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| {{Short description|Greek sculptor, painter and architect (c.480–430 BC)}} | |||
| '''Phidias''' (or '''Pheidias''') son of Charmides, (circa ] - circa ]) was an ] ] ], universally regarded as the greatest of Greek sculptors. | |||
| {{For|the Australian artist who used the pseudonym "Phidias" in radio talks|Jeffrey Smart}} | |||
| {{For|Greek myth figure|Pheidas (mythology)}} | |||
| ] of the ] to his Friends'' (1868) by ]]] | |||
| Phidias designed the towering statues of the ] ] in the ] in ] and the colossal seated ] in the ]. These works were apparently commissioned by ] in ]. | |||
| '''Phidias''' or '''Pheidias''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|ɪ|d|i|ə|s}}; {{langx|grc|Φειδίας}}, ''Pheidias''; {{circa|480|430 BC}}) was an ], painter, and architect, active in the 5th century BC. His ] was one of the ]. Phidias also designed the statues of the goddess ] on the ], namely the '']'' inside the ], and the '']'', a colossal bronze which stood between it and the ],<ref>Birte Lundgreen, "A Methodological Enquiry: The Great Bronze Athena by Phidias" ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies''</ref> a monumental gateway that served as the entrance to the Acropolis in Athens. Phidias was the son of Charmides of Athens.<ref>Not the ] who participated in the tyranny at Athens.</ref> The ancients believed that his masters were ]<ref>Not to be confused with ] the neoplatonic philosopher.</ref> and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ageladas|title=Ageladas {{!}} Greek sculptor|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2017|reason=which authors say this?}} | |||
| ] discusses Phidias's friendship with the Greek statesman ], recording that enemies of Pericles tried to attack him through Phidias – who was accused of stealing gold intended for the Parthenon's statue of Athena, and of impiously portraying himself and Pericles on the shield of the statue. The historical value of this account, as well as the legend about accusations against the 'Periclean circle', is debatable, but ] mentions an incident with Phidias around that time.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} | |||
| We have varying accounts of his training. Hegias of Athens, ] of Argos, and the Thasian painter ], have all been regarded as his teachers. In favour of Ageladas it may be said that the influence of the many Dorian schools is certainly to be traced in some of his work. Of his life we know little apart from his works. Of his death we have two discrepant accounts. According to ] he was made an object of attack by the political enemies of ], and died in prison at ]. According to ], as quoted by a scholiast on ], he fled to ], where he made the great statue of ] for the Eleans, and was afterwards put to death by them. For several reasons the first of these tales is preferable. | |||
| Phidias is often credited as the main instigator of the ] sculptural design. Today, most critics and historians consider him one of the greatest of all ancient Greek sculptors.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/ph/Phidias.html |title=Phidias |access-date=2008-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016004040/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ph/Phidias.html |archive-date=2008-10-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cunningham|first1=Lawrence S.|last2=Reich|first2=John J.|last3=Fichner-Rathus|first3=Lois|title=Culture and Values: A Survey of the Humanities, Volume I|date=2016|publisher=Cengage Learning|page=88|isbn=1337514942}}</ref> | |||
| Plutarch gives in his life of Pericles a charming account of the vast artistic activity which went on at Athens while that statesman was in power. He used for the decoration of his own city the money furnished by the Athenian allies for defence against Persia: it is very fortunate that after the time of ] Persia made no deliberate attempt against Greece. "In all these works," says Plutarch, "Pheidias was the adviser and overseer of Pericles." Pheidias introduced his own portrait and that of Pericles on the shield of his Parthenos statue. And it was through Pheidias that the political enemies of Pericles struck at him. It thus abundantly appears that Pheidias was closely connected with Pericles, and a ruling spirit in the Athenian art of the period. But it is not easy to go beyond this general assertion into details. | |||
| ], Phidias is depicted enthroned on the right.]] | |||
| == Life and work == | |||
| It is important to observe that in resting the fame of Pheidias upon the sculptures of the Parthenon we proceed with little evidence. No ancient writer ascribes them to him, and he seldom, if ever, executed works in marble. What he was celebrated for in antiquity was his statues in bronze or gold and ivory. If Plutarch tells us that he superintended the great works of Pericles on the Acropolis, this phrase is very vague. On the other hand, inscriptions prove that the marble blocks intended for the pedimental statues of the Parthenon were not brought to Athens until 434 BC, which was probably after the death of Pheidias. And there is a marked contrast in style between these statues and the certain works of Pheidias. It is therefore probable that most if not all of the sculptural decoration of the ] was the work of pupils of Pheidias, such as ] and ], rather than his own. | |||
