Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 23:30, 29 December 2024

Part of a series on
Emotions
Affect Classification In animals Emotional intelligence Mood Self-regulation Interpersonal Dysregulation Valence
Emotions Acceptance Admiration Affection Amusement Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Awe Belongingness Boredom Confidence Confusion Contempt Contentment Courage Curiosity Depression Desire Determination Disappointment Disgust Distrust Doubt Ecstasy Elevation Embarrassment Emotional Detachment Empathy Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Faith Fear Frustration Gratification Gratitude Greed Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Interest Jealousy Joy Kindness Limerence Loneliness Love Lust Nostalgia Outrage Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride Rage Regret Rejection Relief Remorse Resentment Sadness Saudade Schadenfreude Self-pity Shame Shock Shyness Social connection Sorrow Suffering Surprise Suspicion Trust Wonder Worry
v t e

Emotional intelligence (EI), also known as emotional quotient (EQ), is the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. High emotional intelligence includes emotional recognition of emotions of the self and others, using emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, discerning between and labeling of different feelings, and adjusting emotions to adapt to environments.

The term first appeared in 1964, gaining popularity in the 1995 bestselling book Emotional Intelligence by psychologist and science journalist Daniel Goleman. Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim that it is innate.

Various models have been developed to measure EI: The trait model focuses on self-reporting behavioral dispositions and perceived abilities; the ability model focuses on the individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social environment. Goleman's original model may now be considered a mixed model that combines what has since been modelled separately as ability EI and trait EI.

While some studies show that there is a correlation between high EI and positive workplace performance, there is no general consensus on the issue among psychologists, and no causal relationships have been shown. EI is typically associated with empathy, because it involves a person relating their personal experiences with those of others. Since its popularization in recent decades and links to workplace performance, methods of developing EI have become sought by people seeking to become more effective leaders.

Recent research has focused on emotion recognition, which refers to the attribution of emotional states based on observations of visual and auditory nonverbal cues. In addition, neurological studies have sought to characterize the neural mechanisms of emotional intelligence. Criticisms of EI have centered on whether EI has incremental validity over IQ and the Big Five personality traits. Meta-analyses have found that certain measures of EI have validity even when controlling for both IQ as well as personality.

History

The concept of emotional strength was introduced by Abraham Maslow in the 1950s. The term "emotional intelligence" may have first appeared in a 1964 paper by Michael Beldoch and a 1966 paper by B. Leuner.

In 1983, Howard Gardner's Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences introduced the idea that traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ, fail to fully explain cognitive ability. He introduced the idea of multiple intelligences, which included both interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence, which he respectively defined as the capacity to understand others and oneself.

The first published use of the term EQ (emotional quotient) is in an article by Keith Beasley in 1987 in the British Mensa magazine.

In 1989, Stanley Greenspan proposed a model to describe EI. The following year, Peter Salovey and John Mayer proposed another model.

The term became widely known with the publication of Daniel Goleman's 1995 book: Emotional Intelligence – Why it can matter more than IQ. Goleman followed up with several similar publications that reinforce use of the term. Late in 1998, Goleman's Harvard Business Review article entitled "What Makes a Leader?" caught the attention of senior management at Johnson & Johnson's Consumer Companies. The article argued that EI comprised the skills and characteristics that drive leadership performance. Johnson & Johnson funded a study which concluded that there was a strong relationship between superior performing leaders and emotional competence, supporting theorists' suggestions that the EI is a distinguishing factor in leadership performance.

Tests measuring EI have not replaced IQ tests as a standard metric of intelligence. In later research, EI has received criticism regarding its purported role in leadership and business success.

Definitions

Emotional intelligence has been defined by Peter Salovey and John Mayer as "accurately perceiving emotion, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotion, and managing emotion". The concept comprises both emotional and intellectual processes.

Emotional intelligence also reflects an ability to use intelligence, empathy, and emotions to enhance understanding of interpersonal dynamics. However, substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to both terminology and operationalization. Currently, there are three main models of EI: The ability model defines EI in terms of cognitive and emotional abilities; the mixed model, introduced by Daniel Goleman, comprises a variety of emotional competencies, sometimes being regarded as a form of trait EI; the trait model defines EI as comprising traits within a personality trait theory framework.

Different models of EI have led to the development of various instruments for the assessment of the construct. While some of these measures may overlap, most researchers agree that they relate to different constructs.

Models

Based on theoretical and methodological approaches, EI measures are categorized in three main streams: ability-based measures (e.g. MSCEIT), self-reports of abilities measures (e.g. SREIT, SUEIT and WLEIS), and mixed-models (e.g. AES, ECI, EI questionnaire, EIS, EQ-I and GENOS), which include measures of EI and traditional social skills.

Ability model

Salovey and Mayer's define EI within the confines of the standard criteria for a new intelligence. Their initial definition of EI had been "the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior". They later revised the definition to "the ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth." After further research, their definition of EI evolved into "the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions, to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth."

The ability-based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help one to make sense of and navigate the social environment, with EI abilities manifesting in adaptive behaviors. It proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to wider cognition.

The model claims that EI includes four types of abilities:

• Perceiving emotions: the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts—including the ability to identify one's own emotions. Perceiving emotions is a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible.
• Using emotions: the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem-solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand.
• Understanding emotions: the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time.
• Managing emotions: the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. The emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals.

The ability EI model has been criticized for lacking face and predictive validity in the workplace. However, in terms of construct validity, ability EI tests have great advantage over self-report scales of EI because they compare individual maximal performance to standard performance scales and do not rely on individuals' endorsement of descriptive statements about themselves.

Measurement

The current measure of Mayer and Salovey's model of EI, the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), is based on a series of emotion-based problem-solving items. Consistent with the model's claim of EI as a type of intelligence, the test is modeled on ability-based IQ tests. By testing a person's abilities on each of the four branches of emotional intelligence, it generates scores for each of the branches as well as a total score.

Central to the four-branch model is the idea that EI requires attunement to social norms. Therefore, the MSCEIT is scored in a consensus fashion, with higher scores indicating higher overlap between an individual's answers and those provided by a worldwide sample of respondents. The MSCEIT can also be expert-scored so that the amount of overlap is calculated between an individual's answers and those provided by a group of 21 emotion researchers.

