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{{Short description|1920 mass killing of Armenian civilians by Azerbaijani forces in Nagorno-Karabakh}} | |||
{{Refimprove|date=September 2007}} | |||
{{Infobox civilian attack | |||
{{pov-title}} | |||
| title = Shusha massacre | |||
{{totallydisputed}} | |||
| partof = the ] | |||
]]] | |||
| image = Ruins of the Armenian part of the city of Shusha after the March 1920 pogrom by Azerbaijani armed units. In the center - church of the Holy Savior.jpg | |||
The '''Shushi massacres''' <ref>"British administrator of Karabakh colonel Chatelword didnt empede the discrimination of Armenians by Tatarian administration of governor Saltanov. The national clashes ended by the terrible massacres in which the most of Armenians in Shushi town perished. The Parliament in Baku refused even condemn the accomplishers of the massacres in Shushi and the war was started in Karabakh. A. Zubov (in Russian) А.Зубов Политическое будущее Кавказа: опыт ретроспективно-сравнительного анализа, журнал "Знамья", 2000, #4, http://magazines.russ.ru/znamia/2000/4/zubov.html</ref><ref>"massacre of the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh's capital, Shushi (called Shusha by the Azerbaijanis)", Kalli Raptis, "Nagorno-Karabakh and the Eurasian Transport Corridor", http://72.14.235.104/search?q=cache:MSbXaimmyAcJ:www.eliamep.gr/eliamep/files/op9803.PDF</ref><ref>World Directory of Minorities - Page 145 by Minority Rights Group, Miranda Bruce-Mitford</ref><ref>"A month ago after the massacres of Shushi, in April 19, 1920, prime-ministers of England, France and Italy with participation of the representatives of Japan and USA collected in San-Remo..." ] (in Russian) Джованни ГУАЙТА, Армения между кемалистским молотом и большевистской наковальней // «ГРАЖДАНИН», M., # 4, 2004 http://www.grazhdanin.com/grazhdanin.phtml?var=Vipuski/2004/4/statya17&number=%B94 </ref><ref>Armenia in Crisis: The 1988 Earthquake - Page 6 | |||
| image_size = 300px | |||
by Pierre Verluise</ref><ref>"exterminé la population arménienne dans l'ancienne capitale Chouchi au début du 20ème siècle." </ref><ref>"De 1918 à 1920, les républiques indépendantes d’Arménie et d’Azerbaïdjan se sont disputées le contrôle du Karabagh, pour des raisons symboliques et stratégiques. Des pogroms et des incendies anéantissent le quartier arménien de Chouchi en février 1920." Situation des réfugiés et déplacés d’origine arménienne sur le territoire de l’ex-Union soviétique //Commission de Refugies, France http://www.commission-refugies.fr/IMG/pdf/Ex-URSS_-_situation_des_refugies_et_deplaces_d_origine_armenienne_sur_le_territoire_de_l_ex-Union_sovietique.pdf</ref><ref>La construction de l'État en Arménie: un enjeu caucasien - Page 69 by Gérard J. Libaridian</ref> were ] pogroms during the ] in ], when Azeri and Turkish army soldiers attacked the inhabitants of the town of ] (]) in ]. The massacres took place on ]-], 1920, and resulted in more than | |||
| caption = Ruins of the Armenian half of ] after the city's destruction by the Azerbaijani army in March 1920. In the center: the defaced Armenian ] | |||
20,000 ] deaths and the destruction of Shushi.<ref>"In August 1919, the Karabagh National Council entered into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government. Despite signing the Agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty. This culminated in March 1920 with the Azerbaijanis' massacre of Armenians in Karabagh's former capital, Shushi, in which it is estimated that more than 20,000 Armenians were killed." The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis:A Blueprint for Resolution, A Memorandum Prepared by the Public International Law & Policy Group and the New England Center for International Law & Policy, June, 2000, p. 3 http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf</ref><ref>Lords Hansard text for 1 Jul 1997 (170701-19) http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199798/ldhansrd/vo970701/text/70701-19.htm</ref><ref>"In March, 1920 a terrible pogrom took place in Shushi, organized by Azerbaijanis with the support of Turkish forces. Azerbaijani and Soviet authorities during the decades will deny and try to hush up the mass killings of about 30000 Armenians. ] (see Джованни ГУАЙТА, Армения между кемалистским молотом и большевистской наковальней // «ГРАЖДАНИН», M., # 4, 2004 http://www.grazhdanin.com/grazhdanin.phtml?var=Vipuski/2004/4/statya17&number=№4</ref><ref>Why IDPs Matter in the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict by Seepan V. Parseghian, p.5</ref><ref>Historic Maps of Armenia: The Cartographic Heritage - Page 7 by Rouben Galichian</ref><ref>Russian analysts Igor Babanov and Konstantin Voevodsky write that "On March, 1920, during the occupation of Shushi town, 30 thousand Armenians were massacred". / Игорь Бабанов, Константин Воеводский, Карабахский кризис, Санкт-Петербург, 1992</ref> | |||
| location = ] (disputed between ] and ]) | |||
| target = ] civilians | |||
| date = March 1920 | |||
| type = ], ] | |||
| perpetrators = ] and Azerbaijani inhabitants of Shusha | |||
| fatalities = 500–20,000 Armenians | |||
}} | |||
The '''Shusha''' or '''Shushi massacre''' ({{langx|hy|Շուշիի ջարդեր|translit=Šušii ǰarder}}), also known as the '''Shusha pogrom''',<ref>{{Cite news |date=2005-07-06 |title=Глава 3. Шуша. Рассказ о соседях |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/in_depth/newsid_4655000/4655249.stm |access-date=2024-05-10 |work=bbc.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> was the mass killing of the ] population of ] from 22–26 March 1920.{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p=105}}{{sfn|Geldenhuys|2009|pp=96–97 }} The number of deaths vary across sources, with the most conservative estimate being 500, and the highest estimates reaching 20,000. | |||
== Name == | |||
Known as the ''Shushi massacres'' or the Shushi pogroms, the usage of the word 'genocide' has been reported as well: | |||
{{cquote|The massacre of Armenians in Shushi in 1920 is nothing but a genocide, Chairman of the parliamentary Commission for Foreign Relations of Karabakh, Vahram Atanesyan, said at a press-conference today. He said the massacre was perpetrated by Azerbaijan with the support of the Turkish expeditionary corps. Atanesyan stressed that Karabakh has never been a part of Azerbaijan and was de facto independent at that moment, its status being recognized by Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. |||Chairman of the parliamentary Commission for Foreign Relations of ], Vahram Atanesyan<ref>Massacre of Armenians in Shushi in 1920 is nothing but a genocide: Chairman of the parliamentary Commission for Foreign Relations of Karabakh, Vahram Atanesyan, at a press-conference, Arminfo, March 23, 2002</ref>}} | |||
