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			{{Short description|Geographic region in West Asia}}
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			{{For|other regions with the same name|Palestine (disambiguation)#Geographic region||}}
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	{{otheruses1|the geographical area known as Palestine|Palestine}}
			{{good article}}
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			{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
			{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2022}}
			{{Infobox country
	'''Palestine''' (from {{lang-el|Παλαιστίνη}}; {{lang-la|Palaestina}}; {{lang-he|ארץ־ישראל}} ''Eretz Yisrael'', formerly also {{lang|he|פלשתינה}} ''Palestina''; {{lang-ar|فلسطين}} {{Unicode|''Filasṭīn'', ''Falasṭīn'', ''Filisṭīn''}}) is one of several names for the geographic region between the ] and the ] and various adjoining lands.
			| conventional_long_name = Palestine
			| native_name = {{small|{{Lang|el|Παλαιστίνη}} (])<br />{{Lang|la|Palaestina}} (])<br />{{Lang|ar|{{Script/Arabic|فِلَسْطِين}}|rtl=yes}} (])<br />{{Lang|he|{{lang|he|פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה}} or {{lang|he|אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל}}}} (])}}{{efn-lr|{{lang|he|פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה}} {{Transliteration|he|Pāleśtīnā}} has been used to refer to the region, particularly before 1948, and {{lang|he|פָלַסְטִין}} {{Transliteration|he|Fālasṭīn}} after 1948.
			<br>
			{{lang|he|אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל}} {{transliteration|he|ʾEreṣ Yiśrāʾēl}} ("]"), sometimes called simply {{lang|he|הָאָרֶץ}} {{Transliteration|he|hāʾĀreṣ}} ("the Land") or abbreviated {{lang|he|א"י}}.}}
			| name =
			| image_map = Historical boundaries of Palestine (plain).svg
			| map_caption = {{legend|border=darkgreen solid|white|Boundaries of the Roman province ], where dashed green line shows the boundary between Byzantine ] (later ]) and ] (later ]), as well as ] (later Jebel et-Tih and the Jifar)}}
			{{legend|border=darkred solid|white|Borders of ]}}
			{{legend|border=blue dotted 2px|white|Borders between ] and the ] (] and ]) which are claimed by the ] as its borders}}
			| image_map2 =
			| map2_width = 220px
			| capital =
			| membership_type = Countries
			| membership = {{flag|Israel}}<br />{{flag|Palestine}}<br />{{flag|Jordan}}{{efn-lr|name=Definition|Northwestern parts, according to some definitions.}}
			| languages_type = Languages
			| languages = ], ]
			| ethnic_groups = ], ], ]
			}}
			The region of '''Palestine''',{{efn-lr|{{langx|el|Παλαιστίνη}}, {{Transliteration|el|Palaistínē}}; {{langx|la|Palaestina}}; {{langx|ar|فِلَسْطِيْن}}, {{Transliteration|ar|Filasṭīn}}, or {{langx|apc|فَلَسْطِيْن}} {{Transliteration|apc|Falasṭīn}} or {{lang|apc|فِلِسْطِين}} {{Transliteration|apc|Filisṭīn}};
	Different geographic ] have been used over the millennia, and these definitions themselves are politically contentious. The broadest definition of Palestine was that adopted by the ], which included present-day ], ] and the ] of the ] and ]. The narrowest definition, and the one now current, embraces only the ] of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
			{{langx|he|פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה}} {{Transliteration|he|Palestīna}} or {{lang|he|אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל}} {{Transliteration|he|ʾEreṣ Yiśrāʾēl}}}} also known as '''historic Palestine''',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecibAAAAQBAJ|title=Historic Palestine, Israel, and the Emerging Palestinian Autonomous Areas|first=Britannica Educational|last=Publishing|date=1 October 2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-395-3 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MePaDwAAQBAJ|title=From Shared Life to Co-Resistance in Historic Palestine|first1=Marcelo|last1=Svirsky|first2=Ronnen|last2=Ben-Arie|date=7 November 2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-78348-965-7 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/03058298221131359|title=On Indigenous Refusal against Externally-Imposed Frameworks in Historic Palestine|first=Itxaso|last=Domínguez de Olazábal|date=3 October 2022|journal=Millennium: Journal of International Studies|volume=51|issue=1|pages=212–236|via=CrossRef|doi=10.1177/03058298221131359 |issn = 0305-8298 }}</ref> is a geographical area in ]. It includes modern-day ] and ], as well as parts of northwestern ] in some definitions. Other names for the region include ], the ], the ], or the ].
