: Expulsion of Germans from Romania after World War IIThe Red Army took part in the expulsion of up to 70,000 Transylvanian Saxons from Romania that was initiated in January 1945. In October 1944, the Sănătescu government, at the request of the Allied Control Commission, began arresting young Romanian citizens of German descent, who were eventually placed at the disposal of the Soviet command. At the request of the Allied Commission, the Rădescu government ordered the forced transportation by train of Transylvanian Saxons to the Soviet Union. In a protest dated January 13, 1945, the Rădescu government affirmed the Romanian government's duty to protect each of its citizens, regardless of ethnic origin, and noted the absence of a legal basis for the deportation of the Transylvanian Saxons. The expellees were gradually allowed to return to Romania between late 1945 and 1949, though it is estimated that up to 10,000 perished during the expulsion or while in the Soviet Union. Such deportations would be outlawed in 1949 by the Fourth Geneva Convention.
SovRoms
Main article: SovRomThe SovRoms were Soviet-Romanian joint ventures established on Romanian territory at the end of World War II, and lasting until 1954–1956. An agreement between the two countries regarding the establishment of these enterprises was signed in Moscow on May 8, 1945. In theory, the purpose of these ventures was to generate funding for post-war reconstruction efforts. However, their real purpose was to provide resources for the Soviet side. Generally, they were a contributing factor to the draining of Romania's resources, in addition to the war reparations demanded by the Armistice Agreement and the Paris Peace Treaties, which had been initially set at 300 million U.S. dollars. At the agreement on reparations signed in Bucharest on January 16, 1945, the Soviets imposed the dollar as the reference currency at its exchange rate in 1938; due to the dollar's devaluation in the meantime, in actuality the reparations amounted to 384 million dollars.
The Soviet contribution to the creation of the SovRoms consisted mostly in reselling leftover German equipment to Romania, at systematically overvalued prices. The total value of goods sent from Romania to the Soviet Union was estimated at 2 billion dollars, exceeding by far the amount of war reparations demanded by the Soviets. By 1952, 85% of Romanian exports were directed towards the Soviet Union. The last Sovrom was dissolved in 1956.
One of these companies was Sovromcuarț, which started its operations in 1950 at the Băița mine in Bihor County, under a name that was meant to conceal the true object of its activity. Its initial workforce consisted of 15,000 political prisoners; after most of them died of radiation poisoning, they were replaced by local villagers, who were completely unaware of the fact that they were working with radioactive material. Romania secretly delivered 17,288 tons of uranium ore to the Soviet Union between 1952 and 1960, which was used, at least in part, in the Soviet atomic bomb project. Uranium mining continued there until 1961. All ore was shipped abroad for processing, initially to Sillamäe in the Estonian SSR; the uranium concentrate was then used exclusively by the Soviet Union.
Comparison with Soviet occupation of Bulgaria
Comparing the Soviet occupation of Romania to that of Bulgaria, David Stone notes: "Unlike Bulgaria, Romania had few cultural and historical ties with Russia, and had actually waged war on the Soviet Union. As a result, Soviet occupation weighted heavier on the Romanian people, and the troops themselves were less disciplined."
In popular culture
- Davai ceas, davai palton (eng.: give the wristwatch, give the overcoat). The well-known Romanian stage actor Constantin Tănase was performing in Bucharest a year after the arrival of Soviet troops. He used to satirize the soldiers' habit of "requisitioning" all personal property in sight (in particular, wristwatches and coats), demanding them by saying, "Davai ceas, davai palton". There are differing accounts of his demise, in August 1945, but one of them states that he was found dead two days after one of his satirical acts.
- The writer Mihail Sebastian was among the eyewitnesses to the events of 1944. In his diary (Journal, 1935–1944: The Fascist Years), he described the atmosphere in Bucharest at the time, as follows: "Bewilderment, fear, doubt. Russian soldiers rape women (as Dina Cocea was saying yesterday). Soldiers stop cars, let the driver and passengers out, get behind the wheel, and take off. Stores looted. This afternoon, at Zaharia, three of them broke in the safe, taking watches (The watch is the toy they like the best)". Sebastian died in a tram accident just weeks after the Soviet Army occupied Romania. In 2004, American playwright David Auburn wrote a one-man play, entitled The Journals of Mihail Sebastian; it made its debut the same year in New York City, starring actor Stephen Kunken in the role of Sebastian.