==Background== | ==Background== | ||
] | |||
On ]-], ], an armed clash between Armenians and Turks took place in Shushi, organized and incited by Governor-General Khosrov beg Sultanov<ref>Нагорный Карабах в 1918—1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, стр., стр. 240, документ № 155</ref><ref>"Kavkazskoe slovo" newspaper,1.07.1919</ref>. The town was isolated and blockaded, and the Armenian population found itself in acute need of food.<ref>Нагорный Карабах в 1918—1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, стр. 265—269, документы №№ 177, 178</ref> The barracks in ] (]) were filled with soldiers of the ], and only a single unit of the English army was located in the town, which consisted of Sipayis (?), Muslim Indians. The Armenian part of Shushi was under a siege imposed by the armed Turks. The Armenian forces were not only scarce, but had no weapon cartridges. | |||
At the end of the ], the ownership of the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh was disputed between the newly established republics of the ] and ]. Shusha—the territory's largest settlement, its centre for social and cultural life, and with a mixed population consisting mostly of ethnic Armenians and Azerbaijanis—found itself at the heart of the dispute. The government of Azerbaijan proclaimed in ] the ] of the disputed territory and, on 15 January 1919, appointed ],<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270">Walker, Christopher J. ''Armenia: The Survival of a Nation'', revised 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 270.</ref> as governor-general of Karabakh. The ] had a small detachment of troops stationed in Shusha and acceded to Sultanov's appointment as provisional governor, but insisted that a final decision on the territory's ownership could only be decided at a future peace conference.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} | |||
In response to Sultanov's appointment, the General Assembly of the Armenians of Karabakh (]), meeting in Shusha from 10–21 February, issued a message stating that it "denies Azerbaijani authority in any form whatsoever."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1971|p=164}} On 23 April 1919, the ] convened in Shusha and again rejected Azerbaijan's claim of ], insisting on their right of ]. After this, a local ] detachment encircled the ] quarters of Shusha and demanded that the inhabitants to surrender the fortress. Shots were fired, but by virtue of British mediation, the Armenians agreed to surrender to them instead.<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270"/> According to Colonel J.C. Rhea, acting Allied high commissioner, Sultanov "countenanced a polity of extermination of Armenians".{{sfn|Lieberman|2013|p=56}} | |||
The attempts to subjugate ] to ] kept failing. The Armenian National Council of Karabakh remained unflinching.<ref>Нагорный Карабах в 1918—1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, стр. 162—164, документ № 105</ref> Sultanov’s goal was to bring Karabagh to its knees through massacres, violence and terror, and he had planned to start from Shushi. The shootings of June 4-5 left casualties on both sides. The English mission in Shushi presented to the Armenian side Sultanov’s condition for a ceasefire: removal of the Armenian National Council members from the town. On ], three members of the Council left Shushi. The ceasefire was reached partially due to the interference of the English soldiers.<ref>(in Russian) "Slovo" newspaper, 28.08.1919</ref> But a new wave of violence swept through the neighboring villages of Ghaibalishen, Pahlul and Krkzhan, which were pillaged on June 5-7. About 700 people, mostly innocent civilians, were killed in Ghaibalishen.<ref>Нагорный Карабах в 1918—1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, стр., стр. 240, документ № 155</ref> | |||
On 4 and 5 June 1919, armed clashes occurred in Shusha between the two communities and Sultanov began a blockade of the town's Armenian quarters. American nurses working in Shusha for ] wrote of a massacre "by ] of 700 of the Christian inhabitants of the town."<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815211921/https://en.wikisource.org/The_New_York_Times/Nurses_stuck_to_post |date=2021-08-15 }}," '']'', 4 September 1919.</ref> A cease-fire was quickly organised after the Armenian side agreed to Sultanov's condition that members of the ] leave the town. However, a new wave of violence then swept through neighbouring Armenian-populated villages: in mid-June ] mounted "irregulars", about 2,000 strong, ] a large Armenian village, ], just outside Shusha, and approximately 600 Armenians lay dead.<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270"/> | |||
The gang activities were led by the brother of the Governor-General. | |||
The Seventh Congress of the Armenians of Karabakh was convened in Shusha on 13 August 1919. It concluded with the agreement of 22 August, according to which Nagorno-Karabakh would consider itself to be provisionally within the borders of the ] until its final status was decided at the Peace Conference in Paris. As the historian Richard Hovhannisyan points out, the agreement concluded in August 1919 strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and established the internal autonomy of Nagorno-Karabakh.<ref name=":0">''Hovannisian R. G.'' The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. — Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. — Vol. II. Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. — P. 318. — 493 p. — <nowiki>ISBN 0312101686</nowiki>, <nowiki>ISBN 9780312101688</nowiki>. "Finally, in August 1919, the Karabagh National Assembly yielded to provisional and conditional Azerbaijani jurisdiction. The twenty-six conditions strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and underscored the internal autonomy of Mountainous Karabagh. Violations of those conditions by Azerbaijan culminated in an abortive rebellion in March 1920."</ref> Armenians remained divided on their response and a stock of arms was built up on both sides and the Armenians decided to deter a Tatar attack by staging an abortive uprising.{{sfn|Wright|2003|p=98}} | |||
