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] as reconstructed by ] (d. 1823), depicting various peoples as the ancient Egyptians perceived them. The Egyptians are on the bottom.]] |
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The '''] of ]''' is a subject that has attracted some controversy, especially within ] circles. The debate over the racial characteristics of the ancient Egyptians usually occurs outside the field of ] today.<ref name=afrocentroth> {{cite web|url=http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/afrocent_roth.html |title=Building Bridges to Afrocentrism |accessdate=2007-10-03 |last=Macy Roth |first=Ann |work=UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA }}</ref> Studies have shown that modern ] have genetic affinities primarily with populations of ] and ],<ref name="pmid15457403">{{cite journal |
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|author=Kivisild T, Reidla M, Metspalu E, ''et al'' |
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|title=Ethiopian mitochondrial DNA heritage: tracking gene flow across and around the gate of tears |
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|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |
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|volume=75 |
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|issue=5 |
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|pages=752–70 |
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|year=2004 |
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|pmid=15457403 |
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|doi=10.1086/425161 |
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}}</ref><ref name="pmid14748828">{{cite journal |
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|author=Stevanovitch A, Gilles A, Bouzaid E, ''et al'' |
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|title= |
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|journal=Ann. Hum. Genet. |
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|volume=68 |
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|issue=Pt 1 |
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|pages=23–39 |
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|year=2004 |
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|pmid=14748828 |
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}}</ref ><ref>{{cite journal | author=Arredi B, Poloni E, Paracchini S, Zerjal T, Fathallah D, Makrelouf M, Pascali V, Novelletto A, Tyler-Smith C | title=A predominantly neolithic origin for Y-chromosomal DNA variation in North Africa. | journal=Am J Hum Genet | volume=75 | issue=2 | pages=338-45 | year=2004 | id=PMID 15202071}}</ref><ref name=LeonardM>{{cite journal | author=Manni F, Leonardi P, Barakat A, Rouba H, Heyer E, Klintschar M, McElreavey K, Quintana-Murci L | title=Y-chromosome analysis in Egypt suggests a genetic regional continuity in Northeastern Africa. | journal=Hum Biol | volume=74 | issue=5 | pages=645-58 | year=2002 | id=PMID 12495079}}</ref> and to a lesser extent ]ern and ]an populations.<ref>{{cite book | last = Luca Cavalli-Sforza | first = Luigi | authorlink = | coauthors = Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza | title = The History and Geography of Human Genes | publisher = Princeton University Press |date=1996-08-05 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0691029054 }}</ref> Studies done on ancient Egyptians' remains have shown uniformity and homogeneity among the samples, and cranial/limb ratio similarity with populations from ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name=Zakrzewski2003>{{cite journal |
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| author = Zakrzewski, S.R. |
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| year = 2003 |
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| title = Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions |
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| journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology |
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| volume = 121 |
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| issue = 3 |
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| pages = 219-229 |
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| doi = 10.1002/ajpa.10223 |
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}}</ref><ref></ref><ref name=Irish2006>{{cite journal |
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| author = Irish, J.D. |
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| year = 2006 |
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| title = Who were the ancient Egyptians? Dental affinities among Neolithic through postdynastic peoples |
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| journal = Am J Phys Anthropol |
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| volume = 129 |
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| pages = 529-543 |
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| url = http://www.homestead.com/wysinger/who_were_egyptian.pdf |
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| doi = 10.1002/ajpa.20261 |
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}}</ref><ref name=Keita1992>{{cite journal |
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| author = Keita, S. |
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| year = 1992 |
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| title = Further Studies of Crania From Ancient Northern Africa: An Analysis of Crania From First Dynasty Egyptian Tombs, Using Multiple Discriminant Functions |
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| journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology |
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| volume = 87 |
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| pages = 245-54 |
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| doi = 10.1002/ajpa.1330870302 |
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}}</ref><ref>Brace CL, Tracer DP, Yaroch LA, Robb J, Brandt K, Nelson AR (1993). ''Clines and clusters versus "race:" a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile''. ''.</ref> Blood typing and DNA sampling on ancient Egyptian mummies is scant; however, blood typing of dynastic mummies found ABO frequencies to be most similar to modern Egyptians<ref>Borgognini Tarli S.M., Paoli G. 1982. Survey on paleoserological studies. Homo, 33: 69-89</ref> and some also to Northern ] populations. ABO blood group distribution shows that the Egyptians form a sister group to North African populations, including ], ] and ]ers.<ref>Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza. 1994. ''The History and Geography of Human Genes''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 169-174</ref> DNA extraction (namely from the 12th dynasty) indicates multiple lines of descent, including sub-Saharan Africa, while the other lineages were not identified, but may be African in origin as well (according to Keita, 1996).<ref>Keita, S. , History in Africa, 20: 129-154 (1993)</ref><ref>Keita, op. cit. (1996)</ref> ] generally consider the ancient Egyptians to have been a continuum from the lighter northern population of ] to the darker ]ians.<ref name=fyurcobow> {{cite web|url=http://homelink.cps-k12.org/teachers/filiopa/files/AC383EB269C648AAAA659593B9FC358C.pdf |title=“Were the Ancient Egyptians Black or White?” |accessdate=2007-10-03 |last=Yurco |first=Frank |publisher=BAR magazine }}</ref> |
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{{Redirect category shell| |
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Historically there have been differing accounts of the appearance of ancient Egyptians as compared to people of other nations. The Egyptians have alternately been described as lighter than the ],<ref name="Snowden">Snowden, Frank. Egypt in Africa, (1996), pp. 106-108</ref> similar in appearance to ],<ref></ref> and as having brown and black skin.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, Book XXII, para 16 (23)</ref> Modern classical scholars and anthropologists dispute the reliability of ancient accounts asserting that the terms used have different meanings from modern concepts of racial characteristics.<ref>{{cite book | last=Snowden, Jr. | first=Frank M. | editor=Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers (eds.) | title=Black Athena Revisited | location=Chapel Hill | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | year=1996 | pages=113-14 | quote=....the Afrocentrists are mistaken in assuming that the term ''Afri'' (Africans) and various color adjectives for dark pigmentation as used by Greeks and Romans are always the classical equivalents of Negroes or blacks in modern usage.... That the pigmentation of the Egyptians was seen as lighter than that of Ethiopians is also attested by the adjective ''subfusucli'' ("somewhat dark") which Ammianus Marcellinus (22.16.23) chose to describe the Egyptians....}}</ref><ref name="Keita">S.O.Y. Keita & A. J. Boyce. Egypt in Africa, (1996), pp. 25-27 "The descriptions and terms of ancient Greek writers have sometimes been used to comment on Egyptian origins. This is problematic since the ancient writers were not doing population biology. However, we can examine one issue. The Greeks called all groups south of Egypt "Ethiopians." Were the Egyptians more related to any of these "Ethiopians" than to the Greeks? As noted, cranial and limb studies have indicated greater similarity to Somalis, Kushites and Nubians, all "Ethiopians" in ancient Greek terms."</ref> Ancient Egyptians generally noted the difference between themselves and other peoples; however, such differences frequently were based on culture or politics opposed to physical characteristics.<ref name="fyurcobow"/> |