Although promoted as an ability test, the MSCEIT test is unlike standard IQ tests in that its items do not have objectively correct responses. Among other challenges, the consensus scoring criterion means that it is impossible to create items that only a minority of respondents can solve, because, by definition, responses are deemed emotionally "intelligent" only if the majority of the sample has endorsed them. This and other similar problems have led some cognitive ability experts to question the definition of EI as a genuine intelligence.

In a study by Føllesdal, the MSCEIT test results of 111 business leaders were compared with how their employees described their leader. It was found that there were no correlations between a leader's test results and how he or she was rated by the employees, with regard to empathy, ability to motivate, and leader effectiveness. Føllesdal also criticized the Canadian company Multi-Health Systems, which administers the test. The test contains 141 questions, but it was found after publishing the test that 19 of these did not give the expected answers. This has led Multi-Health Systems to remove answers to these 19 questions before scoring.

Other measurements

Various other specific measures also assess ability in emotional intelligence. These include:

• Diagnostic Analysis of Non-verbal Accuracy (DANVA)
• Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART)
• Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU)
• Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM).

Mixed model

The model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills, which drive leadership performance in applied settings. Goleman's model outlines five main EI constructs:

• Self-awareness – the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values, and goals and recognize their impact on others while using gut feelings to guide decisions
• Self-regulation – involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances
• Social skill – managing relationships to get along with others
• Empathy – considering other people's feelings especially when making decisions
• Motivation – being aware of what motivates them

Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are learned capabilities that must be developed to achieve performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.

Criticism

Goleman's model of EI has been criticized in the research literature as "pop psychology".

Goleman's early work has been criticized for assuming that EI is a type of intelligence or cognitive ability. Eysenck writes that Goleman's description of EI contains unsubstantiated assumptions about intelligence in general and that it even runs contrary to what researchers have come to expect when studying types of intelligence. Similarly, Locke claims that the concept of EI is a misinterpretation of the intelligence construct, and he offers an alternative interpretation: it is not another form or type of intelligence, but intelligence—the ability to grasp abstractions—applied to a particular life domain: emotions. He suggests the concept should be re-labeled and referred to as a skill.

Measurement

Two measurement tools are based on the Goleman model:

• The Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI), which was created in 1999, and the Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI), a newer edition of the ECI, which was developed in 2007. The Emotional and Social Competence – University Edition (ESCI-U) is also available. These tools, developed by Goleman and Boyatzis, provide a behavioral measure of emotional and social competencies.
• The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal, which was created in 2001 and which can be taken as a self-report or 360-degree assessment.

Trait model

Konstantinos V. Petrides proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability-based model and a trait-based model of EI, developing the latter over many years in a number of publications. Trait EI is an individual's self-perceptions of their emotional abilities — as defined by Petrides, "a constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality." This definition of EI encompasses behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities. It is measured by self report, as opposed to the ability-based model which attempts to measure actual abilities, which have proven resistant to scientific measurement. Trait EI is investigated within a personality framework. An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional self-efficacy.

The trait EI model is general and subsumes the Goleman mixed model. The conceptualization of EI as a personality trait leads to a construct that lies outside the taxonomy of human cognitive ability, distinguishing its operationalization and theory from other models.

Measurement

There are many self-report measures of EI, including the EQ-i, the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), and the Schutte EI model. As limited measures of trait emotional intelligence, these models do not assess intelligence, abilities, or skills. The most widely used and widely researched measure of self-report or self-schema emotional intelligence is the EQ-i 2.0. Originally known as the BarOn EQ-i, it was the first self-report measure of emotional intelligence available, and the only measure predating Goleman's bestselling book.

The Petrides model is operationalized by the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue), which encompasses 15 subscales organized under four factors: well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability. In a 2007 study, the psychometric properties of the TEIQue have been found to be normally distributed and reliable. Researchers have found TEIQue scores to be unrelated to Raven's matrices of non-verbal reasoning, which has been interpreted as support for the personality trait view of EI. TEIQue scores have also been found to be positively related to extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, while being inversely related to alexithymia, neuroticism. A number of quantitative genetic studies have been carried out within the trait EI model, which have revealed significant genetic effects and heritabilities for all trait EI scores. Two studies involving direct comparisons of multiple EI tests yielded favorable results for the TEIQue.

Correlations

A review published in the Annual Review of Psychology in 2008 found that higher emotional intelligence is positively correlated with a number of outcomes, including social relations, academic achievement, negotiation skills, workplace social dynamics, positive perceptions by other people, health and wellbeing. It also found EI to be negatively correlated with anti-social and deviant behavior in children as well as poor health behaviors. However, once IQ is taken into account, EI does not generally result in higher grades. Additionally, subsequent research has argued that EI leads to better self awareness, decision making, and self-actualization ability.

Gender differences in EI have been observed, with women tending to score higher levels than men.

Bullying

Bullying is an abusive social interaction between peers that can include aggression, harassment, and violence. Bullying is typically repetitive and enacted by those who are in a position of power over the victim. A growing body of research illustrates an inverse correlation between bullying (both as the bully and the victim) and emotional intelligence. It also shows that emotional intelligence is a key factor in cybervictimization. EI education has been put forth as a potential method for bullying prevention and intervention initiatives.

Job performance

Cote and Miners have offered a compensatory model between EI and IQ, which posits that the association between EI and job performance becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases, an idea first proposed in the context of academic performance. A 2015 meta-analysis of emotional intelligence and job performance showed correlations of r=.20 (for job performance & ability EI) and r=.29 (for job performance and mixed EI), although earlier research on EI and job performance had shown mixed results. An earlier 2011 meta-analysis found that all three models of EI "have corrected correlations ranging from 0.24 to 0.30 with job performance", the mixed and trait models "have the largest incremental validity beyond cognitive ability and the Five Factor Model," and "all three streams of EI exhibited substantial relative importance in the presence of FFM and intelligence when predicting job performance."