			The earliest written record referring to Palestine as a geographical region is in the '']'' of ] in the 5th century BCE, which calls the area ''Palaistine'', referring to the territory previously held by ], a state that existed in that area from the 12th to the 7th century BCE. The ] conquered the region and in 6 CE established the province known as ], but then in 132 CE in the period of the ] the province was expanded and renamed ].{{sfn|Lehmann|1998}} In 390, during the ] period, the region was split into the provinces of ], ], and ]. Following the ] in the 630s, the military district of ] was established. While Palestine's boundaries have changed throughout history, it has generally comprised the ] of regions such as ] or the ].
	Other English names for this region include ], ], and ].
			As the birthplace of ] and ], Palestine has been a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. In the ], it was home to ]ite city-states; and the later ] saw the emergence of ]. It has since come under the sway of various empires, including the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. The brief ] ended with its gradual incorporation into the Roman Empire, and later the Byzantine Empire, during which Palestine became a center of Christianity. In the 7th century, Palestine was conquered by the ], ending Byzantine rule in the region; Rashidun rule was succeeded by the ], the ], and the ]. Following the collapse of the ], which had been established through the ], the population of Palestine became predominantly ]. In the 13th century, it became part of the ], and after 1516, spent four centuries as part of the ].
	==Boundaries and name==
	The name and the borders of what is currently called Palestine have varied throughout history.
			During ], Palestine was occupied by the ] as part of the ]. Between 1919 and 1922, the ] created the ], which came under British administration as ] through the 1940s. Tensions between ] and ] escalated into the ], which ended with the establishment of Israel on most of the territory, and neighboring ] and ] controlling the ] and the ] respectively. The 1967 ] saw ], which has been among the core issues of the ongoing ].{{sfn|Reuters: recognition|2012}}{{sfn|Miskin|2012}}{{sfn|AP|2013}}
	]ian texts called the entire ]ine coastal area along the ] between modern Egypt and Turkey ''R-t-n-u'' (conventionally '']''). ''Retjenu'' was subdivided into three regions and the southern region, '']'', shared approximately the same boundaries as Canaan, or modern-day Israel and the ], though including also ].<ref>Sir ], ''Egypt of the Pharaohs'',Clarendon Press, Oxford (1961) 1964 pp.131, 199, 285, n.1</ref>
			== Etymology ==
	Early archeological textual reference to the territory of Palestine is found in the ], dated c. 1200 BCE, containing a recount of Egyptian king ]'s victories in the land of ], mentioning townships such as ], ] and Yanoam, along with Israel, which is mentioned using a hieroglyphic determinative that indicates a nomad people, rather than a state.<ref>Redmount, ''op.cit.'', p. 97</ref>
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			{{For timeline|Timeline of the name Palestine}}
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			| image2 = Notitia Dignitatum - Dux Palestinae.jpg
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			| image3 = Tabula Rogeriana Muhammad al-Idrisi map of Syria, Palestine, Sinai.png
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			| image4 = Cedid Atlas (Syria) 1803.jpg
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			| footer = The name is found throughout recorded history. Examples of ] that contain the name Palestine are shown above: (1) ] (Latin, {{circa|43 CE}}); (2) ] (Latin, {{circa|410 CE}}); (3) ] (Arabic, 1154 CE); (4) ] (Ottoman Turkish, 1803 CE)
			}}
			Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of ] ''Pelesheth''. The term "Peleset" (] from ] as ''P-r-s-t'') is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from {{circa|1150 BCE}} during the ]. The first known mention is at the temple at ] which refers to the ] among those who fought with ] in ]'s reign,{{sfn|Fahlbusch|Lochman|Bromiley|Barrett|2005|p=185}}{{sfn|Breasted|2001|p=24}} and the last known is 300 years later on ]. Seven known ]n inscriptions refer to the region of "Palashtu" or "Pilistu", beginning with ] in the ] in {{circa|800 BCE}} through to a ] more than a century later.{{sfn|Sharon|1988|p=4}}{{sfn|Room|2006|p=285}} Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term.{{efn-lr|] wrote in his seminal "Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung" ("KGF", in English "Cuneiform inscriptions and Historical Research") that the Assyrian tern "Palashtu" or "Pilistu" referred to the wider Palestine or "the East" in general, instead of "Philistia" ({{harvnb|Schrader|1878|pp=123–124}}; {{harvnb|Anspacher|1912|p=48}}).}}
			The first clear use of the term Palestine to refer to the entire area between ] and ] was in 5th century BCE ],{{efn-lr|"The earliest occurrence of this name in a Greek text is in the mid-fifth century B.C., Histories of Herodotus, where it is applied to the area of the Levant between Phoenicia and Egypt." ...{{spaces}}"The first known occurrence of the Greek word Palaistine is in the Histories of Herodotus, written near the mid-fifth century B.C. Palaistine Syria, or simply Palaistine, is applied to what may be identified as the southern part of Syria, comprising the region between Phoenicia and Egypt. Although some of Herodotus' references to Palestine are compatible with a narrow definition of the coastal strip of the Land of Israel, it is clear that Herodotus does call the whole land by the name of the coastal strip." ...{{spaces}}"It is believed that Herodotus visited Palestine in the fifth decade of the fifth century B.C." {{spaces}}..."In the earliest Classical literature references to Palestine generally applied to the Land of Israel in the wider sense." {{harv|Jacobson|1999}}}}{{efn-lr|"As early as the Histories of Herodotus, written in the second half of the fifth century BCE, the term Palaistinê is used to describe not just the geographical area where the Philistines lived, but the entire area between Phoenicia and Egypt—in other words, the Land of Israel. Herodotus, who had traveled through the area, would have had firsthand knowledge of the land and its people. Yet he used Palaistinê to refer not to the Land of the Philistines, but to the Land of Israel" {{harv|Jacobson|2001}}}} when ] wrote of a "district of Syria, called ''Palaistínē''" ({{langx|grc|Συρίη ἡ Παλαιστίνη καλεομένη}}){{sfn|Herodotus 3:91:1}} in '']'', which included the ] and the ].{{sfn|Jacobson|1999|p=65}}{{efn-lr|In '']'', Herodotus referred to the practice of ] associated with the Hebrew people: "the ], the ], and the ], are the only nations who have practised circumcision from the earliest times. The ]ns and the Syrians of Palestine themselves confess that they learnt the custom of the Egyptians{{spaces}}... Now these are the only nations who use circumcision." {{harv|Herodotus|1858|pp=Bk ii, Ch 104}}}} Approximately a century later, ] used a similar definition for the region in '']'', in which he included the ].{{sfn|Jacobson|1999|pp=66–67}} Later Greek writers such as ] and ] also used the term to refer to the same region, which was followed by Roman writers such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ] as well as ] writers ] and ].<ref name=Robinson /><ref>Louis H. Feldman, whose view differs from that of Robinson, thinks that Josephus, when referring to ''Palestine'', had in mind only the coastal region, writing: "Writers on geography in the first century clearly differentiate Judaea from Palestine. ...{{spaces}}Jewish writers, notably ] and ], with few exceptions refer to the land as ''Judaea'', reserving the name ''Palestine'' for the coastal area occupied by the Philistines." (END QUOTE). See: p. 1 in: {{harv|Feldman|1990|pp=1–23}}.</ref> The term was first used to denote an official province in {{circa|135 CE}}, when the ], following the suppression of the ], renamed the province of Judaea "]". There is ] linking ] with the name change,{{sfn|Feldman|1996|p=553}} but the precise date is not certain.{{sfn|Feldman|1996|p=553}}