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{{R with history}} |
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==Population characteristics== |
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Studies performed to determine the population characteristics of ancient Egyptians have used various methods including examining craniometric pattern and variation of skeletal remains. A 2007 study which examined craniometric variation among ancient Egyptians of the predynastic and early dynastic periods found high levels of ] but concluded that the formation of the Egyptian state was predominantly ] in development, with some, but limited migration from elsewhere.<ref name=Zakrzewski2007>{{cite journal | author = Zakrzewski, S.R. | year = 2007 | title = Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 132| issue = 4 | pages = 501-509 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=17295300&dopt=Citation}}</ref> A craniofacial study by ] et. al. concluded that; "The Predynastic of Upper Egypt and the Late Dynastic of Lower Egypt are more closely related to each other than to any other population" and that they show ties with North African, Somalian, European, Nubian and, more remotely, Indian populations, but not with Sub-Saharan Africans or populations from other continents.<ref>Brace et al., 'Clines and clusters versus "race"' (1993)</ref> Anthropologist ] and geneticist ] have criticized this study because of what they describe as "a socially constructed typological paradigm" in which Sub-Saharan Africans are treated as a monolithic, and biological African groups such as ], ] and ] are viewed essentially as non-African for having a craniometic pattern more similar to that of non-African populations.<ref>S.O.Y. Keita and Rick A. Kittles,' The Persistence of Racial Thinking and the Myth of Racial Divergence', American Anthropologist (1997)</ref> In addition, a 2005 study by Keita of ] crania in predynastic upper Egypt in comparison to North and Central European and tropical African crania found "a greater affinity to indigenous Africans while not being identical" than with Europeans.<ref>S.O.Y. Keita. "Early Nile Valley Farmers from El-Badari: Aboriginals or “European”Agro-Nostratic Immigrants? Craniometric Affinities Considered With Other Data". Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 36 No. 2, pp. 191-208 (2005)</ref> According to Keita, "This affinity is relative and not to be taken as indicating identity" and that the findings can be interpreted as showing "a particular broad similarity" in the samples under study.<ref>op cit.</ref> He adds that, "The dendrograms of Brace et al. (1993) would seem to illustrate in the main a facet of indigenous African diversity observed elsewhere: a subset of African series evincing similarity to non-African groups not primarily due to gene flow..."<ref>op cit.</ref> |
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Several anthropologists have identified northern and southern craniometric patterns in the Egyptian population of the early predynastic period, which Keita describes as "northern-Egyptian-Maghreb" and "tropical African variant" (overlapping with Nubia/Kush) respectively. He shows that a progressive change in Upper Egypt toward the northern Egyptian pattern takes place through the predynastic period, though the southern pattern continues to predominate in ] in ] by the First Dynasty but lower Egyptian, ] and ] patterns are also observed thus making for a great diversity.<ref>S.O.Y. Keita, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87: 245-254 (1992)</ref> A 2006 bioarchaeological study on the dental morphology of ancient Egyptians by Prof. Joel Irish shows that a continuity extends from the dynastic to the post-dynastic periods, and that the Egyptians exhibit dental traits characteristic of indigenous North Africans, and to a lesser extent, Southwest Asians. Also all samples particularly the ones from the dynastic are shown to be significantly divergent from neolithic west saharan sample from lower ].<ref name=Irish2006>{{cite journal | author = Irish, J.D. | year = 2006 | title = Who were the ancient Egyptians? Dental affinities among Neolithic through postdynastic peoples | journal = Am J Phys Anthropol | volume = 129 | pages = 529-543 | url = http://www.homestead.com/wysinger/who_were_egyptian.pdf | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.20261}}</ref> Some studies have also shown that Nile Valley populations possessed more tropical body proportions, suggesting that the Egyptian Nile Valley was not primarily settled by cold-adapted peoples, such as Europeans.<ref name="Keita">S.O.Y. Keita & |
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A. J. Boyce. Egypt in Africa, (1996), pp. 25-27</ref><ref name=Zakrzewski2003>{{cite journal |
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| author = Zakrzewski, S.R. |
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| year = 2003 |
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| title = Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions |
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| journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology |
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| volume = 121 |
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| issue = 3 |
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| pages = 219-229 |
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| doi = 10.1002/ajpa.10223 |
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}}</ref> |
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In summary, ancient Egypt is thought by many scholars to have been a melting pot of various Nile Valley, North African, Saharan and Levantine peoples since earliest times.<ref name="Irish2006"/><ref name="Zakrzewski2007"/> Some theories have postulated that the ancient Egyptians received significant demographic influence from the Near East<ref>Redford, Donald B., ''Egypt, Israel, and Canaan in Ancient Times'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 13.</ref> while others postulate that the ancient Egyptians belonged to a primarily African descent group, with relatively little significant outside influences from the Near East.<ref name="Zakrzewski2007"/><ref>Keita, op. cit.</ref> Recent demographic analysis done by some anthropologists has led to the conclusion that there was an overall population continuity stretching from the ] into dynastic times, with small amounts of foreign admixture.<ref>Frank Yurco, "An Egyptological Review" in Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers, eds. ''Black Athena Revisited''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. p. 62-100</ref> ] states: |
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:"local hunter-gatherers simply added Southwest Asian domesticates and farming and herding techniques to their own diet of wild plants and animals, then gradually phased out the wild foods. That is, what arrived to launch food production in Egypt was foreign crops and animals, not foreign peoples"<ref></ref><ref></ref> |
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Archaeologist ] cites what he saw as a deliberate obfuscation of racial politics, asserting that the early Nile valley populations (including Egyptians) were all Africans and need not be defined by arbitrary constructs of race, devoid of any contextual significance.<ref name="Trigger">Bruce Trigger, 'Nubian, Negro, Black, Nilotic?', in Sylvia Hochfield and Elizabeth Riefstahl (eds), Africa in Antiquity: the arts of Nubia and the Sudan, Vol. 1 (New York, Brooklyn Museum, 1978).</ref> Egyptologist Frank Yurco shared a similar sentiment, identifying Egyptian civilization as comprising a mix of North and sub-Saharan African elements that typified Egyptians ever since, and that the Egyptian people were generally coextensive with other Africans in the Nile valley.<ref name="fyurcobow"/> Many researchers note a wide range of variability in ancient Egypt and the Nile Valley, but assert that many Egyptians, especially southern, would be identified as "black" by American classification standards.<ref>-nubianet.org, 1994-2001 Education Development Center, Inc.</ref> |
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Some genetic studies done on modern Egyptians suggest that most do not have close relations to most tropical Africans,<ref>], L.L., P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza. 1994, The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton:Princeton University Press.</ref> and other studies show that they are mostly related to other North Africans,<ref>{{cite journal | author=Arredi B, Poloni E, Paracchini S, Zerjal T, Fathallah D, Makrelouf M, Pascali V, Novelletto A, Tyler-Smith C | title=A predominantly neolithic origin for Y-chromosomal DNA variation in North Africa. | journal=Am J Hum Genet | volume=75 | issue=2 | pages=338-45 | year=2004 | id=PMID 15202071}}</ref> and to a lesser extent southern European/Mediterranean and Middle Eastern populations.<ref name="LeonardM"/> A 2004 mtDNA study of upper Egyptians from ] found a genetic ancestral heritage to modern East Africans, characterized by a high M1 haplotype frequency, and another study links Egyptians in general with people from modern Eritrea and Ethiopia.<ref name="pmid14748828">{{cite journal |
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|author=Stevanovitch A, Gilles A, Bouzaid E, ''et al'' |
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|title=Mitochondrial DNA sequence diversity in a sedentary population from Egypt |
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|journal=Ann. Hum. Genet. |
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|volume=68 |
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|issue=Pt 1 |
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|pages=23–39 |