A 2005 study of the predictive ability of EI for job performance concluded that higher EI was associated with higher leadership effectiveness regarding achievement of organizational goals, with a 2008 study arguing that EI can be deliberately developed to enhance leadership abilities in the workplace. Emotional intelligence has also been recognised in business leadership, commercial negotiation, and dispute resolution contexts. Professional qualifications and continuous professional development have incorporated aspects of EI into their curriculum. By 2008, 147 companies and consulting firms in the U.S. had developed programmes that involved EI for training and hiring employees.

A 2006 study has found that EI correlates positively with performance in teams, strong and positive relationships with co-workers, and stress management capabilities. A 2001 article also found that employees with strong EI improve workplace performance by providing emotional support and instrumental resources needed to succeed in their roles. Joseph and Newman's 2010 study suggests that emotional perception and emotional regulation components of EI contribute to job performance under job contexts of high emotional demands. Moon and Hur's 2011 study found that the job performance-EI relationship is stronger under contexts of high emotional exhaustion or burn-out.

A 2015 article observes observed that there is no significant link between emotional intelligence and work attitude-behavior, though a 2006 study shows that employees high in EI show more confidence in their roles, allowing them to face demanding tasks positively. A separate 2006 study finds that employees with strong emotional intelligence dedicate more time to cultivating their rapport with supervisors, resulting in more favorable outcomes in performance evaluations compared to those with lower EI.

A 2011 study has examined a possible link between EI and entrepreneurial behaviors and success. A 2012 study suggests that EI is not necessarily a universally positive trait, finding that EI and teamwork effectiveness are negatively correlated under certain workplace scenarios.

Criticism

Critics argue that the popularity of EI studies is due to media advertising, rather than objective scientific findings. FJ Landy argues that while the commercial discussion of emotional intelligence makes expansive claims on the applied value of EI, academic discussion of EI cautions against wide claims of EI's predictive power. Landy cites the data upon which commercial claims are based are held in databases unavailable to independent researchers for reanalysis, replication, or verification. Goleman has stated that "emotional intelligence is the sine qua non of leadership." On the other hand, Mayer (1999) warns that the notion " that highly emotionally intelligent people possess an unqualified advantage in life... is unsubstantiated by reasonable scientific standards."

It is difficult to create objective measures of emotional intelligence and demonstrate its influence on leadership as many scales are self-report measures. In review of EI constructs, ability-measures of EI fared worst (ρ=0.04); the WLEIS (Wong-Law measure) did a bit better (ρ=0.08); and the Bar-On measure slightly better (ρ=0.18). However, the validity of these estimates does not include the effects of IQ or the big five personality, which correlate both with EI measures and leadership. A 2010 study analyzing the impact of EI on both job performance and leadership found that the meta-analytic validity estimates for EI dropped to zero when Big Five traits and IQ were controlled for. A separate 2010 meta-analysis showed the same result for ability EI, while finding that self-reported and trait EI measures retain a fair amount of predictive validity for job performance after controlling Big Five traits and IQ.

However, the greater predictive validity of trait EI and mixed EI measures has been attributed to their inclusion of content related to constructs of achievement motivation, self efficacy, and self-rated performance, in addition to IQ and the personality domains of neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness. A 2015 meta-analysis has found that the predictive ability of mixed EI to job performance is non-existent when controlling for these factors.

In a 2009 review, John Antonakis and other authors agreed that researchers who test the relationship between EI and leadership have generally not done so using robust research designs, and that there is no strong evidence showing that EI predicts leadership outcomes when accounting for personality and IQ. A 2010 meta-analysis found that, if using data free from problems of common source and common methods, EI measures correlated only ρ=0.11 with measures of transformational leadership. Barling, Slater, and Kelloway also support this position on transformational leadership. Antonakis has proposed an alternative "curse of emotion" argument, which asserts that leaders who are too sensitive to emotional states might have difficulty making decisions that would result in emotional labor.

There is evidence that emotional intelligence tests are subject to the social-desirability bias, resulting in inaccurate measurement, with several studies showing people can distort their responses on both self-rated and informant-rated emotional intelligence measures when instructed to.

Some studies have found that despite a positive correlation between EI and leadership effectiveness, leadership effectiveness is more heavily dependent on other factors such as their leadership activities and self-management skills.

Adam Grant warned of the common but mistaken perception of EI as a desirable moral quality rather than a skill. Grant asserted that a well-developed EI is not only an instrumental tool for accomplishing goals, but can function as a weapon for manipulating others by robbing them of their capacity to reason.

Health

A 2007 meta-analysis of 44 effect sizes by Schutte et al. found that emotional intelligence was associated with better mental and physical health. Particularly, trait EI had the stronger association with mental and physical health. This was replicated in 2010 by researcher Alexandra Martins who found trait EI is a strong predictor for health after conducting a meta-analysis based on 105 effect sizes and 19,815 participants. This meta-analysis also indicated that this line of research reached enough sufficiency and stability to conclude EI is a positive predictor for health. An earlier study by Mayer and Salovey argued that high EI can increase one's well-being because of its role in enhancing relationships.

Self-esteem and drug dependence

A 2012 study in India cross-examined emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and marijuana dependence. Out of a sample of 200, 100 of whom were dependent on cannabis and the other 100 emotionally healthy, the dependent group scored exceptionally low on EI when compared to the control group. They also found that the dependent group also scored low on self-esteem when compared to the control.

Another study in 2010 examined whether or not low levels of EI had a relationship with the degree of drug and alcohol addiction in Australia. In the assessment of 103 residents in a drug rehabilitation center, they examined their EI along with other psychosocial factors in a one-month interval of treatment. They found that participants' EI scores improved as their levels of addiction lessened as part of their treatment.

Academic performance

A 2020 meta-analysis showed that students with higher emotional intelligence show higher academic performance at school. This was a summary of over 1,246 effects from 158 different studies, with a sample size of 42,529. Students with higher emotional intelligence had better scores on standardized tests and achieved higher grades. The effect was significantly larger for humanities than for science/maths areas of study, and significantly larger for ability-model emotional intelligence measures than for rating scales of emotional intelligence. The association of emotional intelligence with higher academic achievement was still significant even after considering the effect of students' Big Five personality and intelligence.