- The 25th Hour. Virgil Gheorghiu's best-known book depicts the plight of a young farmhand, Johann Moritz, under German and Soviet occupation. Johann is sent to a labor camp by a police captain who covets his wife, Suzanna. At first, he is tagged as a Jew. Later, he is "rescued" by a Nazi officer, who forces him into service as a model for German propaganda. Imprisoned after the war, he is severely beaten by his Russian captors, then put on trial by Allied forces because of his work for the Nazis. In 1967, Carlo Ponti produced a film based on this book; directed by Henri Verneuil, it featured Anthony Quinn as Johann and Virna Lisi as Suzanna.
See also
- Romania during World War II
- Romanian anti-communist resistance movement
- Southern Group of Forces
- Soviet occupations
Notes
- The term "occupation" is widely used by Western and post-Revolutionary Romanian historians. Examples include:
- "Soviet forces occupied Romania in 1944 and stayed for more than a decade." Roger E. Kirk, Mircea Răceanu, Romania Versus the United States: Diplomacy of the Absurd, 1985–1989, p. 2. Palgrave Macmillan, 1994, ISBN 0-312-12059-1.
- "Soviet occupation troops had been withdrawn in 1958." Gordon L. Rottman, Ron Volstad, Warsaw Pact Ground Forces, p. 45. Osprey, 1987, ISBN 0-85045-730-0.
- "The country had to endure a long Soviet occupation (until 1958), and to pay the Soviets massive reparations." Lucian Boia, Romania: Borderland of Europe, p. 106. Reaktion Books, 2001, ISBN 1-86189-103-2.
- "Soviet occupation forces in Romania unlimited interference in Romanian political life." Verona (Military Occupation and Diplomacy: Soviet Troops in Romania, 1944-1958), p. 31.
- "In June 1958, based on complex arrangements between the Romanians, the Russians, and the Yugoslavs, the occupying Soviet Army units left Romania." Tismăneanu, p. 25. "Romanian communists remained an unappealing marginal group until the occupation of the country by the Red Army in 1944." ibid., p. 59. "The Soviet Army occupied Romanian territory and ... the Soviet-controlled political formation called the RCP was exploiting this state of affairs to establish a Stalinist regime as soon as possible, whatever the human cost." ibid., p. 91.
- "The primary focus is the occupation of the rest of Romania from 1944 to 1958...There is little doubt that the Soviet occupation had a devastating economic, political, and social impact on Romania." Aurel Braun, review of The Red Army in Romania, in Slavic Review, Vol. 61, No. 1, 146-147, Spring 2002.
- "The withdrawal of Soviet troops signified the end of the country's direct military occupation, which lasted 14 years." Istoria României în date, p. 553. Editura Enciclopedică, Bucharest, 2003, ISBN 973-45-0432-0
- "Wisner (who had, as an OSS officer, witnessed the brutal Soviet occupation of Romania)", David F. Rudgers, "The origins of covert action", Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 35 , no. 2 (2000), 249–262
- Flori Stănescu, Dragoș Zamfirescu, Ocupația sovietică în România – Documente 1944-1946 (The Soviet Occupation in Romania – Documents 1944-1946). Vremea, 1998, ISBN 973-9423-17-5.
- "The first period of communist rule in Romania, 1944-1958 is defined by Stefan Fisher Galati as the loss of national identity by the destruction of the "bourgeois nationalist" legacy and the diminution of Romania's national sovereignty under a virtual Soviet occupation." Constantin Iordachi, "The Anatomy of a Historical Conflict: Romanian-Hungarian Diplomatic Conflict in the 1980s", MA Thesis, Central European University, 1995-1996.
- (in Romanian) Valeriu Râpeanu, "The Dictatorship Has Ended and along with It All Oppression" Archived 2016-02-28 at the Wayback Machine (from the Proclamation to The Nation of King Michael I on the night of August 23, 1944), Curierul Național, August 7, 2004
- Verona, pp. 49–51
- (in Romanian) Constituția Republicii Populare Române 1952 Archived 2008-06-15 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Country Studies: Romania. Chap. 23. US Library of Congress
- ^ Ioan Vlad, Alexandru Baboș, Războiul României pentru reîntregirea națională (1941–1945), Ch. 3, in Istoria artei militare, Sibiu, 1996.