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|year=2004 |
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|pmid=14748828 |
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|doi= |
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}}</ref><ref>Kivisild T, Reidla M, Metspalu E, Rosa A, Brehm A, Pennarun E, Parik J, Geberhiwot T, Usanga E, Villems R (2004). "Ethiopian mitochondrial DNA heritage: tracking gene flow across and around the gate of tears.". Am J Hum Genet 75 (5): 752-70</ref> A 2003 Y chromosome study was performed by Lucotte on modern Egyptians, with haplotypes V, XI, and IV being most common. Haplotype V is common in ] and has a low frequency outside Africa. Haplotypes V, XI, and IV are all supra/sub-Saharan horn of Africa haplotypes, and they are far more dominant in Egyptians than in Near Eastern or European groups.<ref name=Keita2005>{{cite journal |
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| author = Keita, S.O. |
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| year = 2005 |
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| title = History in the interpretation of the pattern of p49a, f TaqI RFLP Y-chromosome variation in Egypt: a consideration of multiple lines of evidence. |
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| journal = Am J Hum Biol |
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| volume = 17 |
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| issue = 5 |
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| pages = 559-67 |
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|pmid=16136533 |
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| url = http://www.homestead.com/wysinger/haplotypes_in_egypt.pdf |
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| accessdate = 2007-10-12 |
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}}</ref> |
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==Egyptian self-view== |
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The ancient Egyptians considered themselves part of a distinct group, separate from their neighbors, and viewed themselves simply as ].<ref name="fyurcobow"/> In their wall paintings, they distinguished themselves from Nubian, Libyan, Semitic, Berber, and Eurasian peoples. The Egyptians saw themselves as darker than the Asiatics and Libyans but lighter than the Nubians, and with different facial features and body types from the other groups.<ref name="afrocentroth"/> The Egyptians viewed the ] in the south as their ancestral homeland.<ref></ref><ref name="White">White, Jon Manchip., (Dover Publications; New Ed edition, June 1, 1970), p. 141. "''It may be noted that the ancient Egyptians themselves appear to have been convinced that their place of origin was African rather than Asian. They made continued reference to the land of Punt as their homeland''."</ref><ref> - The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA, 2004</ref> |
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Today ] have occasionally voiced their opinion regarding some of the controversies that have erupted over the origins of the ancient Egyptians. A 1993 anthropological study on Egyptian skeletal remains made reference to an incident in 1989 when the Dallas Museum of Natural History sponsored an Egyptian exhibit showcasing Egyptian culture at the time of ]. When the local Blackology Speaking Committee threatened to boycott the exhibit because Ramesses II was not depicted as "black", the Director of the Cultural Office in the Egyptian Embassy, Latif Aboul-Ela, complained that the event was being distorted by an "American form of 'racial politics'".<ref>Brace et al. 1993.</ref> In an ] release, Aboul-Ela said, "Ramesses II was neither black nor white but Egyptian.... This is an Egyptian heritage and an Egyptian culture 100 percent.... We cannot say by any means we are black or white. We are Egyptians."<ref>qtd. in Brace et al. 1993.</ref> |
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Some Egyptians also embrace what they describe as their African heritage, while criticizing some of their fellow compatriots for not doing the same. Egyptian film-maker Yusry Nasrallah claims in a recent publication by "AfricaNews", that he likes his African share and that Egypt owes much to Africa, especially because of the Nile river.<ref></ref> |
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==Material Culture== |
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Located in the extreme corner of Northeast Africa, ancient Egyptian society was at a crossroads between African and Near Eastern regions. During the ] phase, the predynastic Egyptians of ] shared an almost identical culture with A-group peoples of the Lower Sudan.<ref> - by Maria Gatto, archaeology.org</ref> In fact, the cultures were so similar, as indicated by royal tombs at Qustul, along with the earliest examples of what was thought to have been distinct Egyptian iconography, some scholars have even proposed an Egyptian origin in Nubia among the A-group.<ref> - Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa, by Joseph O. Vogel, AltaMira Press, (1997), pp. 465-472</ref><ref>Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1987), pp. 15-26</ref> Indeed, in 1996, Lovell and Prowse published a paper in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology citing evidence for ]. They reported the presence of individual rulers buried at Naqada in what was designated as elite, high status tombs, showing them to be related morphologically to populations in Northern Nubia, more so than those in Southern Egypt.<ref>Tracy L. Prowse, Nancy C. Lovell. , American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 101, Issue 2, October 1996, Pages: 237-246</ref> While others find this prospect intriguing, however, many scholars are not swayed by the evidence and cite the presence of royal tombs that are contemporary with that of Qustul and just as elaborate, while also addressing what they see as difficulty with the dating techniques.<ref>Wegner, J. W. 1996. Interaction between the Nubian A-Group and Predynastic Egypt: The Significance of the Qustul Incense Burner. In T. Celenko, Ed., Egypt in Africa: 98-100. Indianapolis: Indianapolis Museum of Art/Indiana University Press.</ref> |
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Excavations from ], located about 100km west of ], suggest that the Neolithic inhabitants of the region were migrants from ]. There is some speculation that this culture is likely to be the predecessor of the Egyptians, based on cultural similarities and social complexity which is thought to be reflective of Egypt's ].<ref></ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Holocene Settlement of the Egyptian Sahara | first=Fred |last=Wendorf| isbn=0306466120|Publisher=Springer|date=2001|pages=525|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qUk0GyDJRCoC&pg=PA525&dq=nabta+playa+sub-saharan&sig=I0g-2CzdwuyL0YG5NJCT0drbHOM }}</ref> |
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Toby Wilkonson, in his book "Genesis of the Pharaohs", proposes an origin for the Egyptians somewhere in the ].<ref> - Review by Timothy Kendall, American Archaeologist</ref> He presents evidence that much of predynastic Egypt was representative of the traditional African cattle-culture, typical of Southern Sudanese and East African pastoralists of today. In addition, Wilkonson cites the iconography on rock art in the region as depicting what he suggests to be the first examples of the royal crowns, even pointing to Qustul in Nubia as a likely candidate for the origins of the ], being that the earliest example of it was discovered in this area. |
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==Language== |
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] |
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The Ancient ] (a language most closely related to Berber, Semitic, and Beja) is part of the ] family. Initially, it was believed that Semitic languages originated in the near east, however, linguists soon began to reveal a connection between them and several African Languages, it was found that they were more related to languages in Africa than to languages in most parts of Asia and Europe. ], based on these observations proposed the term ](formerly known as Hamito-Semitic) to encompass all of these languages. The origin of ] languages is still debated. An African origin is often proposed since five of the six Afro-Asiatic subfamilies are spoken on the African continent and only one in the middle east. Furthermore, some scholars have proposed ], because it includes the majority of the diversity of the Afro-Asiatic language family and has very diverse groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin. Hence, many scholars cite this as evidence of a primarily African origin for the Ancient Egyptians as opposed to a near eastern origin.<ref></ref> |
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==Mummy reconstructions== |
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===Possible difficulties of forensic reconstruction=== |
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]]]Some forensic anthropologists assert that attempts to apply criteria from craniofacial anthropometry sometimes can yield seemingly counterintuitive results, depending upon the weight given to each feature. For example, some contend that their application can result in finding some East and South Indians to have "]" cranial/facial features and others to have "]" cranial/facial features. While many East Africans for instance, have "]" skulls<ref>Jean Hiernaux, "The People of Africa", 1975 p.147</ref>, and many of the ] who inhabit southwestern Africa have cranial/facial traits that are distinct from many other sub-Saharan Africans and resemble "]" characteristics.<ref>Department of Anatomy, University of the Witwatersrand, Medical School, Johannesburg, South Africa 2001</ref> A recent study of ancient Nubian crania was critical of assigning the traditional racial labels to skeletal remains. The study concluded that the assignment of racial origins to skeletons can sometimes misrepresent fundamental patterns in human biological diversity.<ref name=Williams2005>{{cite journal |