	During the ], the ] for a short period may have reigned, from ], over an area approximating modern-day Israel and the Palestinian territories, extending farther westward and northward to cover much (but not all) of the greater Land of Israel, although archaeological evidence for this period is very rare and disputed.<ref name="Thompson">{{cite book|title=The Mythic Past:How Writers Create the Past|author=Thomas L. Thompson|publisher=]|year=1999|isbn=0465006493|url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=QzOJ9nMlUJcC&oi=fnd&pg=RA1-PR11&dq=archaeological+evidence+israel+kingdom&ots=_oKqm0jKLs&sig=YC3ODVfVBBI2A4J69_l6wp4iy2g}}</ref><ref name=Finkelstein>{{cite web|title=The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts|author=Israel Finkelstein and Neil Ascher Silberman|publisher=Bible and Interpretation|date=2000|accessdate=2007-05-14|url=http://www.bibleinterp.om/commentary/Finkelstein_Silberman022001.htm}}</ref>
			The term is generally accepted to be a cognate of the biblical name ''Peleshet'' ({{lang|he|פלשת}} ''Pəlésheth'', usually transliterated as ]). The term and its derivates are used more than 250 times in ]-derived versions of the ], of which 10 uses are in the ], with undefined boundaries, and almost 200 of the remaining references are in the ] and the ].{{sfn|Sharon|1988|p=4}}{{sfn|Room|2006|p=285}}<ref name=Robinson>Robinson, 1865, p.15: "Palestine, or Palestina, now the most common name for the Holy Land, occurs three times in the English version of the Old Testament; and is there put for the ] name פלשת, elsewhere rendered Philistia. As thus used, it refers strictly and only to the country of the ], in the southwest corner of the land. So, too, in the Greek form, Παλαςτίνη, it is used by ]. But both Josephus and ] apply the name to the whole land of the Hebrews; and Greek and Roman writers employed it in the like extent."</ref>{{sfn|Lewis|1954|p=153}} The term is rarely used in the ], which used a transliteration ''Land of Phylistieim'' ({{lang|grc|Γῆ τῶν Φυλιστιείμ}}), different from the contemporary Greek place name ''Palaistínē'' ({{lang|grc|Παλαιστίνη}}).{{sfn|Jacobson|1999|pp=72–74}} It is also theorized to be the ] of the Greek word for the Philistines and ''palaistês'', which means "wrestler/rival/adversary".{{sfn|Noth|1939}} This aligns with the Greek practice of punning place names since the latter is also the ].{{sfn|Jacobson|1999|p={{page needed|date=February 2021}}|ps=: "In the earliest Classical literature references to Palestine generally applied to the Land of Israel in the wider sense. A reappraisal of this question has given rise to the proposition that the name Palestine, in its Greek form Palaistine, was both a transliteration of a word used to describe the land of the Philistines and, at the same time, a literal translation of the name Israel. This dual interpretation reconciles apparent contradictions in early definitions of the name Palaistine and is compatible with the Greeks' penchant for punning, especially on place names."}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Beloe |first=W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyYIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA269 |title=Herodotus, Vol.II |year=1821 |location=London |page=269 |quote=It should be remembered that Syria is always regarded by Herodotus as synonymous with ]. What the Greeks called Palestine the Arabs call Falastin, which is the Philistines of Scripture.}} (tr. from Greek, with notes)</ref><ref>"Palestine and Israel", David M. Jacobson, ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 313 (February 1999), pp. 65–74; "The Southern and Eastern Borders of Abar-Nahara," Steven S. Tuell, ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 284 (November 1991), pp. 51–57; "Herodotus' Description of the East Mediterranean Coast", Anson F. Rainey, ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 321 (February 2001), pp. 57–63; </ref>
	The ]s dwelt in cities and controlled much of the coast, and the term 'Palestine' is cognate with the word ],<ref>Greek {{lang|el|Παλαιστινη}} from {{lang|el|Φυλιστινος/Φυλιστιειμ}}, see e.g. ], ] I.136; cf. The Septuagint rendering of ], X.13.</ref> That area was known in Greek sources from the mid 5th century BCE as ''Palaistina''. When the ] defeated the Jewish rebellion of 67-70 CE, and merged the province of ] with Galilee, Samaria and Idumaea, the name Palaestina was applied to the newly formed larger unit.