Validity

The construct of emotional intelligence has been criticized within the scientific community.

Correlations with personality

Interpretations of the correlations between EI questionnaires and personality have been varied, with the trait EI view interpreting EI as a collection of personality traits. Researchers have raised concerns about the extent to which self-report EI measures correlate with established personality dimensions. Self-report EI measures and personality measures converge because they both purport to measure personality traits. Two dimensions of the Big Five stand out as most related to self-report EI: neuroticism and extraversion. People who score high on neuroticism are likely to score low on self-report EI measures.

Studies have examined the multivariate effects of personality and intelligence on EI and attempted to correct estimates for measurement error. One study showed that general intelligence, agreeableness, as well as gender could reliably predict the measure of EI ability. They gave a multiple correlation (R) of .81 with the MSCEIT. This result has been replicated using different inventories, finding a multiple R of .76; significant covariates were intelligence (standardized beta = .39), agreeableness (standardized beta = .54), and openness (standardized beta = .46). A study of the Ability Emotional Intelligence Measure found similar results (Multiple R = .69), with significant predictors being intelligence (standardized beta = .69) and empathy (standardized beta = .26). Antonakis and Dietz (2011b) also show how including or excluding important controls variables can fundamentally change results.

A 2011 meta-analysis found that all three models of EI have different correlations with intelligence and personality traits. A follow-up meta-analysis in 2015 further substantiated these findings, and addressed concerns about "the questionable construct validity of mixed EI measures", arguing that "mixed EI instruments assess a combination of ability EI and self-perceptions, in addition to personality and cognitive ability." A 2017 meta-analysis of 142 data sources found a very large overlap between the general factor of personality and trait EI. The overlap was so large they concluded that "The findings suggest that the general factor of personality is very similar, perhaps even synonymous, to trait EI." However, the overlap between the general factor of personality and ability EI was more moderate, with a correlation of about 0.28.

In 2021, two review papers examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and the dark triad of personality traits, finding that emotional intelligence showed negative associations with all three dark triad domains of personality.

A 2021 meta-analysis showed that emotional intelligence was positively associated with secure attachment in adults, but negatively associated with insecure attachment styles such as anxious attachment and avoidant attachment.

EI as a measure of conformity

One criticism of the works of Mayer and Salovey comes from a study that suggests that the EI, as measured by the MSCEIT, may only be measuring conformity. This argument is rooted in the MSCEIT's use of consensus-based assessment, and in the fact that scores on the MSCEIT are negatively distributed (meaning that its scores differentiate between people with low EI better than people with high EI).

EI as a form of knowledge

Another criticism says that in contrast with tests of cognitive ability, the MSCEIT "tests knowledge of emotions but not necessarily the ability to perform tasks that are related to the knowledge that is assessed". If someone knows how they should behave in an emotionally laden situation, it does not necessarily follow that they could actually carry out the reported behavior.

See also

• Emotional literacy – Understanding of your and others' emotions
• Empathy quotient – Psychological self-report measure of empathy
• Emotional thought method – Activities to build emotional intelligence
• Four Cornerstone Model of Emotional Intelligence – Emotional model that focuses on knowledge, practical application and exploration
• Life skills – Abilities for adaptive and positive behavior
• Outline of human intelligence – Overview of and topical guide to human intelligence
• People skills – Type of interpersonal skill
• Positive psychology – Approach of psychological scientific study
• Psychological mindedness – a person's capacity for self-examination, self-reflection, introspection and personal insightPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Religiosity and emotional intelligence – Link between religiosity and intelligencePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Soft skills – Combination of skills that enable people to navigate their environment
• Temperance (virtue) – Cardinal virtue of control over excess
• Marc Brackett – American research psychologist
• Joshua Freedman – American academicPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Anabel Jensen – American educator and author
• Carolyn Saarni – Developmental psychologist
• Claude Steiner – American psychotherapist & psychologist (1935-2017)