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| author = Williams, F.L. |
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| coauthors = Belcher, R.L.; Armelagos, G.J. |
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| year = 2005 |
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| title = Forensic Misclassification of Ancient Nubian Crania: Implications for Assumptions about Human Variation |
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| journal = Current Anthropology |
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| volume = 46 |
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| issue = 2 |
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| pages = 340-346 |
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| doi = 10.1086/428792 |
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}}</ref> |
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These seeming contradictions, however, are related to the vagaries of racial classification, particularly of ethnically diverse or miscegenated populations, as exist in Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Cranial analysis is still used by some forensic scientists to determine the identity and geographic ethnic origin of human remains, even though the accuracy of ethnicity-related conclusions drawn from cranial analysis is not absolute -- particularly when treating populations possessing varying degrees of "racial", or ethnic, admixture. Though modern technology can reconstruct Tutankhamun's facial structure with a high degree of accuracy based on CT data from his mummy, but due to lack of facial tissue and embalming issues, correctly determining his skin tone,shape of the top part of his nose and eye color is nearly impossible.<ref> National Geographic News</ref> The problem is not a lack of skill on the part of Ancient Egyptians. Egyptian artisans distinguished accurately among different ethnicities, but sometimes depicted their subjects in totally unreal colors, the purposes for which aren't completely understood. Thus no absolute consensus on the skin tone and various other features of reconstructed mummies such as ] is possible. |
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==Relations with Nubia== |
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Nubia (Ethiopia of Greeks) appears often in the history of Egypt. According to Manetho, if the number of years of reigns before the dynasties is in excess, "it must be supposed that perhaps several Egyptian kings ruled at one and the same time; for they say that the rulers were kings of This, of Memphis, of Saïs, of Ethiopia, and of other places at the same time"<ref>Manetho, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1997, Fr. 1. 7.</ref>. Diodorus Siculus, in the Volume III of ''Bibliotheca historica'' (''The Library of History'') writes that the Ethiopians consider the Egyptians as one of their colony brought in Egypt by Osiris<ref></ref>. In the same book, Diodorus Siculus notes that the Ethiopians have black skin and wooly hair<ref></ref>. And Alan Gardiner translates "''Tз-Seti''", the "Ist nome of Upper Egypt", as "Nubia", and "''Styw''", its inhabitants, as "Nubians"<ref>Sir Alan Gardiner, ''Egyptian Grammar'', Oxford: Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, 2001, p. 593.</ref>. In fact, Jean-François Champollion has already revealed that ancient Egyptians might have originated either from ] or from ]<ref>Jean-François Champollion, ''Lettres écrites d'Egypte et de Nubie en 1828 et 1829'', Paris: Firmin Didot Frères, Libraires, 1833, p. 429 (Elibron Classics).</ref>. |
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Mayassis states that Isis was considered as a Black and Red goddess, a Nubian<ref>S Mayassis, ''Mystères et initiations de l'Egypte ancienne. Compléments à la religion égyptienne'', Milano: Archè, 1988, p. 395.</ref>, and that the soul of Osiris flies from the left side<ref>S Mayassis, ''Mystères et initiations de l'Egypte ancienne. Compléments à la religion égyptienne'', Milano: Archè, 1988, p. 34.</ref>, which is, according to Plutarch, the south of Egypt<ref>Plutarco, ''Iside e Osiride e Dialogi delfici'', Milano: edizione Bompiani Testi a fronte, 2002, p. 61, §32.</ref>. |
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==Historical perspectives== |
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===Accounts by ancient writers=== |
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], the "father of history", wrote that Egyptians had black skin and woolly hair.]] |
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Many ancient writers commented of the 'racial affinities' of ancient Egyptians. While some held them to be people with 'black skins and woolly hair' similar to ']ites', others described them as 'medium toned' or similar to that of ] ]. Greek historian ] commented on a perceived relationship between the ] (from the modern ] in the ]) and the Egyptians. He states that he was told by several Egyptians that the Colchians were descended from the Egyptian soldier ] and further draws a connection from the skin tone and "kinky hair" of the Colchians as well as their practice of circumcision. Herodotus described the Colchians as ''melanchros'', black.<ref>''Herodotus, Book II, 104</ref> Some scholars, such as Yaacov Shavit are of the opinion that since Egyptians were not described as ''Aethiopes'', they were in fact distinguished from "black" Africans.<ref>Shavit, pp. 154-55</ref> According to Classicist ], Herodotus seems to have been following a Graeco-Roman practice of describing people darker than themselves as ''melanchros'', which did not mean that the people they described were black.<ref>"Bernal's 'Blacks' and the Afrocentrists" in Lefkowitz and MacLean Rogers. 1996, pp. 113-114</ref> Other interpretations have pointed out that Herodotus could have been speaking in relative terms, since the Colchians were noted as residing near the Black Sea, close to modern day ] where there are virtually no dark skinned, woolly haired people today; There are also others who question whether or not Herodotus ever visited the Black Sea region in the first place.<ref name=Armayor1978>{{cite journal |
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| author = Armayor, O.K. |
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| year = 1978 |
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| title = Did Herodotus Ever Go to the Black Sea? |
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| journal = Harvard Studies in Classical Philology |
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| volume = 82 |
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| pages = 45-62 |
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| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0073-0688(1978)82%3C45%3ADHEGTT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 |
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| accessdate = 2007-10-23 |
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}}</ref> Professor of African Studies at Temple University, ] however, cites other examples from Herodotus, one where he asserts that "the flooding of the Nile could not be caused by snow, because the natives of the country (Egypt) are black from the heat".<ref>Molefi Kete Asante. Egypt in Africa, (1996), pp. 116-117</ref> |
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Other ancient writers testify that there indeed was an ancient population of dark skinned, woolly haired people residing in ], giving at least some support to ]' claim that they were left there by the armies of the legendary ] after initial campaigns in the region. Indeed, there is further description from ancient writers describing the populations of ] in this fashion. A Greek poet named Pindar described the Colchians, whom Jason and the Argonauts fought, as being "dark skinned". Also around 350 to 400 AD, Church father ] and Sophronius referred to ] as the "second ]" because of its 'black-skinned' population.<ref name=English1959>{{cite journal |
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| author = English, P.T. |
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| year = 1959 |
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| title = Cushites, Colchians, and Khazars |
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| journal = Journal of Near Eastern Studies |
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| volume = 18 |
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| issue = 1 |
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| pages = 49-53 |
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| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2968(195901)18%3A1%3C49%3ACCAK%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F |
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| accessdate = 2007-10-23 |
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}}</ref> |
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], who some have questioned whether or not visited Egypt, also commented on the physical traits of the Egyptians and Ethiopians. Aristotle asserts that skin color is somehow correlated to courage, and also gives his impression on why the Egyptians and Ethiopians are bowlegged and 'curly haired' by contending that "too black a hue marks the coward" as well as "too white a complexion" and that courage rests between the two. Aristotle also asserts that the Egyptians are "bandy legged" and asks if this is due to the fact that their bodies became "distorted by heat, like logs of wood when they become dry", he contends that the hair of the Ancient Egyptians supports the theory as it is curlier than that of other nations.<ref>''Physiognomics'', Vol. VI, 812a - Book XIV, p. 317</ref> |