			The Septuagint instead used the term "allophuloi" ({{lang|grc|άλλόφυλοι}}, "other nations") throughout the Books of Judges and Samuel,{{sfn|Jobling|Rose|1996|p=404a}}<ref name=Drews49>{{harvnb|Drews|1998|p=49}}: "Our names 'Philistia' and 'Philistines' are unfortunate obfuscations, first introduced by the translators of the LXX and made definitive by Jerome's Vg. When turning a Hebrew text into Greek, the translators of the LXX might simply—as Josephus was later to do—have Hellenized the Hebrew פְּלִשְׁתִּים as {{lang|grc|Παλαιστίνοι}}, and the toponym פְּלִשְׁתִּ as Παλαιστίνη. Instead, they avoided the toponym altogether, turning it into an ethnonym. As for the ethnonym, they chose sometimes to transliterate it (incorrectly aspirating the initial letter, perhaps to compensate for their inability to aspirate the sigma) as {{lang|grc|φυλιστιιμ}}, a word that looked exotic rather than familiar, and more often to translate it as ά{{lang|grc|άλλόφυλοι}}. Jerome followed the LXX's lead in eradicating the names, 'Palestine' and 'Palestinians', from his Old Testament, a practice adopted in most modern translations of the Bible."</ref> such that the term "Philistines" has been interpreted to mean "non-Israelites of the Promised Land" when used in the context of Samson, Saul and David,<ref name=Drews51>{{harvnb|Drews|1998|p=51}}: "The LXX's regular translation of פְּלִשְׁתִּים into {{lang|grc|άλλόφυλοι}} is significant here. Not a proper name at all, allophyloi is a generic term, meaning something like 'people of other stock'. If we assume, as I think we must, that with their word allophyloi the translators of the LXX tried to convey in Greek what p'lištîm had conveyed in Hebrew, we must conclude that for the worshippers of Yahweh p'lištîm and b'nê yiśrā'ēl were mutually exclusive terms, p'lištîm (or allophyloi) being tantamount to 'non-Judaeans of the Promised Land' when used in a context of the third century BCE, and to 'non-Israelites of the Promised Land' when used in a context of Samson, Saul and David. Unlike an ethnonym, the noun פְּלִשְׁתִּים normally appeared without a definite article."</ref> and Rabbinic sources explain that these peoples were different from the Philistines of the ].{{efn-lr|"Rabbinic sources insist that the Philistines of Judges and Samuel were different people altogether from the Philistines of Genesis. (] on Psalm 60 (Braude: vol. 1, 513); the issue here is precisely whether Israel should have been obliged, later, to keep the Genesis treaty.) This parallels a shift in the Septuagint's translation of Hebrew pelistim. Before Judges, it uses the neutral transliteration phulistiim, but beginning with Judges it switches to the pejorative allophuloi. " {{harv|Jobling|Rose|1996|p=404}}}}
	The ethnic affiliation of the ]s is not clear. The Philistine names preserved on inscriptions appear to 'contradict the notion that they were Greek-speakers'.<ref>M.L. West, ''The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth,'' Clarendon Press, Oxford 1997 p. 38 n148</ref> Some scholars argue however that they were a non-Semitic group, with roots in Southern ] dating back to the period of early ] civilization.<ref>Killebrew, 2005, p. 231.</ref> Inhabiting a smaller area on the southern coast called ], whose borders approximate the modern ], Philistia comprised a confederation of five city states: ], ], ] on the coast and ], and ] inland.<ref name=ehrlich>Carl S. Ehrlich "Philistines" ''The Oxford Guide to People and Places of the Bible''. Ed. Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan. Oxford University Press, 2001.</ref>
			During the ], the region of Palestine within ] was subdivided into ] and ],{{sfn|Kaegi|1995|p=41}} and an area of land including the ] and ] became ].{{sfn|Kaegi|1995|p=41}} Following the ], ] that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic.{{sfn|Sharon|1988|p=4}}<ref name=Marshallp559>Marshall Cavendish, 2007, p. 559.</ref> The use of the name "Palestine" became common in ],{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=16}} was used in English and Arabic during the ]{{sfn|Büssow|2011|p=5}}{{sfn|Abu-Manneh|1999|p=39}}{{efn-lr|For example, the 1915 ''Filastin Risalesi'' ("Palestine Document"), an Ottoman army (]) country survey which formally identified Palestine as including the sanjaqs of ], the ], and the ]<ref name=Risalesi>{{harvnb|Tamari|2011|pp=29–30}}: "Filastin Risalesi, is the salnameh type military handbook issued for Palestine at the beginning of the Great War... The first is a general map of the country in which the boundaries extend far beyond the frontiers of the Mutasarflik of Jerusalem, which was, until then, the standard delineation of Palestine. The northern borders of this map include the city of Tyre (Sur) and the Litani River, thus encompassing all of the Galilee and parts of southern Lebanon, as well as districts of Nablus, Haifa and Akka—all of which were part of the Wilayat of Beirut until the end of the war."</ref>}} and was revived as an official place name with the ].