References

1. • Durand K, Gallay M, Seigneuric A, Robichon F, Baudouin JY (May 2007). "The development of facial emotion recognition: the role of configural information" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 97 (1): 14–27. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2006.12.001. PMID 17291524. S2CID 18976192. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-21.
   • Bänziger T (2014). "Measuring Emotion Recognition Ability". In Michalos AC (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 3934–3941. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_4188. ISBN 978-94-007-0753-5.
2. • "Scientists Complete 1st Map of 'Emotional Intelligence' in the Brain". U.S. News & World Report. 2013-01-28. Archived from the original on 2014-08-14.
   • Kosonogov VV, Vorobyeva E, Kovsh E, Ermakov PN (2019). "A review of neurophysiological and genetic correlates of emotional intelligence" (PDF). International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education. 7 (1): 137–142. doi:10.5937/IJCRSEE1901137K. ISSN 2334-847X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-02-11.
3. • Harms PD, Credé M (2010). "Remaining Issues in Emotional Intelligence Research: Construct Overlap, Method Artifacts, and Lack of Incremental Validity". Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice. 3 (2): 154–158. doi:10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01217.x. S2CID 144371039.
   • Cavazotte F, Moreno V, Hickmann M (2012). "Effects of leader intelligence, personality and emotional intelligence on transformational leadership and managerial performance". The Leadership Quarterly. 23 (3): 443–455. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.10.003.
4. ^ O'Boyle Jr EH, Humphrey RH, Pollack JM, Hawver TH, Story PA (2011-07-01). "The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta-analysis". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 32 (5): 788–818. doi:10.1002/job.714. ISSN 1099-1379.
5. Dhani P (5 March 2021). "Emotional Intelligence: History, Models, and Measures". Research Gate.
6. • Beldoch M (1964). "Sensitivity to expression of emotional meaning in three modes of communication". In Davitz JR, et al. (eds.). The Communication of Emotional Meaning. McGraw-Hill. pp. 31–42.
   • Beldoch M (1973). "Sensitivity to Expression of Emotional Meaning in Three Modes of Communication". In Argyle M (ed.). Contributions to social interactions: Social Encounters. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9780202368979.
7. Beldoch M, Davitz JR (1976). The communication of emotional meaning. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 39. ISBN 9780837185279. OCLC 647368022.
8. Leuner B (1966). "Emotional intelligence and emancipation". Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie. 15: 193–203.
9. Gardner H (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.
10. Smith MK (2002). "Howard Gardner, multiple intelligences and education". The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Archived from the original on 2005-11-02. Retrieved 2005-11-01.
11. Beasley K (May 1987). "The Emotional Quotient" (PDF). Mensa: 25.
12. Salovey P, Mayer JD (1989). "Emotional intelligence". Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. 9 (3): 185–211. doi:10.2190/dugg-p24e-52wk-6cdg. hdl:10654/36316. S2CID 219900460.
13. Goleman D (1996). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-38371-3.
14. Schawbel D. "Daniel Goleman on Leadership and The Power of Emotional Intelligence – Forbes". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2012-11-04. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
15. ^ Goleman D (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
16. • Lantieri L, Goleman D (2008). Building Emotional Intelligence: Techniques to Cultivate Inner Strength in Children. Sounds True. ISBN 978-1-59179-849-1.
    • Goleman D (2011). The Brain and Emotional Intelligence: New Insights. More Than Sound. ISBN 978-1-934441-15-2.
    • Goleman D (2011). Leadership: The Power of Emotional Intelligence. More Than Sound.
17. ^ Goleman, et al. (2023). "What Makes a Leader?". Harvard Business Review. 76: 92–105.
18. Cavallo K, Brienza D (2001). "Emotional Competence and Leadership Excellence at Johnson & Johnson: The Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Study". Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
19. Brown H (14 November 2018). "What is Emotional Intelligence and How to Improve it? (Definition + EQ Test)". positivepsychologyprogram.com. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
20. Tobak S (2012-02-13). "Why emotional intelligence is just a fad". CBS News. Archived from the original on 2012-11-28. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
21. Mayer JD, Roberts RD, Barsade SG (2008). "Human abilities: emotional intelligence". Annual Review of Psychology. 59: 507–36. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646. PMID 17937602. S2CID 11801336.
22. ^ Colman A (2008). A Dictionary of Psychology (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199534067.
23. Tolegenova AA, Jakupov SM, Chung C, Saduova M, Jakupov MS (2012). "A theoretical formation of emotional intelligence and childhood trauma among adolescents". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 69: 1891–1894. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.142.
24. ^ Mayer JD, Roberts RD, Barsade SG (2008). "Human abilities: emotional intelligence". Annual Review of Psychology. 59: 507–36. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646. PMID 17937602. S2CID 11801336. Archived from the original on 2015-12-22.
25. ^ Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR (July 2004). "Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findings, and Implications". Psychological Inquiry. 15 (3): 197–215. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1503_02. S2CID 144415437.
26. Kluemper DH (2008). "Trait emotional intelligence: The impact of core-self evaluations and social desirability". Personality and Individual Differences. 44 (6): 1402–1412. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.12.008.
27. ^ Martins A, Ramalho N, Morin E (2010). "A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health". Journal of Personality and Individual Differences. 49 (6): 554–564. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.029.
28. Petrides KV, Furnham A (November 2001). "Trait Emotional Intelligence: Psychometric Investigation with Reference to Established Trait Taxonomies". European Journal of Personality. 15 (6): 425–48. doi:10.1002/per.416. S2CID 144031083.
29. Ashkanasy NM, Daus CS (2005-06-01). "Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated" (PDF). Journal of Organizational Behavior. 26 (4): 441–452. doi:10.1002/job.320. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-07-25.
30. • Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR, Sitarenios G (September 2001). "Emotional intelligence as a standard intelligence". Emotion. 1 (3): 232–42. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.232. PMID 12934682.
    • MacCann C, Joseph DL, Newman DA, Roberts RD (April 2014). "Emotional intelligence is a second-stratum factor of intelligence: evidence from hierarchical and bifactor models". Emotion. 14 (2): 358–374. doi:10.1037/a0034755. PMID 24341786.
31. Mayer JD, Salovey P (1997). "What is emotional intelligence?". In Salovey P, Sluyter D (eds.). Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators. New York: Basic Books. pp. 3–31. ISBN 978-0-521-51806-2.
32. ^ Salovey P, Grewal D (2005). "The Science of Emotional Intelligence". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 14 (6): 6. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381.x. S2CID 2143869.
33. Bradberry TR, Su LD (2003). "Ability-versus skill-based assessment of emotional intelligence" (PDF). Psicothema. 18 Suppl: 59–66. PMID 17295959. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-09-05. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
34. Brackett MA, Mayer JD (September 2003). "Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of competing measures of emotional intelligence". Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin. 29 (9): 1147–58. doi:10.1177/0146167203254596. PMID 15189610. S2CID 5744173.
35. Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR, Sitarenios G (March 2003). "Measuring emotional intelligence with the MSCEIT V2.0". Emotion. 3 (1): 97–105. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.97. PMID 12899321.
36. Petrides KV (2015). "Ability and Trait Emotional Intelligence". In Chamorro-Premuzic T, von Stumm S, Furnham A (eds.). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Individual Differences. London: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 656–78. ISBN 978-1-119-05030-8.
37. Føllesdal H (2008). Emotional Intelligence as Ability: Assessing the Construct Validity of Scores from the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) (PhD thesis). University of Oslo. Archived from the original on 2008-12-16.