When the Karabakh capital of Shusha fell to Azerbaijani forces on March 1920, its entire Armenian population was killed or expelled.<ref>Walker, Armenia and Karabakh, p.91</ref><ref>Goldenberg, Pride of Small Nations, p.159</ref><ref>Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War By Stuart J. Kaufman, p.51</ref> | |||
==Persecutions and uprising== | |||
==Massacres in Shushi on March 22-26, 1920== | |||
] | |||
The August agreement for Armenian autonomy and Azerbaijani demilitarization was violated by the Azerbaijani authorities almost immediately. Sultanov received orders from Baku to annex both Karabakh and Syunik. The Azerbaijani garrison was reinforced and troops were deployed without the required two-thirds consent of the Karabakh administration council. Turkish general ] had a leading role in Azerbaijani militarization and recruiting Muslim partisans. The Armenian population was forcibly disarmed. Azerbaijan imposed an economic blockade on Karabakh, which Armenian PM ] accused of being intended to starve the Armenian population into submission.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|pp=137–143}} | |||
Several incidences of Armenian travelers outside of Shusha being beaten, robbed, or killed occurred. On 22 February, up to 400 Armenians (per Armenian sources) in ] and ] were massacred after an unidentified body was discovered, believed to be that of an Azerbaijani soldier. Two weeks later, that soldier reportedly returned to his company, having been a deserter.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|pp=137–143}} In March 1920, Sultanov began prohibiting Armenians from leaving Shusha without special permission, forced Armenian residents to quarter Azerbaijani soldiers, and began dismissing Armenians who had served as officers in the Russian army.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=147}} | |||
From the very start of ], Governor Sultanov, breaking the terms of the temporary agreement<ref>"Communist" newspaper, Baku, 25 June, 1920</ref><ref>The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis:A Blueprint for Resolution, A Memorandum Prepared by the Public International Law & Policy Group and the New England Center for International Law & Policy, June, 2000, p. 3 http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf</ref> of ], ], tightened the blockade around Karabagh, not only through accumulation of armed forces in the strategically important locations but also by arming the Turkish population, preparing the latter for guerrilla fights.<ref>Нагорный | |||
Карабах в 1918—1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, стр. 385, документ № 261</ref> | |||
Matters came to a head on the evening of 22 March, when "the ] militia entered Shusha...supposedly to receive its pay and to felicitate Governor-General Sultanov on the occasion of ]," writes historian ]. "That same night, about 100 armed men led by Nerses Azbekian slipped into the city to disarm the Azerbaijani garrison in the Armenian quarter. But everything went wrong. The Varanda militiamen spent most of the night eating and drinking and were late in taking up their assigned positions, whereas Azbekian's detachment, failing to link up with the militia, began firing on the Azerbaijani fort from afar, awakening the troops and sending them scurrying to arms."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} This jolted the Varanda militiamen from their initial dormancy, as they "began seizing Azerbaijani officers quartered in Armenian homes. The confusion on both sides continued until dawn, when the Azerbaijanis learned that their garrison at Khankend had held and, heartened, began to spread out into the Armenian quarter. The fighting took the Armenians of Shusha by surprise."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} | |||
In the winter and spring of ], Sultanov was well aware of the degree of the Armenian population’s armament in Karabakh, which in fact was much more lower than that of the Turks. One of his dispatches reads: “I think this is the most suitable moment for the final resolution of the ] issue, since they have few cartridges available. Armenians were also aware of Sultanov’s preparations and tried to resist them. | |||
==Massacre== | |||
In the early morning of ], ], when the Turkish population of Shushi was celebrating ], a small Armenian detachment entered Shushi and tried to take over the barrack in accordance with an uprising program developed by the Karabakh self-defense commanders. | |||
Immediately after the quelling of the uprising, Azerbaijani troops, along with city's Azerbaijani inhabitants, turned their wrath on Shusha' Armenian population.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} The city's churches were put to the flame, as were cultural institutions, schools, libraries, the business section, and the homes of wealthy Armenians. Bishop Vahan (Ter-Grigorian), who had sought a policy of accommodation with the Azerbaijani authorities, was murdered and beheaded, his "head paraded through the streets on a spike."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} Chief of police Avetis Ter-Ghukasian was "turned into a human torch," while hundreds of others were similarly murdered with impunity.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} | |||
==Aftermath== | |||
This started an exchange of fire which served as a signal for Azeri army soldiers and Kurdish gangs abounding in the town to attack the Armenian district, plunder, set everything on fire and start a massacre of the Armenian population. | |||
Five to six thousand Armenians managed to escape by way of ] (Karintak) to ] and ].{{sfn|Bagdasaryan|2015}} By 11 April 1920, some thirty villages in Nagorno-Karabakh had been "devastated" by Azerbaijani forces as a result of the uprising, leaving 25,000 homeless (including nearly 6,000 refugees from Shusha).{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|pp=157–158}} | |||
=== Death toll === | |||
There is another version of what exactly started the massacre, according to which a Turkish officer tried to disarm a young Armenian and insulted the honor of the Armenian’s wife in the guy’s presence. The young man killed the officer, and then his whole family was slaughtered by the Turks accompanying the officer. While the shooting was going on, the Turks called for help from their companions-in-arms and brothers in faith. | |||