| {{More citations needed|section|date=October 2021}} | |||
| ], a Roman-era statue of Athena Parthenos considered to be the most faithful reproduction of the chryselephantine statue made by Phidias and his assistants, as displayed in the ]]] | |||
| Of Phidias's life, little is known apart from his works. Although no original works exist that can be attributed to him with certainty, numerous Roman copies of varying degrees of fidelity are known to exist. | |||
| The earliest of |
The earliest of Phidias's works were dedications in memory of ], celebrating the Greek victory. His first commission was a group of national heroes with ] as a central figure. At ] he created a great group in bronze including the figures of ] ] and ], several ] heroes, and General ]. On the Acropolis of Athens, Phidias constructed a colossal bronze statue of Athena, the '']'', which was visible far out at sea. Athena was the ] of wisdom and warriors and the protector of Athens. At ] in ], and at ], Phidias made two other statues of Athena, as well as a statue of the goddess ] in ivory and gold for the people of Elis. | ||
| In ], Phidias was celebrated for his statues in bronze and his ] works (statues made of gold and ivory). In the '']'', Plato claims that Phidias seldom, if ever, executed works in ] unlike many sculptors of his time. ] writes that he superintended the great works ordered by Greek statesman ] on the ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Understanding Greek sculpture : ancient meanings, modern readings|url=https://archive.org/details/understandinggre00spiv_292|url-access=limited|last=Spivey|first=Nigel|date=1996|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=0500278768|location=New York|pages=|oclc=36645523}}</ref> Ancient critics take a very high view of the merits of Phidias. They especially praise the ] or permanent moral level of his works as compared with those of the later so called "pathetic" school. Both ] and Plutarch mention works of his depicting the warlike ]. ] calls his statues sublime, and at the same time precise.{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}} | |||
| But among the Greeks themselves the two works of Pheidias which far outshone all others, and were the basis of his fame, were the colossal figures in gold and ivory of ] and of Athena Parthenos at Athens, both of which belong to about the middle of the ]. Of the Zeus we have unfortunately lost all trace save small copies on coins of Elis, which give us but a general notion of the pose, and the character of the head. The god was seated on a throne, every part of which was used as a ground for sculptural decoration. His body was of ivory, his robe of gold. His head was of somewhat archaic type: the Otricoli mask which used to be regarded as a copy of the head of the Olympian statue is certainly more than a century later in style. Of the Athena Parthenos two small copies in marble have been found at Athens which have no excellence of workmanship, but have a certain evidential value as to the treatment of their original. | |||
| In 447 BC, Pericles commissioned several sculptures for Athens from Phidias to celebrate the Greek victory against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon during the ] (490 BC). Pericles used some of the money from the maritime ],<ref>The Delian team was an association of approximately 150 Greek city-states under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Persian Empire.</ref> to rebuild and decorate Athens to celebrate this victory. Inscriptions prove that the marble blocks intended for the pedimental statues of the ] were not brought to Athens until 433-434{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neils |first=Jenifer |title=The Parthenon: from antiquity to the present |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge university press |isbn=978-0-521-82093-6 |location=Cambridge (GB)}}</ref> It is therefore possible that most of sculptural decoration of the Parthenon was the work of Phidias's workshop including pupils of Phidias, such as ] and ].{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} | |||
| It will be seen how very small is our actual knowledge of the works of Pheidias. There are many stately figures in the Roman and other museums which clearly belong to the same school as the Parthenos; but they are copies of the Roman age, and not to be trusted in point of style. A. Furtwangler proposes to find in a statue of which the head is at ], and the body at ], a copy of the Lemnian Athena of Pheidias; but his arguments (''Masterpieces'', at the beginning) are anything but conclusive. Much more satisfactory as evidence are some 5th century torsos of Athena found at Athens. The very fine torso of Athena in the École des Beaux Arts at Paris, which has unfortunately lost its head, may perhaps best serve to help our imagination in reconstructing a Pheidian original. | |||