- "Hitler Resorts To 'Puppets' In Romania", The Washington Post, August 25, 1944
- "King Proclaims Nation's Surrender and Wish to Help Allies", The New York Times, August 24, 1944
- "Bulgaria – Bulgarian resistance to the Axis alliance," Encyclopædia Britannica
- (in Romanian) Alexandru Duțu and Florica Dobre, "Generali români in prizonierat" Archived 2007-10-07 at the Wayback Machine
- Vartan Arachelian "Pamfil Șeicaru despre 23 August: 'Mai multă rușine, mai puține victime' ", Ziua, August 16, 2004
- ^ Udrea, Matei (August 30, 2024). "80 de ani de la ocuparea Bucureștiului de Armata Roșie. 30 august 1944: "Prin Șoseaua Colentina au intrat în oraș hoarde de sălbatici zdrențăroși și desculți călare pe tancuri, camioane și motociclete americane"". www.aktual24.ro (in Romanian). Retrieved August 30, 2024.
- Naimark, Norman M. (1995). The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 70. ISBN 0-674-78405-7. OCLC 32276211.
- Iamandi, Ionuț (March 5, 2021). "The Red Army rapes". Veridica. Retrieved March 19, 2022.
- Constantinescu, Octavia (December 30, 2018). "Ambasada Rusiei mistifică istoria: Soldații sovietici n-au comis atrocități în România. Reacția MAE". Newsweek Romania (in Romanian). Retrieved March 19, 2022.
- "The Armistice Agreement with Rumania". September 12, 1944.
- Verona, pp. 47–51
- Verona, pp. 46–47
- Pădurean, Bianca (November 8, 2017). "Manifestația anti-comunistă din 8 noiembrie 1945, înabușită în sânge". rfi.ro (in Romanian). Retrieved November 7, 2020.
- ^ David R. Stone, "The 1945 Ethridge Mission to Bulgaria and Romania and the Origins of the Cold War in the Balkans", Diplomacy & Statecraft, Volume 17, no. 1, March 2006, pp. 93–112.
- Verona, p. 49
- Verona, pp. 58–59
- Gravitational Pull – TIME September 05, 1955
- Verona, p. 104
- ^ Assembly of Captive European Nations, First Session, pp. 65–67
- "Development of the Romanian Armed Forces after World War II", from the Library of Congress Country Studies and the CIA World Factbook
- Oroian, p. 28
- Oroian, pp. 29–30
- Oroian, p. 37
- Oroian, pp. 38–40
- Oroian, pp. 40–41
- Aparaschivei, Sorin, "Statul sovietic paralel în România. Rețeaua colonelului Zudov", Historia (in Romanian), retrieved October 28, 2023
- Marga
- ^ Cioroianu
- Udrea, Matei (January 28, 2024). "Lista produselor luate de ruși din România, incepând cu 1944, ca despăgubiri de război. Cum au generat jaful făcut de Moscova și interdicția de a participa la Planul Marshall retardul economic sever față de Europa pe care țara noastră se chinuie și azi să-l recupereze". www.aktual24.ro (in Romanian). Retrieved January 31, 2024.
- Alexandrescu
- Roper
- Banu, pp. 28–29; Cioroianu, p. 70
- Khrushchev, p. 720
- Banu, p. 29; Cioroianu, p. 70
- Banu, p. 30
- Cioroianu, p. 70
- ^ Diehl
- (in Romanian) Constantin Tănase: A căzut cortina! ("Constantin Tănase: The Curtain Dropped!") Archived 2013-06-01 at the Wayback Machine, Jurnalul Național, January 15, 2007.
- Micu
- Cogs & Machines, Time, November 6, 1950
- The Bright Side of the Ax, Time, February 24, 1967
References
- Romania – History ": This text comes from the Country Studies Program, formerly the Army Area Handbook Program. The Country Studies Series presents a description and analysis of the historical setting and the social, economic, political, and national security systems and institutions of countries throughout the world." See sections "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation" and "Postwar Romania, 1944-85."