] | |||
According to the 1917 edition of '']'', there were 43,869 residents in Shusha on {{OldStyleDate|14 January|1916|1 January}}—the city was composed of 23,396 ] who formed 53.3 percent of the population and 19,091 ] (mainly ]) who formed 43.5 percent of the population.{{sfn|Кавказский календарь на 1917 год|pp=190–192}}{{sfn|Bagdasaryan|2015}} | |||
The total death toll of the Shusha massacre is unknown, with figures ranging from several hundred,{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} to 20,000.{{sfn|Smele|2015|p=137}} | |||
The Turkish part of Shushi, the army located in the town, the “guerrilla” gangs that had arrived from other locations, seized by the rage of killing and plundering, ceaselessly and mercilessly slaughtered, destroyed, burnt and looted the Armenian part of the town for three days. | |||
Citing a contemporary Armenian government report, Hovannisian places the death toll of the massacre at 500 Armenians and the destruction of many buildings in Shusha.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}}{{efn|Hovannisian also writes of a "Melkumian report" that claims that 5,000–6,000 were "left behind" during the massacre whilst 8,000 escaped.}} German historian ] states that the Armenian quarter of Shusha was "wiped off the face of the earth", indicated by 25 of 1,700 homes surviving the pogrom; also adding that 8,000 Armenians were massacred during the pogrom.{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=171}} Soviet historian ] wrote that 3–4 thousand or more than 12 thousand Armenians were killed and 7,000 homes were destroyed in three-days.{{sfn|1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը}} The '']'' entry for Shusha writes that "up to 20 percent of the population died" when the city was burned.{{sfn|Great Soviet Encyclopedia}} | |||
In the ] a whole town, Shusha, was razed to the ground and most of its inhabitants— about 20000 people were slaughtered.<ref>U.S.S.R. Speaks for Itself - Page 24 1941</ref> | |||
== Retribution == | |||
Nobody did or could have counted the number of victims and those who miraculously survived the ordeal. According to the ] data, more than 22 thousand Armenians lived in Shushi, whereas in ] their number was about 300. ] wrote about Shushi of 1920s: "("...in this town, which formerly off course was healthy and with every amenity, the picture of catastrofe and massacres was terribly visual... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of dead bodies. ...We didn't see anyone in the streets on the mountain. Only at downtown- in the market-square there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them, all were Muslims". <ref>(in Russian) Н. Я. Мандельштам. Книга третья. Париж, YMCA-Ргess, 1987, с.162-164.</ref> | |||
Former minister of internal affairs of Azerbaijan ] was assassinated during ] by members of the ], who suspected him of involvement in the massacre.<ref>"Помимо лидеров младотурок руководство операции "Немезис" приняло решение о ликвидации некоторых деятелей мусаватистского правительства Азербайджана, виновных, по их мнению, в организации резни армян в Баку в сентябре 1918 г. – бывшего премьер-министра Фатали хана Хойского (июнь 1920 г.), а также бывшего министра Бехбуд хана Дживаншира (июль 1921 г.), организатора резни армян в Шуши (Карабах)." (Ростов н/Д., 2005)</ref> | |||
===Memory=== | |||
The documented records provide more than sufficient evidence for stating that the massacre of the Armenians in Shushi was thoroughly prepared by the Azerbaijanian authorities, under the command of experienced Turkish emissaries (Khalil pasha) <ref>(in Russian) Нагорный Карабах в 1918—1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, стр. 376, документ № 254</ref>. Otherwise it would be hard to believe that the peaceful population that was amid sending its prayers to God could in a wink of an eye, without arms, rush out for an attack upon hearing the shooting noise, and start the beastly destruction of everybody and everything <ref>"For example, also in the 1920s, Azeris brutally massacred and evicted Armenians from the town of Shushi, which had been a famous and historic centre of Armenian culture." Nagorno Karabakh: forgotten people in a forgotten war, | |||
The prominent ] ] ], who visited Shusha in 1930, wrote the poem "The Phaeton Driver" (1931) in memory of the massacre and burning: | |||
Contemporary Review, Jan, 1997 by Caroline Cox. See also: "Fighting broke out in 1920 over whether Shusha would be part of the newly declared republics of Armenia or Azerbaijan. Thousands died and the Armenian population fled the city." ''Jerusalem of Karabakh" at the heart of Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict'', by Michael Mainville, Agence France Presse, 7/25/07</ref>. | |||
] | |||
On ], ], in the ], during the reception of the delegation from ], ] remembers his visit to destroyed Shushi: | |||
"Even today I remember what I saw in Shusha in 1920, with horror. The most beautiful Armenian town was completely destroyed, and in the wells we saw dead bodies of women and children" <ref>Партиздат ЦК ВКП(б), 1936, с. 60-63</ref>. | |||
==Remembering== | |||
The prominent Russian poet ] who was in Shushi in ] wrote a poem ("The phaeton driver") dedicated to this tragedy: | |||
<poem style="margin-left: 20px"> | <poem style="margin-left: 20px"> | ||
So in Nagorno-Karabakh |
So in ] | ||
These were my fears | These were my fears | ||
Forty thousand dead windows |
Forty thousand dead windows | ||
Are visible there from all directions, |
Are visible there from all directions, | ||
The cocoon of soulless work | The cocoon of soulless work | ||
Buried in the mountains.<ref>Osip Mandelstam, "Faetonshchik," {{cite web |url=http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html |title=Мандельштам Осип | Классика.ру – электронная библиотека классической литературы |access-date=2007-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813154250/http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html |archive-date=2007-08-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813154250/http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html |date=2007-08-13 }}</ref><ref>Osip Mandelstam. ''Sochineniia''. 2 vols. (Moscow, 1990) 1: pp. 517–519.</ref><ref>Baines, Jennifer. ''Mandelstam: The Later Poetry''. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 41–42.</ref> | |||