	Egyptian texts of the temple at ], record a people called the ''P-r-s-t'' (conventionally ''Peleset''), one of the ] who invaded ] in ]'s reign. This is considered very likely to be a reference to the Philistines. The ] name ''Peleshet'' ({{lang|he|פלשת}} ''Pəléshseth''), usually translated as ''Philistia'' in English, is used in the ] to denote their southern coastal region.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
			Some other terms that have been used to refer to all or part of this land include ], ] (Eretz Yisrael or Ha'aretz),{{sfn|Biger|2004|pp=133, 159}}{{efn-lr|The ], taking up a term used once in the ] (1 Samuel 13:19),{{sfn|Whitelam|1996|pp=40–42}}{{sfn|Masalha|2007|p=32}} speaks of a larger theologically-defined area, of which Palestine is a part, as the "land of Israel"{{sfn|Saldarini|1994|pp=28–29}} ({{lang|grc|γῆ Ἰσραήλ}}) (]), in a narrative paralleling that of the ].}}{{efn-lr|"The parallels between this narrative and that of Exodus continue to be drawn. Like Pharaoh before him, Herod, having been frustrated in his original efforts, now seeks to achieve his objectives by implementing a program of infanticide. As a result, here – as in Exodus – rescuing the hero's life from the clutches of the evil king necessitates a sudden flight to another country. And finally, in perhaps the most vivid parallel of all, the present narrative uses virtually the same words of the earlier one to provide the information that the coast is clear for the herds safe return: here, in Matthew 2:20, 'go … for those who sought the child's life are dead; there, in Exodus 4:19, go back… for all the men who sought your life are dead{{'"}} {{harv|Goldberg|2001|p=147}}.}} the ], the ], the ], ], ], ],{{efn-lr|Other writers, such as ], referred to the region as '']'' ("all Syria") around 10–20 CE {{harv|Feldman|1996|pp=557–558}}.}} "Israel HaShlema", ], ], ], '']'' (Ancient Egyptian), ], ] and ].
	The Assyrian emperor ] called the region the ''Palashtu'' in his Annals. By the time of ] rule in 722 BCE, the Philistines had become 'part and parcel of the local population',<ref name="Shahinp6">Shahin (2005), p. 6 {{specify}}</ref><ref name=Philistines>{{cite web|title=The Philistines|publisher=Jewish Virtual Library|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Philistines.html|accessdate=2007-08-11}}</ref> and prospered under Assyrian rule during the seventh century despite occasional rebellions against their overlords.<ref name=ehrlich /> In 604 BCE, when Assyrian troops commanded by the ] empire carried off significant numbers of the population into slavery, the distinctly Philistine character of the coastal cities dwindled away,<ref name="Shahinp6"/><ref>"Philistines" ''A Dictionary of the Bible''. W. R. F. Browning. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.</ref> and the history of the Philistine people effectively ended.<ref name=ehrlich />
			== History ==
	In the 5th century BCE, the Greek historian and geographer ] wrote in Greek of a 'district of Syria, called ''Palaistinê'','from which {{lang-la|Palaestina}} and ''Palestine'' are derived,<ref></ref><ref>The Southern and Eastern Borders of Abar-Nahara
			{{main|History of Palestine}}
	Steven S. Tuell
			{{For timeline|Timeline of the Palestine region}}
	Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 284 (Nov., 1991), pp. 51-57
	</ref><ref>Herodotus' Description of the East Mediterranean Coast
	Anson F. Rainey
	Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 321 (Feb., 2001), pp. 57-63</ref> as "a district of Syria". Syria, at that time, referred rather imprecisely to the region north to south from Asia Minor to Sinai, and west to east from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. The boundaries of the "distinct" described by Herodotus are even more imprecise, as is the ethnic nature of its people; sometimes it denotes the coast north of ], and elsewhere it seems to extend down all the coast from Phoenicia to Egypt, and as far east as the ].<ref>Herodotus, ''The Histories'' Bk.7.89</ref> ] used the name {{lang|el|Παλαιστινη}} generally for the smaller coastal area anciently inhabited by the Philistines, which most of his contemporaries prefer to call Philistia.<ref>e.g. ] 1.136.</ref> ] also used the term. In ], ] mentions a region of Syria that was "formerly called ''Palaestina''" among the areas of the Eastern Mediterranean.<ref>cf. ], '']'' V.66 and 68.</ref> ] uses the terms Palaestina and Canaan interchangeably, noting that the region's Jewish population is larger than that of any other single country.<ref>Palestine and Israel