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] wrote that the Egyptians resembled the people of ].]] |
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] (325/330-after 391) was a ] historian who also gave his own brief observations. Marcellinus stated that the Egyptians were "mostly brown and black" with a "skinny and desiccated look".<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, Book XXII, para 16 (23)</ref><ref> - BBC World Service</ref> ] though described the Egyptians as lighter than the ], saying "the land of Egypt, flooded by the Nile, darkens bodies more mildly owing to the inundation of its fields."<ref>''Astronomica'', 4.722-30</ref> Ancient writers have also made comparisons between ancient Egyptians and ] of the time. ] ], ] and ] ] stated that ''As for the people of India, those in the ] are like the Aethiopians in colour, although they are like the rest in respect to countenance and hair (for on account of the humidity of the air their hair does not curl), whereas those in the north are like the Aegyptians.''<ref></ref> ] ] ] also drew a similarity between northern Indians and ancient Egyptians stating that the appearance of the inhabitants of ancient Egypt was not very different from those in northern India. Arrian further stated that "the northern Indians are most like the Egyptians physically".<ref>Indica 6.9</ref> |
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The writings of Strabo and Arrian were drawn from the earlier accounts of ], ] and ].<ref>Radhakumud Mookerji (1988). ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'' (p. 4). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120804058.</ref> |
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According to Yaacov Shavit of Tel Aviv University, "he evidence clearly shows that those Graeco-Roman authors who refer to the skin color and other physical traits distinguish sharply between Ethiopians (Nubians) and Egyptians, and rarely do they refer to the Egyptians as black, even though they were described as darker than themselves.... Egyptians and Nubians were both clearly distinguished from the black Africans."<ref> Shavit, p. 154</ref> However, late professor of classics, Frank Snowden has not made note of any distinction between Nubians, Ethiopians, or modern conceptions of "black African". He concedes that "both Egyptians and Ethiopians were described as black, but only Ethiopians were described as having exceedingly woolly hair".<ref name="Snowden"/> |
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Classical scholar ] cautions that terms used by ancient Greek and Roman writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples were different in meaning from modern-day racial terms in the West. Snowden writes: |
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<blockquote>....the Afrocentrists are mistaken in assuming that the term ''Afri'' (Africans) and various color adjectives for dark pigmentation as used by Greeks and Romans are always the classical equivalents of Negroes or blacks in modern usage.... Not all the peoples described by such color terms were blacks or Negroes in the modern sense, but ''only'' the inhabitants of the Nile Valley south of Egypt and of the southern fringes of northwestern Africa.... That the pigmentation of the Egyptians was seen as lighter than that of Ethiopians is also attested by the adjective ''subfusucli'' {"somewhat dark") which Ammianus Marcellinus (22.16.23) chose to describe the Egyptians.... There was also a mixed Egyptian-Nubian element in the population of Egypt at least a early as the middle of the third millennium B.C.E....<ref>"Bernal's 'Blacks' and the Afrocentrists" in Lefkowitz and MacLean Rogers. 1996, pp. 113-114</ref></blockquote> |
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According to the hippocratic text the Egyptians were not unlike the the Scythians,though the Scythians were reddened because of cold the Egyptians were reddened due to sun exposure,Also in Hesiod Works and Days it states that black people reside not in the nile valley but in a far off land,by the fountains of the sun,or where it goes to and fro<ref>Shavit p154-155</ref> |
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Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. They contend that the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the ancient Greeks. They also state that relying on ancient interpretations are problematic since the ancient writers were not doing population biology, even though the Greeks called all groups south of Egypt "Ethiopians".<ref name="Keita" /> |
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===Great Sphinx of Giza=== |
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] |
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Over the centuries, numerous writers and scholars have recorded their impressions and reactions upon seeing the ] in relation to its possible racial characteristics. French philosopher ] visited Egypt between 1783 and 1785 and is one of the earliest known ] scholars to remark upon what he saw as its "typically Negro" countenance. De Volney stated that the Sphinx's appearance was "typically nergro in all its features"<ref></ref> Upon visiting Egypt in 1849, French author ] stated that he had observations. In his travel log chronicling his trip, he wrote of the Sphinx: "it exactly faces the rising sun, its head is grey, ears very large and protruding like a negro’s...the fact that the nose is missing increases the flat, negroid effect. Besides, it was certainly Ethiopian; the lips are thick…."<ref></ref> In his work ''The Negro'', published in 1915, ] asserted that the great sphinx is similar to other statues of the world and represented "black, full-blooded negros" which he stated were described as having "high cheek bones, flat cheeks,.. a massive nose, firm projecting lips, and thick hair with an austere and almost savage expression of power."<ref>William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, ''The Negro'' (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1915)</ref></blockquote> According to professor of Jewish history, Yaacov Shavit, most of the European travelers and scholars rejected Volney's views about the sphinx, including British Egyptologist ], who wrote that '...all attempts to prove that the Egyptians are of the Negro race are overthrown at the outset by facts which cannot be controverted... the fact, however, remains that the Egyptian ] is exactly what he was in the earliest dynasties.'"<ref>qtd. in Shavit, p. 148</ref> |
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Even modern observers have noted the sphinx's characteristics. In 1992, the ] published a letter to the editor submitted by then ] professor of ]<ref> Sheldon Peck, Department of Orthodontics at Harvard</ref> Sheldon Peck in which he commented on a study of the Giza sphinx conducted by ] senior ] artist Frank Domingo. Peck Wrote that the "This is an anatomical condition of forward development in both jaws, more frequently found in people of African ancestry than in those of Asian or Indo-European stock."<ref>{{cite news | first= | last=To the Editor | coauthors= | title= Sphinx May Really Be a Black African | date=] | publisher= | url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE1D7163DF93BA25754C0A964958260 | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2007-10-18 | language = }}</ref> |
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===History of Egyptology=== |
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====Hamitic hypothesis==== |
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{{main|Hamitic hypothesis}} |
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The "Hamitic Hypothesis" associated the Ancient Egyptians with ], viz. speakers of ].<ref>Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) The Languages of Africa. International journal of American linguistics, 29, 1, part 2</ref> |
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The postulated "]" was sometimes credited with the introduction of more advanced culture, such as certain plant cultivation and particularly the domestication of cattle.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} |
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Modern scholarship has moved away from earlier notions of a "Hamitic" race speaking Hamito-Semitic languages, and places the Egyptian language in a more localized context, centered around its general Saharan and Nilotic roots.''(F. Yurco "An Egyptological Review", 1996)''<ref>Yurco, op. cit. </ref> |
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====Mesopotamian influence==== |
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{{main|Dynastic Race Theory}} |
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The ] was the earliest thesis to attempt to explain how predynastic ] developed into the Pharonic monarchy. It argued that the presence of many ]n influences in Egypt during the late predynastic period and the apparently foreign graves in the ] burials indicated an invasion of Mesopotamians into Upper Egypt, who then conquered both Upper and Lower Egypt and founded the ] |