| According to Pausanias (1.28.2), the original bronze '']'' was created by Phidias ({{circa}} 450–440{{nbsp}}BC) for Athenians living on ]. He described it as "the best of all Pheidias's works to see". ] suggested that he found a copy of the ''Athena Lemnia'' in a statue of which the head is located in ] and the body is at ]. Some 5th-century{{nbsp}}BC torsos of Athena have been found at Athens. The torso of Athena in the ] at Paris, which has lost its head, gives some idea of what the original statue may have looked like.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} | |||
| Ancient critics take a very high view of the merits of Pheidias. What they especially praise is the ethos or permanent moral level of his works as compared with those of the later "pathetic" school. ] calls his statues sublime, and at the same time precise. That he rode on the crest of a splendid wave of art is not to be questioned: but it is to be regretted that we have no morsel of work extant for which we can definitely hold him responsible. | |||
| ] in an ] made by ] in 1572, from a drawing by ]]] | |||
| For the ancient Greeks, two works of Phidias far outshone all others: the colossal ] ] ({{circa}} 432{{nbsp}}BC), which was erected in the ] at ], and the '']'' (lit. "Athena the Virgin"), a sculpture of the virgin goddess Athena, which was housed in the ] in Athens. Both sculptures belong to about the middle of the 5th century BC. A number of replicas and works inspired by it, both ancient and modern, have been made. Upon completing the ''Athena Parthenos'', Phidias was accused of embezzlement.<ref>Plutarch. ''Life of Pericles'', p. 31.</ref> Specifically, he was charged with shortchanging the amount of gold that was supposed to be used for the statue and keeping the extra for himself. It seems that the charge was politically motivated{{snd}} a result of his friendship with Pericles, who had many enemies in Athens.<ref name="ClaytonPrice2013">{{cite book|last1=Clayton|first1=Peter A|last2=Price|first2=Martin |title=The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQSBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-74810-3|pages=62–63}}</ref> | |||
| In 1958 archaeologists found the workshop at Olympia where Phidias assembled the gold-and-ivory Zeus. There were still some shards of ivory at the site, and the base of a bronze drinking cup engraved "I belong to Phidias." | |||
| Phidias supposedly weighed the gold robe of the ''Athena Parthenos'' to prove his innocence, but was then accused of impiously portraying himself and Pericles on the shield of the statue, which was apparently true.<ref>{{cite book|last=Salomon|first=Marilyn J.|title=Great Cities of the World 3: Next Stop... Athens|publisher=The Symphonette Press|year=1974|page=105}}</ref> | |||
| {{1911}} | |||
| Plutarch records that Phidias was imprisoned and died in jail.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Understanding Greek sculpture : ancient meanings, modern readings|url=https://archive.org/details/understandinggre00spiv_292|url-access=limited|last=Spivey|first=Nigel|date=1996|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=0500278768|location=New York|pages=|oclc=36645523}}</ref>{{efn|According to Plutarch, Phidias was made an object of attack by the political enemies of Pericles. His workman Menon is said to have been at least partially responsible for his downfall: Plutarch states that Menon sat in the marketplace begging for protection in exchange for bringing charges against Phidias. He was subsequently provided with safety by the state and exempted from public duties. Accordingly, Phidias was imprisoned and died in prison at Athens.<ref>Plutarch, , 31.</ref>}} | |||
| ⚫ | ==See also== | ||
| ]'s play '']'' ({{nowrap|{{Circa|421 BC}}}}) mentions an unfortunate incident involving Phidias, but little context is provided.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Filonik|first=Jakub|date=2013|title=Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal|url=https://zenodo.org/record/896899|journal=Dike|volume=16 |issue=16|pages=26–33|doi=10.13130/1128-8221/4290}}</ref> | |||
| *] | |||
| According to ], as quoted by a scholiast on Aristophanes, Phidias was put to death by the ] after he completed the Statue of Zeus at Olympia for them.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Pheidias}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Understanding Greek sculpture: ancient meanings, modern readings|url=https://archive.org/details/understandinggre00spiv_292|url-access=limited|last=Spivey|first=Nigel|date=1996|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=0500278768|location=New York|page=|oclc=36645523}}</ref> | |||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