38. Nowicki S, Duke MP (1994-03-01). "Individual differences in the nonverbal communication of affect: The diagnostic analysis of nonverbal accuracy scale". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 18 (1): 9–35. doi:10.1007/BF02169077. ISSN 1573-3653. S2CID 144426091.
39. Matsumoto D, LeRoux J, Wilson-Cohn C, Raroque J, Kooken K, Ekman P, Yrizarry N, Loewinger S, Uchida H, Yee A, Amo L (2000-09-01). "A New Test to Measure Emotion Recognition Ability: Matsumoto and Ekman's Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART)". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 24 (3): 179–209. doi:10.1023/A:1006668120583. ISSN 1573-3653. S2CID 18039888.
40. ^ MacCann C, Roberts RD (2008). "New paradigms for assessing emotional intelligence: Theory and data". Emotion. 8 (4): 540–551. doi:10.1037/a0012746. PMID 18729584 – via APA.
41. Boyatzis RE, Goleman D, Rhee K (2000). "Clustering competence in emotional intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI).". In Bar-On R, Parker JD (eds.). Handbook of emotional intelligence. Vol. 99. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp. 343–62.
42. Eysenck HJ (2000). Intelligence: A New Look. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7658-0707-6.
43. Locke EA (2005). "Why emotional intelligence is an invalid concept". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 26 (4): 425–431. doi:10.1002/job.318.
44. Bradberry T, Greaves J (2009). Emotional Intelligence 2.0. San Francisco: Publishers Group West. ISBN 978-0-9743206-2-5.
45. ^ Petrides KV, Furnham A (2000). "On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence". Personality and Individual Differences. 29 (2): 313–320. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.475.5285. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00195-6.
46. ^ Petrides KV, Pita R, Kokkinaki F (May 2007). "The location of trait emotional intelligence in personality factor space". British Journal of Psychology. 98 (Pt 2): 273–89. doi:10.1348/000712606x120618. PMID 17456273.
47. Petrides KV, Furnham A (2001). "Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies". European Journal of Personality. 15 (6): 425–448. doi:10.1002/per.416. S2CID 144031083.
48. Pérez JC, Petrides PJ, Furnham A (2005). "Measuring trait emotional intelligence". In Schulze R, Roberts RD (eds.). International Handbook of Emotional Intelligence. Cambridge, Mass.: Hogrefe & Huber. pp. 123–43. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.474.294.
49. "What is the EQ-i 2.0 and emotional intelligence?". The Emotional Intelligence Training Company. Retrieved 22 September 2024.
50. Bar-On, R., & Parker, J. D. A. (Eds.) (2000). The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School, and in the Workplace.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
51. Petrides KV, Furnham A (2003). "Trait emotional intelligence: behavioral validation in two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction". European Journal of Personality. 17: 39–75. doi:10.1002/per.466. S2CID 4287409.
52. ^ Mikolajczak M, Luminet O, Leroy C, Roy E (June 2007). "Psychometric properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire: factor structure, reliability, construct, and incremental validity in a French-speaking population". Journal of Personality Assessment. 88 (3): 338–53. doi:10.1080/00223890701333431. PMID 17518555. S2CID 21196733.
53. Vernon PA, Petrides KV, Bratko D, Schermer JA (October 2008). "A behavioral genetic study of trait emotional intelligence". Emotion. 8 (5): 635–42. doi:10.1037/a0013439. PMID 18837613.
54. Gardner JK, Qualter P (2010). "Concurrent and incremental validity of three trait emotional intelligence measures". Australian Journal of Psychology. 62: 5–12. doi:10.1080/00049530903312857.
55. ^ MacCann C, Jiang Y, Brown LE, Double KS, Bucich M, Minbashian A (2020). "Emotional intelligence predicts academic performance: A meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 146 (2): 150–186. doi:10.1037/bul0000219. PMID 31829667. S2CID 209342554 – via APA.
56. • Heffernan M, Quinn Griffin MT, Fitzpatrick JJ (August 2010). "Self-compassion and emotional intelligence in nurses". International Journal of Nursing Practice. 16 (4): 366–73. doi:10.1111/j.1440-172X.2010.01853.x. PMID 20649668. S2CID 1902234.
    • Bratton VK, Dodd NG, Brown FW (January 2011). "The impact of emotional intelligence on accuracy of self-awareness and leadership performance". Leadership & Organization Development Journal. 32 (2): 127–149. doi:10.1108/01437731111112971. ISSN 0143-7739.
57. ^ Joseph DL, Newman DA (January 2010). "Emotional intelligence: an integrative meta-analysis and cascading model". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 95 (1): 54–78. doi:10.1037/a0017286. PMID 20085406. S2CID 11238077.
58. • Lamb J, Pepler DJ, Craig W (April 2009). "Approach to bullying and victimization". Canadian Family Physician. 55 (4): 356–60. PMC 2669002. PMID 19366941.
    • Lomas J, Stough C, Hansen K, Downey LA (2011-07-26). "The relationship between bullying, victimization, trait emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and empathy among preadolescents". Social Psychology of Education. 15 (1): 41–58. doi:10.1007/s11218-011-9168-9. ISSN 1381-2890. S2CID 143679923.
    • Lomas J, Stough C, Hansen K, Downey LA (February 2012). "Brief report: Emotional intelligence, victimisation and bullying in adolescents". Journal of Adolescence. 35 (1): 207–11. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.03.002. hdl:1959.3/190030. PMID 21470670.
59. Rey L, Quintana-Orts C, Mérida-López S, Extremera N (2018-07-01). "Emotional intelligence and peer cybervictimisation in adolescents: Gender as moderator". Comunicar (in Spanish). 26 (56): 09–18. doi:10.3916/c56-2018-01. hdl:10272/15115. ISSN 1134-3478.
60. Mckenna J, Webb J (2013). "Emotional intelligence". British Journal of Occupational Therapy. 76 (12): 560. doi:10.1177/030802261307601202. S2CID 208741104.
61. ^ Côté S, Miners CT (2006). "Emotional Intelligence, Cognitive Intelligence, and Job Performance". Administrative Science Quarterly. 51 (1): 1–28. doi:10.2189/asqu.51.1.1. JSTOR 20109857. S2CID 142971341.
62. (Petrides, Frederickson, & Furnham, 2004)
63. ^ Joseph DL, Jin J, Newman DA, O'Boyle EH (March 2015). "Why does self-reported emotional intelligence predict job performance? A meta-analytic investigation of mixed EI". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 100 (2): 298–342. doi:10.1037/a0037681. PMID 25243996. S2CID 1602838.
64. Van Rooy DL, Viswesvaran C (2004-08-01). "Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation of predictive validity and nomological net". Journal of Vocational Behavior. 65 (1): 71–95. doi:10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00076-9.
65. Law KS, Wong CS, Song LJ (June 2004). "The construct and criterion validity of emotional intelligence and its potential utility for management studies". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 89 (3): 483–96. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.483. PMID 15161407.
66. Rosete D, Ciarrochi J (2005-07-01). "Emotional intelligence and its relationship to workplace performance outcomes of leadership effectiveness". Leadership & Organization Development Journal. 26 (5): 388–399. doi:10.1108/01437730510607871. ISSN 0143-7739.
67. Groves KS, McEnrue MP, Shen W (2008-02-08). "Developing and measuring the emotional intelligence of leaders". Journal of Management Development. 27 (2): 225–250. doi:10.1108/02621710810849353. ISSN 0262-1711.
68. • Whitener S (25 November 2020). "The Importance Of Emotional Intelligence In Business". Forbes. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
    • JCA Global Ltd. and CIPS (2017), Emotional Intelligence in the Procurement Sector, accessed 26 February 2021
    • Kelly EJ, et al. (September 2016). "Importance of emotional intelligence in negotiation and mediation". International Comparative Jurisprudence. 2 (1): 55–60. doi:10.1016/j.icj.2016.07.001.
69. Lopes PN, Grewal D, Kadis J, Gall M, Salovey P (2006). "Evidence that emotional intelligence is related to job performance and affect and attitudes at work". Psicothema. 18 Suppl: 132–8. PMID 17295970.
70. Seibert SE, Kraimer ML, Liden RC (April 2001). "A social capital theory of career success". Academy of Management Journal. 44 (2): 219–237. doi:10.2307/3069452. JSTOR 3069452.
71. Moon TW, Hur WM (2011-09-01). "Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Exhaustion, And Job Performance". Social Behavior and Personality. 39 (8): 1087–1096. doi:10.2224/sbp.2011.39.8.1087.
72. Relojo D, Pilao SJ, Dela Rosa R (2015). "From passion to emotion: Emotional quotient as predictor of work attitude behavior among faculty member" (PDF). Journal of Educational Psychology. 8 (4): 1–10. doi:10.26634/jpsy.8.4.3266. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-04-30.
73. ^ Sy T, Tram S, O'Hara LA (2006-06-01). "Relation of employee and manager emotional intelligence to job satisfaction and performance". Journal of Vocational Behavior. 68 (3): 461–473. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2005.10.003.