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The Dynastic Race Theory is no longer the dominant thesis in the field of Predynastic Archaeology, and has been largely replaced by the theory that Egypt was a ], on the grounds that such contacts are much older than the Naqada II period,<ref>Redford, Donald B., ''Egypt, Israel, and Canaan in Ancient Times'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 13.</ref> the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period,<ref>Gardiner, Alan. ''Egypt of the Pharaohs'' (Oxford: University Press, 1961), p. 392.</ref> and the changes which did happen during the Naqada periods happened over significant amounts of time.<ref>Shaw, Ian. and Nicholson, Paul, ''The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt'' (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 228.</ref> Some scholars still note that while the Dynastic Race Theory is probably fallacious, the evidence upon which it was based does still indicate significant predynastic Mesopotamian influence<ref>Redford, ''Egypt, Israel,'' p. 17.</ref>; however, recent anthropological studies have also reported biological continuity from the early predynastic, into the dynastic era, suggesting that state formation was a predominantly indigenous process.<ref name=Zakrzewski2007>{{cite journal |
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| author = Zakrzewski, S.R. |
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| year = 2007 |
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| title = Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state. |
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| journal = AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY |
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| volume = 132 |
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| pages = 501-509 |
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| url = http://wysinger.homestead.com/zakrzewski_2007.pdf |
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| doi = 10.1002/ajpa.20569 |
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}}</ref> |
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==Controversies== |
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===Afrocentric views=== |
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Afrocentric scholars and authors assert that Egyptians were "]" and contend that modern perceptions of ancient Egyptians are due to racial prejudice on the part of early egyptologists.<ref>Cheikh Anta Diop, ''Nations Nègres et Culture. De l'antiquité nègre égyptienne aux problèmes culturels de l'Afrique Noire d'aujourd'hui'', Tome I, Paris: Présence Africaine, 1979, pp. 62, 70.</ref> For example, ] wrote that life for the ancient Egyptians was oriented to the south in the direction of Sub-Saharan Africa<ref>Edouard Naville, "L'origine africaine de la civilisation égyptienne", in ''Revue archéologique'', Paris, 1913, quoted by Cheikh Anta Diop, ''Nations Nègres et Culture. De l'antiquité nègre égyptienne aux problèmes culturels de l'Afrique Noire d'aujourd'hui'', Paris: Présence Africaine, 1979, p. 151.</ref> |
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===King Tutankhamun=== |
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]'' magazine.]]] |
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The racial characteristics of King ] has caused some controversy. In 2005, three teams of scientists (Egyptian, French and American), in partnership with the ], developed a facial reconstruction of Tutankhamun from 1,700 ] ]s of the Pharaoh's skull. The French and American teams worked plastic molds created from these – but the Americans were never told ''whom'' they were reconstructing.<ref name="KingTut"> |
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{{cite news |
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|first=Brian |
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|last=Handwerk |
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|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/05/0511_050511_kingtutface.html |
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|title=King Tut's New Face: Behind the Forensic Reconstruction |
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|publisher=National Geographic News |
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|date=], ] |
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|accessdate = 2006-08-05 |
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}} |
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</ref> All three teams created ] busts of their interpretation of what the young monarch looked like. In the end, ], head of Cairo's ], announced that the skull as "that of a male, 18 to 20 years old, with ] features."<ref name="KingTut" /> The French team's reconstruction specifically however, has sparked considerable controversy. In 2005 when a King Tut exhibition was shown in Los Angeles, it was met by black activist demonstrators who protested the exhibition on the grounds that the statues shown portrayed King tut as "white" and demanded that they be removed.<ref name="Hawassnews"/> ]s criticize the French team's claim that they selected the skin tone by taking a color from the middle of the range of skin tones found in the population of Egypt today.<ref></ref> They claim that these features do not reflect the prevalent eye or skin color of either ancient dynastic Egypt or present-day Egyptians. They further argue that many representations of Tutankhamun portray him with red-brown to dark-brown skin and dark eyes, and that the teams should have used these as references in assigning eye and skin color.<ref></ref> In comparison to the 2005 reconstruction, some have commented that the earlier 2002 ] reconstruction showed a darker skin tone, among other differences.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.blackpressusa.com/news/Article.asp?SID=4&Title=Departments&NewsID=5745 |title=Whitewashing King Tut |accessdate=2007-10-03 |last=Galiana |first=Sonia Morgan |publisher=National Newspaper Publishers Association, Inc. }}</ref> Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice president for mission programs, said, in response to criticism of the King Tut reconstructions that "The big variable is skin tone." and "North Africans, we know today, had a range of skin tones, from light to dark. In this case, we selected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up front, 'This is midrange.'"<ref> |
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{{cite news |
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|first=Evan |
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|last=Henerson |
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|url=http://u.dailynews.com/Stories/0,1413,211~23523~2921859,00.html |
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|title=King Tut's skin color a topic of controversy |
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|publisher=U-Daily News - L.A. Life |
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|date=], ] |
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|accessdate = 2006-08-05 |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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] has stated that: "Tutankhamun was not black, and the portrayal of ancient Egyptian civilisation as black has no element of truth to it". Hawass made this statement in light of calls from U.S. black activists demanding egyptologists to recognize that King Tut was black. Hawass also stated that "Egyptians are not Arabs and are not Africans despite the fact that Egypt is in Africa,". Hawass was responding to several demonstrations in ] where protesters demanded a bust of King Tut be removed because it portrayed him as white.<ref name=Hawassnews>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Tutankhamun was not black: Egypt antiquities chief | date= | publisher= | url =http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iB6u3XEMp9IrJfl-kH6FHNgZCg_A | work =AFP | pages = | accessdate = 2007-09-27 | language = }}</ref> Hawass, in a 2007 publication of "Ancient Egypt Magazine", also asserted that none of the facial reconstructions resemble Tut, claiming for example that the French reconstruction ended up with a person that looked French, whose features do not resemble any known Egyptians. He asserts that in his opinion, the most accurate representation of the boy king is the mask from his tomb.<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Meeting Tutankhamun | date= | publisher= Ancient Egypt Magazine | url =http://www.ancientegyptmagazine.com/ Ancient Egypt Magazine, Issue 44, October / November 2007] | work =AFP | pages = | accessdate = 2007-10-22 |}}</ref> In addition, according to the LA Times, the archaeological inspector for the Supreme Council of antiquities, Ahmed Saleh, disagrees with some of Hawass' statements, stating that the procedures used in the facial re-creation made Tut look Caucasian, "disrespecting the nation's African roots".<ref>Mike Boehm. , Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, Calif.: Jun 20, 2005</ref> |
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===Alleged racism in Egyptology=== |
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]ese historian ], in his book ''Nations Nègres et Culture'', denounced colonial Egyptology as prejudiced against black historical accomplishments. Diop himself has come under criticism by mainstream scholars for having distorted some of his sources and as a result falsifying history.<ref>Snowden, p.119</ref><ref>Schuh, Russell G. (1997), in: Ufahamu 25(1):36-81.</ref> Diop claims that Egyptologists "knew" that ancient Egyptians were "black", But the fact that Africans were colonized, he argued, made it difficult to admit that they were the creators of the Egyptian civilization. He quoted, for example, Champollion-Figeac who said that “black skin and wholly hair don’t make someone to belong to the Black race”.<ref>Cheikh Anta Diop, ''Nations Nègres et Culture. De l'antiquité nègre égyptienne aux problèmes culturels de l'Afrique Noire d'aujourd'hui'', Tome I, Paris: Présence Africaine, 1979, pp. 62, 70.</ref> In his book, ''Egitto e Nubia'', Maurizio Damiano-Appia wrote that for many Egyptologists of the past, and even of today, Egypt was the creation of a "white race." Appia alleges that Eurocentrism, mainly of Anglo Saxon orientation, was at the base of this false idea. <ref>Maurizio Damiano-Appia, ''Egitto e Nubia'', Con la collaborazione di Francesco L. Nera, Milano: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 1995, p. 8.</ref> Aboubacry Moussa Lam, in his book ''L’affaire des momies royales. La vérité sur la reine Ahmès-Nefertari'', argued that Egyptian mummies were falsely described as being caucasian.<ref>Aboubacry Moussa Lam, ''L'affaire des momies royales. La vérité sur la reine Ahmès-Nefertari'', Paris: Khepera / Présence Africaine, 2000.</ref> |