| From the late 5th century BC, small copies of the statue of Zeus were found on coins from Elis, which give a general notion of the pose and the character of the head. The god was seated on a throne, every part of which was used for sculptural decoration. His body was of ivory, his robe of gold. His head was of a somewhat archaic type; the bust of Zeus found at ], which used to be regarded as a copy of the head of the Olympian statue, is certainly more than a century later in style.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} | |||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
| ] | |||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
| ==Archaeological discovery== | |||
| ] | |||
| ⚫ | |||
| A significant advancement in the knowledge of Phidias's working methodology came during 1954–58 with the excavation of the workshop at Olympia where he created the Statue of Zeus. Tools, terracotta molds and a cup inscribed on the bottom "Φειδίου εἰμί" (Pheidíou eimí) – "I belong to Phidias"; literally: "of Phidias I am", were found here, just where Pausanias said the statue was constructed.<ref></ref><ref>K. Kris Hirst, "," about.com</ref><ref>"," ''Perseus Building Catalog,'' about.com</ref> The discovery has enabled archaeologists to re-create the techniques used to make the statue and confirm its date.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
| == Legacy == | |||
| ] | |||
| By 1910, mathematician ] began using the ] ] ('''φ''') as a ] for the ] after Phidias.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Posamentier|first1=Alfred S.|author-link1=Alfred S. Posamentier|last2=Lehmann |first2=Ingmar|title=The Glorious Golden Ratio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gw-lqvE6fNgC&pg=PT285|year=2011|publisher=]|isbn=9-781-61614-424-1|page=285}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Cook|first=Theodore Andrea|author-link=Theodore Andrea Cook|title=The Curves of Life|year=1914|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028937179|publisher=Constable and Company Ltd|location=London}}</ref> However, Barr later wrote that he thought it unlikely that Phidias actually used the golden ratio.<ref>{{cite magazine|first=Mark|last=Barr|title=Parameters of beauty|magazine=] (NY)|volume=60|page=325|year=1929}} Reprinted: {{cite magazine|title=Parameters of beauty|magazine=Think|volume= 10–11|publisher=International Business Machines Corporation|year=1944}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ⚫ | *] | ||
| ] | |||
| *], a ] ] named after Phidias. | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| == Gallery == | |||
| <gallery> | |||
| File:Aphrodite Sappho Chiaramonti Inv1459.jpg|Head of ]. Phidian style | |||
| File:Zeus.in.Olympia.representation.on.coin.drawing.jpg|], representation on coin | |||
| File:Head Pnyx Athena NAMAthens 3718.jpg|A copy of a work by Phidias or one of his pupils: head of Athena, found around ], now in the National Archeological Museum of ] | |||
| File:Lemnia torso04 pushkin.jpg|Reconstruction of ], Dresden | |||
| File:Testa di Minerva S.Giulia Brescia.JPG|], Roman copy | |||
| File:Apollo ivory mask.jpg|Ivory head of Apollo, perhaps carved by Phidias, looted in 1995 by Pietro Casasanta and repatriated to Italy in 2003 | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ⚫ | == See also == | ||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| '''Footnotes''' | |||
| {{notelist}} | |||
| '''Citations''' | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ===Sources=== | |||
| *{{EB1911|wstitle = Pheidias|volume=21}} | |||
| *Andrew Stewart, ''One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works,'' Part III of Stewart's ''Greek Sculpture'', (]). | |||
| == External links == | |||
| * {{commons category-inline|Phidias}} | |||
| * | |||
| ⚫ | {{Phidias}} | ||
| {{Acropolis of Athens}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
| ] | |||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
| ⚫ | ] | ||
Latest revision as of 20:49, 27 November 2024
Greek sculptor, painter and architect (c.480–430 BC) For the Australian artist who used the pseudonym "Phidias" in radio talks, see Jeffrey Smart. For Greek myth figure, see Pheidas (mythology).
Phidias or Pheidias (/ˈfɪdiəs/; Ancient Greek: Φειδίας, Pheidias; c. 480 – c. 430 BC) was an Ancient Greek sculptor, painter, and architect, active in the 5th century BC. His Statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Phidias also designed the statues of the goddess Athena on the Athenian Acropolis, namely the Athena Parthenos inside the Parthenon, and the Athena Promachos, a colossal bronze which stood between it and the Propylaea, a monumental gateway that served as the entrance to the Acropolis in Athens. Phidias was the son of Charmides of Athens. The ancients believed that his masters were Hegias and Ageladas.
Plutarch discusses Phidias's friendship with the Greek statesman Pericles, recording that enemies of Pericles tried to attack him through Phidias – who was accused of stealing gold intended for the Parthenon's statue of Athena, and of impiously portraying himself and Pericles on the shield of the statue. The historical value of this account, as well as the legend about accusations against the 'Periclean circle', is debatable, but Aristophanes mentions an incident with Phidias around that time.