	David M. Jacobson
	Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 313 (Feb., 1999), pp. 65-74</ref>
			=== Overview ===
	During the Roman period, the ] (including ]) comprised much of modern Palestine, although the ] and other northern areas remained administratively distinct. Later, following the Jewish rebellions in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, Rome united the entire Levant in a new province bearing its Greco-Latin name, ].<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite web |url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm#135-337 |title=Palestine: History: 135–337: Syria Palaestina and the Tetrarchy |accessdate=2006-07-19 |last=Lehmann |first=Clayton Miles |year=1998 |month=May-September |work=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces |publisher=University of South Dakota }}</ref><ref>''Palestine and Israel''
			{{main list|Time periods in the Palestine region}}
	Jacobson, David M. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 313 (February 1999), pp. 65-74</ref>
			Situated at a strategic location between ], ] and ], and the birthplace of ] and ], the region has a long and tumultuous history as a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. The region has been controlled by numerous peoples, including ], ]ites, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], the Arab ], ], ] and ] ]s, ], ], ], ], ], the ], and modern ] and ].{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}
			{{Timeline of Palestine Sovereign Powers}}
			=== Ancient period ===
	During the ], this entire region (including Syria, Palestine, Samaria, and Galilee) was renamed ''Palaestina'' and then subdivided into Diocese I and II. The Byzantines also renamed an area of land including the ], ], and the west coast of the ] as ''Palaestina Salutoris'', sometimes called ''Palaestina III''. Since the Byzantine Period, the Byzantine borders of ''Palaestina'' (''I'' and ''II'') have served as a name for the geographic area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea.
			{{See also|Canaan|History of ancient Israel and Judah|Philistines}}
			]
			The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities and ].{{sfn|Ahlström|1993|pp=72–111}} During the ], independent ]ite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, ], ], ] Crete, and Syria. Between 1550 and 1400{{spaces}}BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian ] who held power until the 1178{{spaces}}BCE ] during the wider ].{{sfn|Ahlström|1993|pp=282–334}}
			The ] emerged from a dramatic social transformation that took place in the people of the central hill country of Canaan around 1200{{spaces}}BCE, with no signs of violent invasion or even of peaceful infiltration of a clearly defined ethnic group from elsewhere.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=107}}{{efn-lr|"Several scholars hold the revisionist thesis that the Israelites did not move to the area as a distinct and foreign ethnic group at all, bringing with them their god Yahwe and forcibly evicting the indigenous population, but that they gradually evolved out of an amalgam of several ethnic groups, and that the Israelite cult developed on "Palestinian" soil amid the indigenous population. This would make the Israelites "Palestinians" not just in geographical and political terms (under the British Mandate, both Jews and Arabs living in the country were defined as Palestinians), but in ethnic and broader cultural terms as well. While this does not conform to the conventional view, or to the understanding of most Jews (and Arabs, for that matter), it is not easy to either prove or disprove. For although the Bible speaks at length about how the Israelites "took" the land, it is not a history book to draw reliable maps from. There is nothing in the extra-biblical sources, including