74. Ahmetoglu G, Leutner F, Chamorro-Premuzic T (December 2011). "EQ-nomics: Understanding the relationship between individual differences in trait emotional intelligence and entrepreneurship" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences. 51 (8): 1028–1033. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.08.016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-01.
75. Farh CI, Seo MG, Tesluk PE (July 2012). "Emotional intelligence, teamwork effectiveness, and job performance: the moderating role of job context". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 97 (4): 890–900. doi:10.1037/a0027377. PMID 22390388.
76. ^ Landy FJ (2005). "Some historical and scientific issues related to research on emotional intelligence". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 26 (4): 411–424. doi:10.1002/job.317.
77. Murensky CL (2000). "The relationships between emotional intelligence, personality, critical thinking ability and organizational leadership performance at upper levels of management". Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering – via PsyNET.
78. Antonakis J (2009). ""Emotional intelligence": What does it measure and does it matter for leadership?" (PDF). In Graen GB (ed.). LMX leadership—Game-Changing Designs: Research-Based Tools. Vol. VII. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. pp. 163–192. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-11-20.
79. Harms PD, Credé M (2010). "Remaining Issues in Emotional Intelligence Research: Construct Overlap, Method Artifacts, and Lack of Incremental Validity". Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice. 3 (2): 154–158. doi:10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01217.x. S2CID 144371039.
80. Newman DA, Joseph DL, MacCann C (2010). "Emotional Intelligence and Job Performance: The Importance of Emotion Regulation and Emotional Labor Context". Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice. 3 (2): 159–164. doi:10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01218.x. S2CID 145567449.
81. Antonakis J, Ashkanasy NM, Dasborough MT (2009). "Does leadership need emotional intelligence?". The Leadership Quarterly. 20 (2): 247–261. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.01.006.
82. Harms PD, Credé M (2010). "Emotional Intelligence and Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analysis". Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies. 17 (1): 5–17. doi:10.1177/1548051809350894. S2CID 2247881. Archived from the original on 2011-06-12.
83. Barling J, Slater F, Kelloway EK (May 2000). "Transformational leadership and emotional intelligence: an exploratory study". Leadership & Organization Development Journal. 21 (3): 157–161. doi:10.1108/01437730010325040.
84. Choi, S., Kluemper, D. H., & Sauley, K. S. (2011). What if we fake emotional intelligence? A test of criterion validity attenuation. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93(3), 270277. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.558870
85. Day, A. L., & Carroll, S. A. (2008). Faking emotional intelligence (EI): Comparing response distortion on ability and trait-based EI measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 29(6), 761–784. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.485
86. Tett, R. P., Freund, K. A., Christiansen, N. D., Fox, K. E., & Coaster, J. (2012). Faking on self-report emotional intelligence and personality tests: Effects of faking opportunity, cognitive ability, and job type. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(2), 195–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid. 2011.10.017
87. Walker, S. A., & MacCann, C. (2023). Faking Good on Self-Reports Versus Informant-Reports of Emotional Intelligence. Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911231203960
88. Dabke D (2016). "Impact of Leader's Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Behavior on Perceived Leadership Effectiveness: A Multiple Source View". Business Perspectives and Research. 4 (1): 27–40. doi:10.1177/2278533715605433. S2CID 147415251.
89. Ahiauzu A, Nwokah NC (2010). "Marketing in governance: emotional intelligence leadership for effective corporate governance". Corporate Governance. 10 (2): 150–162. doi:10.1108/14720701011035675.
90. Mullen PR, Gutierrez D, Newhart S (2018). "School Counselors' Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship to Leadership". Professional School Counseling. 32 (1b): 2156759X1877298. doi:10.1177/2156759X18772989. S2CID 149709509.
91. ^ Grant A (January 2, 2014). "The Dark Side of Emotional Intelligence". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014.
92. Schutte NS, Malouff JM, Thorsteinsson EB, Bhullar N, Rooke SE (April 2007). "A meta-analytic investigation of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health". Personality and Individual Differences. 42 (6): 921–33. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.003.
93. Mayer JD, Salovey P (1993). "The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence" (PDF). Intelligence. 17 (4): 433–442. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(93)90010-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-05-10. Retrieved 2018-05-09.
94. Nehra DK, Sharma V, Mushtaq H, Sharma NR, Sharma M, Nehra S (July 2012). "Emotional intelligence and self esteem in cannabis abusers" (PDF). Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. 38 (2): 385–393. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-02-19.
95. Brown E, Chiu E, Neill L, Tobin J, Reid J (16 Jan 2012). "Is low emotional intelligence a primary causal factor in drug and alcohol addiction?". Australian Academic Press. Bowen Hills, QLD, Australia: 91–101. S2CID 73720582.
96. • Murphy KR, ed. (February 2014). A critique of emotional intelligence: What are the problems and how can they be fixed?. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-317-82433-6.
    • Durlofsky P (30 October 2015). "The Benefits of Emotional Intelligence". psychcentral.com. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017.
97. • Smith L, Ciarrochi J, Heaven PC (2008). "The stability and change of trait emotional intelligence, conflict communication patterns, and relationship satisfaction: A one-year longitudinal study". Personality and Individual Differences. 45 (8): 738–743. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.07.023.
    • Austin EJ (2008). "A reaction time study of responses to trait and ability emotional intelligence test items" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences. 46 (3): 381–383. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.10.025. hdl:20.500.11820/c3e59b2b-8367-4e8a-9d9c-9fb87c186fc1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-20.
98. Schulte M, Ree MJ, Carretta TR (2004). "Emotional intelligence: Not much more than g and personality". Personality and Individual Differences. 37 (5): 1059–1068. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2003.11.014.
99. Fiori M, Antonakis J (2011). "The ability model of emotional intelligence: Searching for valid measures". Personality and Individual Differences (Submitted manuscript). 50 (3): 329–334. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.010.
100. Antonakis J, Dietz J (2011). "Looking for Validity or Testing It? The Perils of Stepwise Regression, Extreme-Scores Analysis, Heteroscedasticity, and Measurement Error". Personality and Individual Differences (Submitted manuscript). 50 (3): 409–415. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.014.
101. ^ van der Linden D, Pekaar KA, Bakker AB, Schermer JA, Vernon PA, Dunkel CS, Petrides KV (January 2017). "Overlap between the general factor of personality and emotional intelligence: A meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 143 (1): 36–52. doi:10.1037/bul0000078. hdl:10654/45887. ISSN 1939-1455. PMID 27841449. S2CID 29455205.
102. • Walker SA, Double KS, Birney DP (2021). "The Complicated Relationship Between the Dark Triad and Emotional Intelligence: A Systematic Review". Emotion Review. 13 (3): 257–274. doi:10.1177/17540739211014585. S2CID 235779606 – via SAGE.
     • Michels, Moritz; Ralf, Schulze (2021). "Emotional intelligence and the dark triad: A meta-analysis". Personality and Individual Differences. 180: 110961. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110961.
103. Walker SA, Double KS, Kunst H, Zhang M, MacCann C (2022). "Emotional intelligence and attachment in adulthood: A meta-analysis". Personality and Individual Differences. 184: 111174. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111174. ISSN 0191-8869 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
104. Roberts RD, Zeidner M, Matthews G (September 2001). "Does emotional intelligence meet traditional standards for an intelligence? Some new data and conclusions". Emotion. 1 (3): 196–231. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.196. PMID 12934681.
105. Brody N (2004). "What cognitive intelligence is and what emotional intelligence is not" (PDF). Psychological Inquiry. 15 (3): 234–238. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1503_03. S2CID 219727559. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-02-07.