Buried at the mountains.<ref>Осип Мандельштам, Фаэтонщик, http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html</ref><ref>Осип Мандельштам. Сочинения. В 2-х т. Т.1, с.517-519.</ref> | |||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
Visiting Shusha with Osip, ] wrote, "in this town, which formerly, of course, was healthy and endowed with every amenity, the picture of catastrophe and massacres was terribly vivid ... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of corpses.... We didn't see anyone in the streets or on the mountain. Only in the centre of town, in the market-square, there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them, they were all Muslims."<ref>(in Russian) N. Ya. Mandelstam. ''Kniga tretia''. Paris: YMCA-Ргess, 1987, pp. 162–164.</ref> Numerous other communist officials recalled the destruction of the town, including, ],<ref>Partizdat TsK VKP (b), 1936, pp. 60–63.</ref> ],<ref>(in Russian) Шатуновская О. Г . Об ушедшем веке. Рассказывает Ольга Шатуновская / сост.: Д. Кутьина, А. Бройдо, А. Кутьин. – La Jolla (Calif.) : DAA Books, 2001. – 470 с., c. 71</ref> and ] and ],<ref>"Here during the 3 days in March 1920, 7000 houses were destroyed and burnt, and the people are marking different numbers of that who were ]d...". (in Russian) Marietta Shaginyan, "Soviet Transcaucasus", Armgiz, 1947, p. 254</ref> Russian-Georgian writer Anaida Bestavashvili drew a comparison between the burning of Shusha to the destruction of ] in her ''The People and the Monuments''.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129180207/http://armenianhouse.org/raffi/also-ru/bestavashvili.html |date=2022-11-29 }} // Армянский вестник, # 1–2, 2000</ref> | |||
One of the ] leaders of ]- ] later wrote in her memoirs: "Azerbaijan dont want to lose the power as Nagorno-Karabakh is a great region. Its autonomous but only nominally, during these years they ousted many Armenians, closed schools, colleges. Earlier the main city was Shusha. When in 1920s there was a massacre, they burnt all the central part of the town, and then they even didnt restored it." | |||
<ref>(in Russian) Шатуновская О. Г . Об ушедшем веке. Рассказывает Ольга Шатуновская / сост.: Д. Кутьина, А. Бройдо, А. Кутьин. – La Jolla (Calif.) : DAA Books, 2001. – 470 с., c. 71</ref> | |||
On 20 March 2000, a memorial stone was laid in Shusha on the site of the planned monument to the victims of the pogrom. The ] government introduced a proposal to the ] to establish 23 March as a day of memorial for the victims of the pogrom.<ref>Nagornyy Karabakh marks 80th anniversary of 1920 Armenian pogroms, Noyan Tapan, 24 Mar. 2000</ref> | |||
Two prominent Armenian-Russian Communist activists- ] and writer ] <ref>"Here during the 3 days in March 1920, 7000 houses were destroyed and burnt, and the people are marking different numbers of that who were massacred...". (in Russian) Marietta Shaginyan, "Soviet Transcaucasus", Armgiz, 1947, p. 254</ref> wrote about this pogroms in their memoirs. Mikoyan, who was in that region, later marks: "According to the reconaissance information, at Azerbaijani Mousavatist government's disposal was army of 30-thousands, of whom 20 thousants deployed near the border of Armenia... The army of Azerbaijan shortly before that massacred the Armenians in Shusha, Karabakh" <ref> (in Russian) Микоян Анастас. Так было (воспоминания), http://biblioteka.org.ua/book.php?id=1121020105&p=19</ref>. | |||
==See also== | |||
In ], ], in her speech in the ], ], Baroness ] marked: "Armenians have repeatedly suffered atrocities at the hands of Turks and Azeris, including the murder of 1.5 million Armenians by Turkey in the genocide of 1915; the massacre of 20,000 Armenians in the ancient Armenian city of Shushi in 1920; and massacres in Sumgait and Baku in 1988 and 1990" <ref>Lords Hansard text for 1 Jul 1997 (170701-19) http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199798/ldhansrd/vo970701/text/70701-19.htm</ref>. | |||
*] | |||
== Notes == | |||
Research analyst Kalli Raptis in her book "Nagorno-Karabakh and the Eurasian Transport Corridor" wrote: ""In July 1918, the First Armenian Assembly of Nagorno Karabakh declared the region self-governing and created a national Council and government. In August 1919, the Karabakh national Council entered into a provisional treaty arrangement with the Azerbaijani government in order to avoid military conflict with a superior adversary". Azerbaijan's violation of the treaty culminated in March 1920 with the massacre of the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh's capital, Shushi (called Shusha by the Azerbaijanis)". <ref>Kalli Raptis, "Nagorno-Karabakh and the Eurasian Transport Corridor", http://72.14.235.104/search?q=cache:MSbXaimmyAcJ:www.eliamep.gr/eliamep/files/op9803.PDF</ref> | |||
{{Notelist}} | |||
==References== | |||
In ], ], a memorial stone was laid in Shushi on the site of the future monument to the victims of the slaughter. The government introduced a proposal to the National Assembly to establish ], as a day of memorial of the victims of the Shushi massacres. <ref>Nagornyy Karabakh marks 80th anniversary of 1920 Armenian pogroms, Noyan Tapan, 24 Mar. 2000</ref> | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
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== Bibliography == | ||
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} | |||
* ] | |||
*{{Cite web |title=1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը |trans-title=The Shushi Massacre of 1920 |url=https://republic.mediamax.am/story/100 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719045023/https://republic.mediamax.am/story/100/ |archive-date=19 July 2022 |access-date=19 November 2022 |website=Republic.Mediamax.am |language=hy |ref={{Harvid|1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719045023/https://republic.mediamax.am/story/100/ |date=19 July 2022 }} | |||
* ] | |||
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== External links == | |||
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*{{Cite book |last=Baberovski |first=Yorg |url=http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |title=Враг есть везде. Сталинизм на Кавказе |publisher=Rossiyskaya politicheskaya entsiklopediya (ROSSPEN) Fond «Prezidentskiy tsentr B. N. Yeltsina» |year=2010 |isbn=978-5-8243-1435-9 |location=Moscow |pages=171 |language=ru |trans-title=The enemy is everywhere. Stalinism in the Caucasus |author-link=Jörg Baberowski |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008172127/http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |archive-date=8 October 2022 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008172127/http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |date=8 October 2022 }} | |||