Phidias is often credited as the main instigator of the Classical Greek sculptural design. Today, most critics and historians consider him one of the greatest of all ancient Greek sculptors.
Life and work
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Phidias" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Of Phidias's life, little is known apart from his works. Although no original works exist that can be attributed to him with certainty, numerous Roman copies of varying degrees of fidelity are known to exist.
The earliest of Phidias's works were dedications in memory of Marathon, celebrating the Greek victory. His first commission was a group of national heroes with Miltiades as a central figure. At Delphi he created a great group in bronze including the figures of Greek gods Apollo and Athena, several Attic heroes, and General Miltiades the Younger. On the Acropolis of Athens, Phidias constructed a colossal bronze statue of Athena, the Athena Promachos, which was visible far out at sea. Athena was the goddess of wisdom and warriors and the protector of Athens. At Pellene in Achaea, and at Plataea, Phidias made two other statues of Athena, as well as a statue of the goddess Aphrodite in ivory and gold for the people of Elis.
In antiquity, Phidias was celebrated for his statues in bronze and his chryselephantine works (statues made of gold and ivory). In the Hippias Major, Plato claims that Phidias seldom, if ever, executed works in marble unlike many sculptors of his time. Plutarch writes that he superintended the great works ordered by Greek statesman Pericles on the Acropolis. Ancient critics take a very high view of the merits of Phidias. They especially praise the ethos or permanent moral level of his works as compared with those of the later so called "pathetic" school. Both Pausanias and Plutarch mention works of his depicting the warlike Athena Areia. Demetrius calls his statues sublime, and at the same time precise.
In 447 BC, Pericles commissioned several sculptures for Athens from Phidias to celebrate the Greek victory against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon during the Greco-Persian Wars (490 BC). Pericles used some of the money from the maritime League of Delos, to rebuild and decorate Athens to celebrate this victory. Inscriptions prove that the marble blocks intended for the pedimental statues of the Parthenon were not brought to Athens until 433-434 BC. It is therefore possible that most of sculptural decoration of the Parthenon was the work of Phidias's workshop including pupils of Phidias, such as Alcamenes and Agoracritus.
According to Pausanias (1.28.2), the original bronze Athena Lemnia was created by Phidias (c. 450–440 BC) for Athenians living on Lemnos. He described it as "the best of all Pheidias's works to see". Adolf Furtwängler suggested that he found a copy of the Athena Lemnia in a statue of which the head is located in Bologna and the body is at Dresden. Some 5th-century BC torsos of Athena have been found at Athens. The torso of Athena in the École des Beaux-Arts at Paris, which has lost its head, gives some idea of what the original statue may have looked like.
For the ancient Greeks, two works of Phidias far outshone all others: the colossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus (c. 432 BC), which was erected in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, and the Athena Parthenos (lit. "Athena the Virgin"), a sculpture of the virgin goddess Athena, which was housed in the Parthenon in Athens. Both sculptures belong to about the middle of the 5th century BC. A number of replicas and works inspired by it, both ancient and modern, have been made. Upon completing the Athena Parthenos, Phidias was accused of embezzlement. Specifically, he was charged with shortchanging the amount of gold that was supposed to be used for the statue and keeping the extra for himself. It seems that the charge was politically motivated – a result of his friendship with Pericles, who had many enemies in Athens.
Phidias supposedly weighed the gold robe of the Athena Parthenos to prove his innocence, but was then accused of impiously portraying himself and Pericles on the shield of the statue, which was apparently true.
Plutarch records that Phidias was imprisoned and died in jail.
Aristophanes's play Peace (c. 421 BC) mentions an unfortunate incident involving Phidias, but little context is provided.
According to Philochorus, as quoted by a scholiast on Aristophanes, Phidias was put to death by the Eleans after he completed the Statue of Zeus at Olympia for them. From the late 5th century BC, small copies of the statue of Zeus were found on coins from Elis, which give a general notion of the pose and the character of the head. The god was seated on a throne, every part of which was used for sculptural decoration. His body was of ivory, his robe of gold. His head was of a somewhat archaic type; the bust of Zeus found at Otricoli, which used to be regarded as a copy of the head of the Olympian statue, is certainly more than a century later in style.