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Some other more controversial methods have been used to determine the racial characteristics of Ancient Egyptians. ] performed a series of the tests on Egyptian mummies to determine melanin levels and concluded that Egyptians were dark-skinned and part of the "Negro race".<ref name="OriginDiop"> {{Diop, C. A. 1973. “Pigmentation des anciens Egyptiens. Test par la Mélanine,” ''Bulletin de l’IFAN'', XXXV, B: 515-531 }}</ref> Diop noted criticisms of these results that argue that the skin of most Egyptian mummies, tainted by the embalming material, are no longer susceptible of any analysis. Diop contended the position that although the epidermis is the main site of the melanin, the melanocytes penetrating the ] at the boundary between it and the ], even where the latter has mostly been destroyed by the embalming materials, show a melanin level which is non-existent in the "white-skinned races". However, Diop did not describe any tests that verify his claims that melanin is "non-existent" among the "white-skinned races", nor provide evidence supporting his assertion that the absence of melanin in the epidermis is due to embalming techniques. Diop innovated the development of the melanin dosage test which was later adopted by forensic investigators to determine the "racial identity" of badly burnt accident victims.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.webzinemaker.com/admi/m7/page.php3?num_web=27310&rubr=3&id=290477 |title=The Pharoah of Knowledge |accessdate=2007-10-23 |last=Diop |first=Cheikh Anta }}</ref> |
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J. D. Walker wrote an article for the ''Journal of Black Studies'' in 1995 suggesting that Diop's views had been widely misinterpreted by his critics and that Diop's understanding of race and blackness went beyond the "stereotyped caricatured West African physiognomy described in some literature as the the True Negro'" Walker writes that his definition of "black" was sometimes all encompassing those with dark complexions, and at times, even non-Africans.<ref name=Walker1995>{{cite journal |
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| author = Walker, J.D. |
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| year = 1995 |
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| title = The Misrepresentation of Diop's Views |
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| journal = Journal of Black Studies |
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| volume = 26 |
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| issue = 1 |
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| pages = 77-85 |
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| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9347(199509)26%3A1%3C77%3ATMODV%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A |
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| accessdate = 2007-10-23 |
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}}</ref> |
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===Kmt=== |
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{|align="right" border="1" style="margin: 9px 1em 1em;" |
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|+''km'' in ]s |
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|-align="center" |
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|''km'' biliteral |
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|''km.t'' (place) |
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|''km.t'' (people) |
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|-align="center" |
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|<hiero>km</hiero> |
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|<hiero>km:t*O49</hiero> |
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|<hiero>km:t-A1-B1-Z3</hiero> |
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One of the many names for Egypt in ancient Egyptian is ''km.t'' (read "Kemet"), meaning "black land". More literally, the word means "something black". The use of ''km.t'' in terms of a place is thought generally to be in contrast to the "deshert" or "red land", e.g. the desert west of the Nile valley. Egypt for millennia depended on the flooding of the Nile to bring fertility to the land, and the resulting soil was very black.<ref>{{cite book | last = Kemp | first = Barry J. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Ancient Egypt: Anatomy Of A Civilization | publisher = Routledge | date = | location = | pages = 21 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=l-t5vWHAVN0C&pg=PA21&ots=Whio1cbGsZ&dq=egypt+black+soil&sig=jmy3OWcilcwPoYZYgfbO2LU5_B8#PPA21,M1 | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0415063463 }}</ref> Likewise, the word ''kmt'' could also refer to the people when followed by the people determinatives, as shown on the far right. Raymond Faulkner's ''Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian'' translates it into "Egyptians", as do most sources.<ref>Raymond Faulkner, ''A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian'', Oxford: Griffith Institute, 2002, p. 286.</ref> However, scholar Aboubacry Moussa Lam prefers what he considers to be a more literal translation and suggests that ''Km.t'' should be translated as meaning, "land of the black/s" or "black nation" when it applies to the country<ref>Aboubacry Moussa Lam, "L'Égypte ancienne et l'Afrique", in Maria R. Turano et Paul Vandepitte, ''Pour une histoire de l'Afrique'', 2003, p. 50.</ref>, and as meaning "the Blacks" when it applies to the population,<ref>Aboubacry Moussa Lam, "L'Égypte ancienne et l'Afrique", in Maria R. Turano et Paul Vandepitte, ''Pour une histoire de l'Afrique'', 2003, p. 51; Aboubacry Moussa Lam, ''De l'origine égyptienne des Peuls'', Paris: Présence Africaine / Khepera, 1993, p. 181.</ref> a view rejected by most Egyptologists.<ref>Bard, Kathryn A. "Ancient Egyptians and the Issue of Race". in Lefkowitz and MacLean rogers, p. 114</ref> |
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===Cleopatra=== |
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The claim that ], the last Pharaoh of Egypt, was of Black African origin has been espoused by a few Afrocentric academics.<ref> |
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*, from '']'' magazine, ] ]. In support of this, she cites a few examples, one of which she supplies is a chapter entitled "Black Warrior Queens" published in 1984 in ''Black Women in Antiquity'', part of the ''Journal of African Civilization'' series. It draws heavily on the work of J.A. Rogers. |
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*, from the ''St. Louis Dispatch'', ] ]. |
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*, from '']'', ] ].</ref> Cleopatra, however, was of ] origin. ] argues that ] scholars are to blame for the proliferation of this myth. According to Professor of African American Studies at ], Dr. ], the idea that Cleopatra was black is not a major aspect of Afrocentrists arguments and asserts that afrocentricists do not spend a lot of time arguing such. |
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<ref> By Molefi Kete Asante</ref> |
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==Other views== |
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===Hamitic hypothesis=== |
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Complications have also cropped up in the use of linguistics as a basis for racial categorization. The demise of the famous "Hamitic Hypothesis", which purported to show that certain African languages around the Nile area could be associated with "Caucasoid" peoples is a typical case. Such schemes fell apart when it was demonstrated that so-called 'Negroid' tribes far distant also spoke similar languages, tongues that were supposedly a reserved marker of 'Caucasoid' presence or influence.<ref>Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) The Languages of Africa. International journal of American linguistics, 29, 1, part 2</ref> For work on African languages, see Wiki article ] and ]. |
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Older linguistic classifications are also linked to the notion of a "Hamitic race", a vague grouping thought to exclude 'Negroes', but accommodating a large variety of dark skinned North and East Africans into a broad-based 'Caucasoid' grouping. This "Hamitic race" is sometimes credited with the introduction of more advanced culture, such as certain plant cultivation and particularly the domestication of cattle. This has also been discredited by the work of post WWII archaeologists such as A. Arkell, who demonstrated that predynastic and Sudanic 'Negroid' elements already possessed cattle and plant domestication, thousands of years before the supposed influx of 'Caucasoid' or 'Hamitic' settlers into the Nile Valley, Nubia and adjoining areas.<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica, Macropedia, 1984 ed, Vol 13, "Nilotic Sudan, History Of", p. 108</ref> |