Further reading

• Harvard Business Review's 10 Must Reads: On Emotional Intelligence. Boston: HBR. 2015. ISBN 978-1511367196.

v t e Emotions (list)
Emotions	Acceptance Admiration Adoration Aesthetic Affection Agitation Agony Amusement Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Attraction Awe Belongingness Boredom Calmness Compassion Confidence Confusion Contempt Contentment Courage Cruelty Curiosity Defeat Depression Desire Disappointment Disgust Distrust Doubt Ecstasy Embarrassment vicarious Emotion work Empathy Emptiness Enthrallment Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Excitement Faith Fear Flow Frustration Gratification Gratitude Greed Grief Guilt Happiness Joie de vivre Hatred Hiraeth Homesickness Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Hygge Hysteria Ikigai (sense of purpose) Indulgence Infatuation Insecurity Inspiration Interest Irritation Isolation Jealousy Joy Kindness Loneliness Love limerence at first sight Lust Mono no aware Neglect Nostalgia Outrage Panic Passion Pity self-pity Pleasure Pride grandiosity hubris insult vanity Rage Regret Rejection Relief Remorse Resentment Revenge Sadness melancholy Saudade Schadenfreude Sehnsucht Sentimentality Shame Shock Shyness Social connection Sorrow Spite Stress chronic Suffering Surprise Sympathy Trust Wonder sense of wonder Worry
Worldviews	Cynicism Defeatism Fatalism Misanthropy Nihilism Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz
Related	Affect consciousness in education measures in psychology Affective computing forecasting neuroscience science spectrum Affectivity positive negative Appeal to emotion Amygdala hijack Emotion and art and memory and music and sex and sleep classification evolution expressed functional accounts group homeostatic in animals perception recognition in conversation regulation interpersonal work Emotional aperture bias blackmail competence conflict contagion detachment dysregulation eating exhaustion expression and gender intelligence and bullying Empathy quotient intimacy isolation lability labor lateralization literacy prosody reasoning responsivity security symbiosis thought method well-being Emotionality bounded Emotions and culture history in decision-making in the workplace in virtual communication moral self-conscious social social sharing sociology Feeling Group affective tone Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems Jealousy in art Meta-emotion Pathognomy Pathos Social emotional development Stoic passions Theory affect appraisal constructed emotion discrete emotion somatic marker
Italics indicate emotion names in foreign languages

• Emotional intelligence
• Emotional issues
• Intelligence by type
• Life skills
• Popular psychology
• Positive psychology