== Publications == | |||
* (in Russian) В Нагорном Карабахе осудили погромы 1920 года в Шуши http://pda.regnum.ru/news/611517.html | |||
* (in Russian) М. Григорян, "Из 35 тысяч армян не осталось в Шуши ни одного..." // "Голос Армении", 24 Марта 2007 г., http://www.golos.am/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=5213 | |||
*{{Cite web |last=Bagdasaryan |first=Gegam |date=March 2015 |title=Три нераскрытых обстоятельства резни армян в Шуши |trans-title=Three unsolved circumstances of the massacre of Armenians in Shushi |url=https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%be%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b8/%d1%82%d1%80%d0%b8-%d0%bd%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b0%d1%81%d0%ba%d1%80%d1%8b%d1%82%d1%8b%d1%85-%d0%be%d0%b1%d1%81%d1%82%d0%be%d1%8f%d1%82%d0%b5%d0%bb%d1%8c%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b2%d0%b0-%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b7%d0%bd/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114224058/https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8/%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%85-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=15 November 2022 |website=theanalyticon.com |location=Stepanakert |language=ru }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114224058/https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8/%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%85-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD/ |date=14 November 2022 }} | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist|2}} | |||
*{{cite book |last=Geldenhuys |first=Deon|title= Contested States in World Politics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=2009 |isbn= 9780230234185 |volume=3 |location=Berkeley}} | |||
*{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatsovietencyc0017unse |title=Great Soviet Encyclopedia |publisher=] |year=1973 |volume=17 |location=New York |pages=301 |ref={{harvid|Great Soviet Encyclopedia}} }} | |||
*{{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/229988654 |title=The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2=Kurkchiyan |first2=Marina |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2005 |isbn=0-203-00493-0 |location=London |oclc=229988654 }} | |||
*{{Cite The Republic of Armenia Volume 1}} | |||
*{{Cite The Republic of Armenia Volume 3}} | |||
*{{Cite Kavkazskiy Kalendar 1917}} | |||
*{{Cite web |url=http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/11.html |title=Letter from Avetis Aharonian, president of the delegation of the Republic of Armenia, addressed to the presidents of the delegations of Italy, France, England, and the U.S. |access-date=2008-01-24 |archive-date=2007-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914134425/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/11.html |url-status=live |ref={{harvid|"letter from Avetis Aharonian, president of the delegation of the Republic of Armenia, addressed to the presidents of the delegations of Italy, France, England, and the U.S."}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914134425/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/11.html |date=2007-09-14 }} | |||
*{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Benjamin|title= Terrible Fate Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2013 |isbn= 9781442230385 |volume=|location=}} | |||
*{{Cite book |last=Mkrtchʻyan |first=Shahen |title=Shoushi: The City of Tragic Fate |publisher=Gasprint |year=2008 |location=Yerevan}} | |||
*{{Cite book |last=Smele |first=Jonathan D. |title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926 |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4422-5281-3 |location=Lanham, Maryland |oclc=923010906}} | |||
*{{Cite book |last=Welt |first=Cory D. |title=Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia |year=2004}} | |||
*{{Cite book |last=Wright |first=John |title=Transcaucasian Boundaries |year=2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0805079326}} | |||
*{{Cite book |last=Ziemer |first=Ulrike |title=Ethnic Belonging, Gender, and Cultural Practices Youth Identities in Contemporary Russia |publisher=] |year=2014 |isbn=9783838261522}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 08:32, 13 November 2024
1920 mass killing of Armenian civilians by Azerbaijani forces in Nagorno-KarabakhShusha massacre | |
---|---|
Part of the Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920) | |
Ruins of the Armenian half of Shusha after the city's destruction by the Azerbaijani army in March 1920. In the center: the defaced Armenian Ghazanchetsots Cathedral | |
Location | Nagorno-Karabakh (disputed between Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and First Republic of Armenia) |
Date | March 1920 |
Target | Armenian civilians |
Attack type | Massacre, pogrom |
Deaths | 500–20,000 Armenians |
Perpetrators | Azerbaijani Army and Azerbaijani inhabitants of Shusha |
The Shusha or Shushi massacre (Armenian: Շուշիի ջարդեր, romanized: Šušii ǰarder), also known as the Shusha pogrom, was the mass killing of the Armenian population of Shusha from 22–26 March 1920. The number of deaths vary across sources, with the most conservative estimate being 500, and the highest estimates reaching 20,000.
Background
At the end of the First World War, the ownership of the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh was disputed between the newly established republics of the Armenia and Azerbaijan. Shusha—the territory's largest settlement, its centre for social and cultural life, and with a mixed population consisting mostly of ethnic Armenians and Azerbaijanis—found itself at the heart of the dispute. The government of Azerbaijan proclaimed in Baku the annexation of the disputed territory and, on 15 January 1919, appointed Khosrov bek Sultanov, as governor-general of Karabakh. The United Kingdom had a small detachment of troops stationed in Shusha and acceded to Sultanov's appointment as provisional governor, but insisted that a final decision on the territory's ownership could only be decided at a future peace conference.