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Modern scholarship has moved away from earlier notions of a "Hamitic" race speaking Hamito-Semitic languages, and places the Egyptian language in a more localized context, centered around its general Saharan and Nilotic roots.''(F. Yurco "An Egyptological Review", 1996)''<ref>Yurco, op. cit. </ref> Linguistic analysis (Diakanoff 1998) has lead most scholars to place the origin of the Afro-Asiatic languages in northeast Africa, while some still lean towards ], with older strands south of Egypt, and newer elements straddling the Nile Delta and Sinai.<ref>M.Diakonoff, Journal of Semitic Studies, 43,209 (1998)</ref><ref>Christopher Ehret, S. O. Y. Keita, Paul Newman;, and Peter Bellwood. - Sciencemag (2004)</ref> The ] form the only Afro-Asiatic subfamily extant outside of Africa. Some scholars believe that, in historical or near-historical times, Semitic speakers crossed from South Arabia back into Ethiopia and Eritrea, while others, such as A. Murtonen, dispute this view, suggesting that the Semitic branch may have originated in Ethiopia.<ref>Fleming, Harold C. (1968), "Ethiopic Language History: Testing Linguistic Hypotheses in an Archaeological and Documentary Context" in Ethnohistory, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Autumn), pp. 353-388</ref> |
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===Dynastic race theory=== |
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The ] was the earliest thesis to attempt to explain how predynastic ] developed into the Pharonic monarchy. It argued that the presence of many ]n influences in Egypt during the late predynastic period and the apparently foreign graves in the ] burials indicated an invasion of Mesopotamians into Upper Egypt, who then conquered both Upper and Lower Egypt and founded the ] |
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The Dynastic Race Theory is no longer the dominant thesis in the field of Predynastic Archaeology, and has been largely replaced by the theory that Egypt was a ], on the grounds that such contacts are much older than the Naqada II period,<ref>Redford, Donald B., ''Egypt, Israel, and Canaan in Ancient Times'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 13.</ref> the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period,<ref>Gardiner, Alan. ''Egypt of the Pharaohs'' (Oxford: University Press, 1961), p. 392.</ref> and the changes which did happen during the Naqada periods happened over significant amounts of time.<ref>Shaw, Ian. and Nicholson, Paul, ''The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt'' (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 228.</ref> Some scholars still note that while the Dynastic Race Theory is probably fallacious, the evidence upon which it was based does still indicate significant predynastic Mesopotamian influence<ref>Redford, ''Egypt, Israel,'' p. 17.</ref>; however, recent anthropological studies have also reported biological continuity from the early predynastic, into the dynastic era, suggesting that state formation was a predominantly indigenous process.<ref name=Zakrzewski2007>{{cite journal |
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| author = Zakrzewski, S.R. |
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| year = 2007 |
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| title = Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state. |
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| journal = AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY |
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| volume = 132 |
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| pages = 501-509 |
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| url = http://wysinger.homestead.com/zakrzewski_2007.pdf |
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| doi = 10.1002/ajpa.20569 |
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}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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*] |
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*] |
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==References== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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==Further reading== |
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*Dominique Valbelle , Charles Bonnet ISBN 977416010X |
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* James P. Allen. "Middle Egyptian : An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs". Cambridge University Press (November 4, 1999). ISBN 0521774837 |
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* Borgognini-Tarli, S. M., and G. Paoli, 1982. Survey on Paleoserological studies. Homo 33(2), 69-85 |
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* Bosch, E. et al. 1997. Population history of North Africa: evidence from classical genetic markers. Human Biology. 69(3):295-311. |
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* Brace, C. L., D. P. Tracer, L. A. Yaroch, J. Robb, K. Brandt, and A. R. Nelson. 1993. Clines and Clusters Versus "Race": A Test in Ancient Egypt and the Case of a Death on the Nile. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 36:1-31. Also appears in Lefkowitz and Rogers, 129-164. |
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* Brothwell, D. R. and B. A. Chiarelli, B. A., eds. 1973. Population Biology of the Ancient Egyptians. New York. |
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* Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza. 1994. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton: Princeton University Press. |
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* Raymond Faulkner. "Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian". Griffith Institute; Rep edition (], ]) ISBN 0900416327 |
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* Froment, A. 1992. Origines du Peuplement de l'Egypte Ancienne: l'Apport de l'anthropobiologie. Archéo-Nil 2:79-98. |
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* Froment, A. 1994. Race et Histoire: La recomposition ideologique de l'image des Egyptiens anciens. Journal des Africanistes 64:37-64. |
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* Howells, W. W. 1989. Skull Shapes and the Map. Craniometric Analyses in the Dispersion of Modern Homo. Cambridge: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. |
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* Howells, W. W. 1995. Who's Who in Skulls. Ethnic Identification of Crania from Measurements. Cambridge: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. |
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* Howe, Stephen 1998. Afrocentrism: Mythical Pasts and Imagined Homes. London: Verso. |
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* Hrdy, D. B. 1978. Analysis of hair samples of mummies from Semma South (Sudanese Nubia). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 49(2):277-82. |
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*Irish, J. D. 1997. Characteristic high- and low-frequency dental traits in sub-Saharan African populations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102(4):455-67. |
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*Irish, J. D. 1998a. Ancestral Dental Traits in Recent Sub-Saharan Africans and the Origin of Modern Humans, Journal of Human Evolution 34:81-98. |
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*Irish J. D. 1998b. Diachronic and synchronic dental trait affinities of late and post-Pleistocene peoples from North Africa. Homo. 49(2) 138-155. |
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*Krings M, et al. 1999. mtDNA Analysis of Nile River Valley Populations: A Genetic Corridor or a Barrier to Migration? American Journal of Human Genetics 64(4):1166-1176 |
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*Lefkowitz, Mary, and G. M. Rogers, eds. 1996. Black Athena Revisited. Chapel Hill, NC. |
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*Lam, Aboubacry Moussa, ''Les chemins du Nil. Les relations entre l’Egypte ancienne et l’Afrique Noire'', Paris : Présence Africaine / Khepera, 1997 |
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*Noguera, Anthony (1976). ''How African Was Egypt?: A Comparative Study of Ancient Egyptian and Black African Cultures''. Illustrations by Joelle Noguera. New York: Vantage Press. |
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*Parks, Lisa. 2000. Ancient Egyptians Wore Wigs. Egypt Revealed Magazine (www.egyptrevealed.com), ]. |
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*Shavit, Yaacov (2001). History in Black: African-Americans in Search of an Ancient Past. London: Frank Cass Publishers. |
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*Snowden, Jr., F. Bernal's "Blacks," Herodotus and Other Classical Evidence. Arethusa, Special Issue: The Challenge of Black Athena. Fall, 1989: 97-109. |
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*Titlbachova, S., and Z. Titlbach. 1977. Hair of Egyptian mummies. Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 104:79-85 |
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*Vercoutter, Jean. 1976. The Iconography of the Black in Ancient Egypt. In J. Vercoutter, J. Leclant, F. Snowden and J. Desanges (eds.) The Image of the Black in Western Art, vol. 1. Cambridge, MA. |
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*Yurco, F. J. 1996. Two Tomb-Wall painted reliefs of Ramesses III and Seti I and Ancient Nile Valley Population diversity. In Theodore Celenko (ed.) Egypt in Africa , Indiana University Press. |
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== External links == |
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{{Ancient Egypt}} |
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