- (in Romanian) Andrei Marga, "Deportarea Sașilor Transilvăneni"
- (in Romanian) Ion Alexandrescu, "1945–1956: Din "cleștele" German — în brațele "fratelui" de la răsărit. Societățile mixte sovieto-române (Sovrom)" ("1945–1956: From the German "Tongs" — into the Arms of the Eastern "Brother". Mixed Soviet-Romanian Societies (Sovrom)"), in Dosarele Istoriei, 3/1996
- (in Romanian) Florian Banu, "Uraniu românesc pentru "marele frate"" ("Romanian Uranium for the "Big Brother""), in Dosarele Istoriei, 9/2005
- (in Romanian) Adrian Cioroianu, Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc ("On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"), Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2005. ISBN 973-669-175-6
- (in Romanian) Cristina Diac and Florin Mihai, "1939–1944: 23 august, Cronica unui dezastru", Jurnalul Național, August 23, 2006.
- Stephen Fischer-Galați [ro], "The New Rumania: from People's Democracy to Socialist Republic", MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1967. OCLC 243006
- Constantin Hlihor and Ioan Scurtu, "The Red Army in Romania", Center for Romanian Studies, Iași, Portland, OR, 2000. ISBN 973-98392-5-8
- Sergei Khrushchev; Nikita Khrushchev (2004). Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev. University Park: Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 978-0-271-02332-8. OCLC 51931170.
- (in Romanian) Cornel Micu, "Armata Roșie ocupă Bucureștiul", Jurnalul Național, October 26, 2005.
- Stephen D. Roper, Romania: The Unfinished Revolution, Routledge, London, 2000. ISBN 90-5823-027-9
- Vladimir Tismăneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2003, ISBN 0-520-23747-1
- Sergiu Verona, "Military Occupation and Diplomacy: Soviet Troops in Romania, 1944-1958", Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 1992, ISBN 0-8223-1171-2
- (in Romanian) Teofil Oroian, ""Umbrela protectoare" a consilierilor sovietici. Armata Roșie în România (Prolonged and Defying Stationing of Soviet Troops in Romania)", in Dosarele Istoriei, 12/2003, pp. 22-28
- (in Romanian) Teofil Oroian, "Scurtă "cronică" a consilierilor (Soviet Counsellors in the Romanian Army. A Brief Historical Perspective)", in Dosarele Istoriei, 12/2003, pp. 28-32
- (in Romanian) Teofil Oroian, "Doctrină, metode și procedee de luptă de inspirație sovietică (War Doctrine, Fighting Methods and Procedures of Soviet Inspiration)", in Dosarele Istoriei, 12/2003, pp. 32–33, 35-41
- (in Romanian) Mircea Tănase, "Relații româno-sovietice sub cupola parașutei (The Paratroopers and the Romanian-Soviet Relations)", in Dosarele Istoriei, 9/2005, pp. 11–16
- (in Romanian) Liviu Țăranu, "RPR-URSS: Relații economice în numele "internaționalismului proletar" (Communist Romania and Soviet Union: Economic Relations in the 50s)", in Dosarele Istoriei, 9/2005, pp. 23–28
Further reading
- Romania and peace conditions after the Second World War, on the website of Radio Romania International, January 31, 2005
- Review of Verona's book, by J. Calvitt Clarke III, at Jacksonville University.
- (in Romanian) Paula Mihailov Chiciuc, "Practica sovietică a lui 'Veni, vidi, vici'", Jurnalul Național, April 25, 2006
- "Paris-WWII Peace Conference-1946: Settling Romania's Western Frontiers", at the Honorary Consulate of Romania in Boston, has pictures of the Romanian delegation at the Paris Peace Conference
Soviet occupations | ||
---|---|---|
Europe | ||
Asia | ||
Italics indicate countries occupied while the Soviet Union was a member of the Allies of World War II. |
- Soviet occupation of Romania
- Soviet military occupations
- Allied occupation of Europe
- World War II occupied territories
- Romania in World War II
- Socialist Republic of Romania
- Romania–Soviet Union relations
- Cold War military history of the Soviet Union
- 1944 in the Soviet Union
- 1944 establishments in Romania
- 1944 in politics
- 1958 in the Soviet Union
- 1958 disestablishments in Romania
- 1958 in politics
- 1958 in international relations
- 1944 in international relations