Archaeological discovery
A significant advancement in the knowledge of Phidias's working methodology came during 1954–58 with the excavation of the workshop at Olympia where he created the Statue of Zeus. Tools, terracotta molds and a cup inscribed on the bottom "Φειδίου εἰμί" (Pheidíou eimí) – "I belong to Phidias"; literally: "of Phidias I am", were found here, just where Pausanias said the statue was constructed. The discovery has enabled archaeologists to re-create the techniques used to make the statue and confirm its date.
Legacy
By 1910, mathematician Mark Barr began using the Greek letter Phi (φ) as a symbol for the golden ratio after Phidias. However, Barr later wrote that he thought it unlikely that Phidias actually used the golden ratio.
- Phidias (crater)
- 4753 Phidias, a main-belt asteroid named after Phidias.
Gallery
-
Head of Aphrodite. Phidian style
-
Zeus in Olympia, representation on coin
-
A copy of a work by Phidias or one of his pupils: head of Athena, found around Pnyx, now in the National Archeological Museum of Athens
-
Reconstruction of Athena Lemnia, Dresden
-
Head of Athena, Roman copy
-
Ivory head of Apollo, perhaps carved by Phidias, looted in 1995 by Pietro Casasanta and repatriated to Italy in 2003
See also
References
Footnotes
- According to Plutarch, Phidias was made an object of attack by the political enemies of Pericles. His workman Menon is said to have been at least partially responsible for his downfall: Plutarch states that Menon sat in the marketplace begging for protection in exchange for bringing charges against Phidias. He was subsequently provided with safety by the state and exempted from public duties. Accordingly, Phidias was imprisoned and died in prison at Athens.
Citations
- Birte Lundgreen, "A Methodological Enquiry: The Great Bronze Athena by Phidias" The Journal of Hellenic Studies
- Not the Charmides who participated in the tyranny at Athens.
- Not to be confused with Hegias the neoplatonic philosopher.
- "Ageladas | Greek sculptor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-02-24.
- "Phidias". Archived from the original on 2008-10-16. Retrieved 2008-07-27.
- Cunningham, Lawrence S.; Reich, John J.; Fichner-Rathus, Lois (2016). Culture and Values: A Survey of the Humanities, Volume I. Cengage Learning. p. 88. ISBN 1337514942.
- Spivey, Nigel (1996). Understanding Greek sculpture : ancient meanings, modern readings. New York: Thames and Hudson. pp. 154. ISBN 0500278768. OCLC 36645523.
- The Delian team was an association of approximately 150 Greek city-states under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Persian Empire.
- Neils, Jenifer (2005). The Parthenon: from antiquity to the present. Cambridge (GB): Cambridge university press. ISBN 978-0-521-82093-6.
- Plutarch. Life of Pericles, p. 31.
- Clayton, Peter A; Price, Martin (2013). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-1-136-74810-3.
- Salomon, Marilyn J. (1974). Great Cities of the World 3: Next Stop... Athens. The Symphonette Press. p. 105.
- Spivey, Nigel (1996). Understanding Greek sculpture : ancient meanings, modern readings. New York: Thames and Hudson. pp. 153-54. ISBN 0500278768. OCLC 36645523.
- Plutarch, The Life of Pericles, 31.
- Filonik, Jakub (2013). "Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal". Dike. 16 (16): 26–33. doi:10.13130/1128-8221/4290.
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pheidias" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Spivey, Nigel (1996). Understanding Greek sculpture: ancient meanings, modern readings. New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 158. ISBN 0500278768. OCLC 36645523.
- "Phidias", Oxford Dictionary of Art, e-Notes.com
- K. Kris Hirst, "A Walking Tour of Olympia, Greece," about.com
- "Olympia, Workshop of Pheidias," Perseus Building Catalog, about.com
- Posamentier, Alfred S.; Lehmann, Ingmar (2011). The Glorious Golden Ratio. Prometheus Books. p. 285. ISBN 9-781-61614-424-1.
- Cook, Theodore Andrea (1914). The Curves of Life. London: Constable and Company Ltd. p. 420.
- Barr, Mark (1929). "Parameters of beauty". Architecture (NY). Vol. 60. p. 325. Reprinted: "Parameters of beauty". Think. Vol. 10–11. International Business Machines Corporation. 1944.
Sources
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pheidias". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.- Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works, Part III of Stewart's Greek Sculpture, (Yale University Press).
External links
Media related to Phidias at Wikimedia Commons- Phidias as a first name in the US
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