In response to Sultanov's appointment, the General Assembly of the Armenians of Karabakh (Armenian National Council of Karabakh), meeting in Shusha from 10–21 February, issued a message stating that it "denies Azerbaijani authority in any form whatsoever." On 23 April 1919, the Karabakh Council convened in Shusha and again rejected Azerbaijan's claim of sovereignty, insisting on their right of self-determination. After this, a local Azerbaijani detachment encircled the Armenian quarters of Shusha and demanded that the inhabitants to surrender the fortress. Shots were fired, but by virtue of British mediation, the Armenians agreed to surrender to them instead. According to Colonel J.C. Rhea, acting Allied high commissioner, Sultanov "countenanced a polity of extermination of Armenians".
On 4 and 5 June 1919, armed clashes occurred in Shusha between the two communities and Sultanov began a blockade of the town's Armenian quarters. American nurses working in Shusha for Near East Relief wrote of a massacre "by Tartars of 700 of the Christian inhabitants of the town." A cease-fire was quickly organised after the Armenian side agreed to Sultanov's condition that members of the Armenian National Council leave the town. However, a new wave of violence then swept through neighbouring Armenian-populated villages: in mid-June Azerbaijani mounted "irregulars", about 2,000 strong, attacked, looted and burnt a large Armenian village, Khaibalikend, just outside Shusha, and approximately 600 Armenians lay dead.
The Seventh Congress of the Armenians of Karabakh was convened in Shusha on 13 August 1919. It concluded with the agreement of 22 August, according to which Nagorno-Karabakh would consider itself to be provisionally within the borders of the Republic of Azerbaijan until its final status was decided at the Peace Conference in Paris. As the historian Richard Hovhannisyan points out, the agreement concluded in August 1919 strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and established the internal autonomy of Nagorno-Karabakh. Armenians remained divided on their response and a stock of arms was built up on both sides and the Armenians decided to deter a Tatar attack by staging an abortive uprising.
Persecutions and uprising
The August agreement for Armenian autonomy and Azerbaijani demilitarization was violated by the Azerbaijani authorities almost immediately. Sultanov received orders from Baku to annex both Karabakh and Syunik. The Azerbaijani garrison was reinforced and troops were deployed without the required two-thirds consent of the Karabakh administration council. Turkish general Halil Kut had a leading role in Azerbaijani militarization and recruiting Muslim partisans. The Armenian population was forcibly disarmed. Azerbaijan imposed an economic blockade on Karabakh, which Armenian PM Alexander Khatisian accused of being intended to starve the Armenian population into submission.
Several incidences of Armenian travelers outside of Shusha being beaten, robbed, or killed occurred. On 22 February, up to 400 Armenians (per Armenian sources) in Khankend and Aghdam were massacred after an unidentified body was discovered, believed to be that of an Azerbaijani soldier. Two weeks later, that soldier reportedly returned to his company, having been a deserter. In March 1920, Sultanov began prohibiting Armenians from leaving Shusha without special permission, forced Armenian residents to quarter Azerbaijani soldiers, and began dismissing Armenians who had served as officers in the Russian army.
Matters came to a head on the evening of 22 March, when "the Varanda militia entered Shusha...supposedly to receive its pay and to felicitate Governor-General Sultanov on the occasion of Novruz Bairam," writes historian Richard G. Hovannisian. "That same night, about 100 armed men led by Nerses Azbekian slipped into the city to disarm the Azerbaijani garrison in the Armenian quarter. But everything went wrong. The Varanda militiamen spent most of the night eating and drinking and were late in taking up their assigned positions, whereas Azbekian's detachment, failing to link up with the militia, began firing on the Azerbaijani fort from afar, awakening the troops and sending them scurrying to arms." This jolted the Varanda militiamen from their initial dormancy, as they "began seizing Azerbaijani officers quartered in Armenian homes. The confusion on both sides continued until dawn, when the Azerbaijanis learned that their garrison at Khankend had held and, heartened, began to spread out into the Armenian quarter. The fighting took the Armenians of Shusha by surprise."
Massacre
Immediately after the quelling of the uprising, Azerbaijani troops, along with city's Azerbaijani inhabitants, turned their wrath on Shusha' Armenian population. The city's churches were put to the flame, as were cultural institutions, schools, libraries, the business section, and the homes of wealthy Armenians. Bishop Vahan (Ter-Grigorian), who had sought a policy of accommodation with the Azerbaijani authorities, was murdered and beheaded, his "head paraded through the streets on a spike." Chief of police Avetis Ter-Ghukasian was "turned into a human torch," while hundreds of others were similarly murdered with impunity.
Aftermath
Five to six thousand Armenians managed to escape by way of Dashalty (Karintak) to Varanda and Dizak. By 11 April 1920, some thirty villages in Nagorno-Karabakh had been "devastated" by Azerbaijani forces as a result of the uprising, leaving 25,000 homeless (including nearly 6,000 refugees from Shusha).
Death toll
According to the 1917 edition of Kavkazskiy kalendar, there were 43,869 residents in Shusha on 14 January [O.S. 1 January] 1916—the city was composed of 23,396 Armenians who formed 53.3 percent of the population and 19,091 Shia Muslims (mainly Azerbaijanis) who formed 43.5 percent of the population.
The total death toll of the Shusha massacre is unknown, with figures ranging from several hundred, to 20,000.
Citing a contemporary Armenian government report, Hovannisian places the death toll of the massacre at 500 Armenians and the destruction of many buildings in Shusha. German historian Jörg Baberowski states that the Armenian quarter of Shusha was "wiped off the face of the earth", indicated by 25 of 1,700 homes surviving the pogrom; also adding that 8,000 Armenians were massacred during the pogrom. Soviet historian Marietta Shaginyan wrote that 3–4 thousand or more than 12 thousand Armenians were killed and 7,000 homes were destroyed in three-days. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia entry for Shusha writes that "up to 20 percent of the population died" when the city was burned.
Retribution
Former minister of internal affairs of Azerbaijan Behbud Khan Javanshir was assassinated during Operation Nemesis by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, who suspected him of involvement in the massacre.
Memory
The prominent Russian poet Osip Mandelstam, who visited Shusha in 1930, wrote the poem "The Phaeton Driver" (1931) in memory of the massacre and burning:
So in Nagorno-Karabakh
These were my fears
Forty thousand dead windows
Are visible there from all directions,
The cocoon of soulless work
Buried in the mountains.
Visiting Shusha with Osip, Nadezhda Mandelstam wrote, "in this town, which formerly, of course, was healthy and endowed with every amenity, the picture of catastrophe and massacres was terribly vivid ... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of corpses.... We didn't see anyone in the streets or on the mountain. Only in the centre of town, in the market-square, there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them, they were all Muslims." Numerous other communist officials recalled the destruction of the town, including, Sergo Ordzhonikidze, Olga Shatunovskaya, and Anastas Mikoyan and Marietta Shaginyan, Russian-Georgian writer Anaida Bestavashvili drew a comparison between the burning of Shusha to the destruction of Pompeii in her The People and the Monuments.
On 20 March 2000, a memorial stone was laid in Shusha on the site of the planned monument to the victims of the pogrom. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic government introduced a proposal to the National Assembly to establish 23 March as a day of memorial for the victims of the pogrom.
See also
Notes
- Hovannisian also writes of a "Melkumian report" that claims that 5,000–6,000 were "left behind" during the massacre whilst 8,000 escaped.
References
- "Глава 3. Шуша. Рассказ о соседях". bbc.co.uk. 2005-07-06. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
- Herzig & Kurkchiyan 2005, p. 105.
- Walker, Christopher J. Armenia: The Survival of a Nation, revised 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 270.
- Hovannisian 1971, p. 164.
- Lieberman 2013, p. 56.
- "Nurses Stuck to Post Archived 2021-08-15 at the Wayback Machine," The New York Times, 4 September 1919.
- Hovannisian R. G. The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. — Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. — Vol. II. Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. — P. 318. — 493 p. — ISBN 0312101686, ISBN 9780312101688. "Finally, in August 1919, the Karabagh National Assembly yielded to provisional and conditional Azerbaijani jurisdiction. The twenty-six conditions strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and underscored the internal autonomy of Mountainous Karabagh. Violations of those conditions by Azerbaijan culminated in an abortive rebellion in March 1920."
- Wright 2003, p. 98.
- ^ Hovannisian 1996a, pp. 137–143.
- Hovannisian 1996a, p. 147.
- ^ Hovannisian 1996a, p. 152.
- ^ Bagdasaryan 2015.
- Hovannisian 1996a, pp. 157–158.
- Кавказский календарь на 1917 год, pp. 190–192.
- Smele 2015, p. 137.
- Baberovski 2010, p. 171.
- 1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը.
- Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
- "Помимо лидеров младотурок руководство операции "Немезис" приняло решение о ликвидации некоторых деятелей мусаватистского правительства Азербайджана, виновных, по их мнению, в организации резни армян в Баку в сентябре 1918 г. – бывшего премьер-министра Фатали хана Хойского (июнь 1920 г.), а также бывшего министра Бехбуд хана Дживаншира (июль 1921 г.), организатора резни армян в Шуши (Карабах)." I. P. Dobaev, V. I. Nemchina: И.П.Добаев, В.И.Немчина. Новый терроризм в мире и на Юге России: сущность, эволюция, опыт противодействия (Ростов н/Д., 2005)
- Osip Mandelstam, "Faetonshchik," "Мандельштам Осип | Классика.ру – электронная библиотека классической литературы". Archived from the original on 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2007-08-29. Archived 2007-08-13 at the Wayback Machine
- Osip Mandelstam. Sochineniia. 2 vols. (Moscow, 1990) 1: pp. 517–519.
- Baines, Jennifer. Mandelstam: The Later Poetry. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 41–42.
- (in Russian) N. Ya. Mandelstam. Kniga tretia. Paris: YMCA-Ргess, 1987, pp. 162–164.
- Partizdat TsK VKP (b), 1936, pp. 60–63.
- (in Russian) Шатуновская О. Г . Об ушедшем веке. Рассказывает Ольга Шатуновская / сост.: Д. Кутьина, А. Бройдо, А. Кутьин. – La Jolla (Calif.) : DAA Books, 2001. – 470 с., c. 71
- "Here during the 3 days in March 1920, 7000 houses were destroyed and burnt, and the people are marking different numbers of that who were massacred...". (in Russian) Marietta Shaginyan, "Soviet Transcaucasus", Armgiz, 1947, p. 254
- Anaida Bestavashvili, Lyudi i pamyatniki (in Russian) Archived 2022-11-29 at the Wayback Machine // Армянский вестник, # 1–2, 2000
- Nagornyy Karabakh marks 80th anniversary of 1920 Armenian pogroms, Noyan Tapan, 24 Mar. 2000
Bibliography
- "1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը" [The Shushi Massacre of 1920]. Republic.Mediamax.am (in Armenian). Archived from the original on 19 July 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2022. Archived 19 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
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- Welt, Cory D. (2004). Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia.
- Wright, John (2003). Transcaucasian Boundaries. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0805079326.
- Ziemer, Ulrike (2014). Ethnic Belonging, Gender, and Cultural Practices Youth Identities in Contemporary Russia. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9783838261522.
Anti-Armenian sentiment | |
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Events |
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See also | List of massacres of Armenians |
Categories:
- 1920 in Armenia
- 1920 in Azerbaijan
- Massacres committed by Azerbaijan
- Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians
- Persecution of Christians by Muslims
- Massacres in Azerbaijan
- Conflicts in 1920
- March 1920 events
- Massacres in 1920
- Military history of Shusha
- Anti-Armenian pogroms
- Massacres of the Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)