the extensive Egyptian materials, to document the sojourn in Egypt or the exodus so vividly described in the Bible (and commonly dated to the thirteenth century). Biblical scholar Moshe Weinfeld sees the biblical account of the exodus, and of Moses and Joshua as founding heroes of the "national narration", as a later rendering of a lived experience that was subsequently either "forgotten" or consciously repressed – a textbook case of the "invented tradition" so familiar to modern students of ethnicity and nationalism." {{harv|Krämer|2011|p=8}}}} During the ], the Israelites established two related kingdoms, ]. The ] emerged as an important local power by the 10th century BCE before falling to the ] in 722{{spaces}}BCE. Israel's southern neighbor, the ], emerged in the 8th or 9th century BCE and later became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian and then the ] before a revolt against the latter led to its destruction in 586{{spaces}}BCE. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from {{circa|740 BCE}},{{sfn|Crouch|2014}} which was itself replaced by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in {{circa|627 BCE}}.{{sfn|Ahlström|1993|pp=655–741, 754–784}}
	===Holy texts===
	], ]. ], ], 1759'']]
			In 587/6{{spaces}}BCE, ] by the second Babylonian king, ],{{efn-lr|{{harv|''Temple of Jerusalem''}}: totally destroyed the building in 587/586}} who subsequently ]. The Kingdom of Judah was then ]. The Philistines were also exiled. The defeat of Judah was recorded by the Babylonians.{{sfn|British Museum|n.d.}}{{sfn|Chronicle of Nebuchadnezzar II|2006}}
	The ] calls the region '']'' ({{lang|he|כּנען}}) ({{bibleverse||Numbers|34:1–12|NIV}}), while the part of it occupied by Israelites is designated '']'' (''Yisrael''). The name "]" ({{lang|he|ארץ העברים}}, ''Eretz Ha-Ivrim'') is also found, as well as several poetical names: "land flowing with milk and honey", "land that swore to your fathers to assign to you", "]", "Land of the Lord", and the "]".{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
			In 539{{spaces}}BCE, the ] by the ]. According to the ] and implications from the ], the exiled Jews were eventually allowed to ].{{sfn|Ahlström|1993|pp=804–890}} The returned population in Judah were allowed to self-rule under Persian governance, and some parts of the fallen kingdom became a Persian province known as ].{{sfn|Crotty|2017|p=25 f.n. 4}}{{sfn|Grabbe|2004|p=355}} Except Yehud, at least another four Persian provinces existed in the region: Samaria, Gaza, Ashdod, and Ascalon, in addition to the Phoenician city states in the north and the Arabian tribes in the south.{{sfn|Ephal|2000|p=156}} During the same period, the ]ites migrated from Transjordan to the southern parts of ], which became known as ].{{sfn|Levin|2020|p=487}} The ] were the dominant Arab tribe; their territory ran from the ] in the south to the Negev in the north through the period of Persian and Hellenistic dominion.{{sfn|Wenning|2007|pp=26: All that can be said with certainty is that the Nabataeans are known in the sources since the fourth century B.C. Up to that time the Qedarites, the dominant Arab tribe of the Persian period, controlled the south from the Hejaz and all of the Negev}}<ref>David F. Graf, 'Petra and the Nabataeans in the Early Hellenistic Period: the literary and archaeological evidence,' in Michel Mouton, Stephan G. Schmid (eds.), , Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH, 2013 pp.35–55 pp.47–48: 'the Idumean texts indicate that a large portion of the community in southern Palestine were Arabs, many of whom have names similar to those in the "Nabataean" onomasticon of later periods.' (p.47).</ref>
	The Land of Canaan is given a precise description in ({{Niv|Numbers|34:1–12|Numbers 34:1}}) as including all of Lebanon, as well ({{Niv|Joshua|13:5|Joshua 13:5}}). The wide area appears to have been the home of several small nations such as the Canaanites, Hebrews, ], ], Pherezites, Hevites and ].
			=== Classical antiquity ===
	According to Hebrew tradition, the land of Canaan is part of the land given to the descendants of ], which extends from the Nile to the Euphrates River ({{Niv|Genesis|15:18|Genesis 15:18}}). This land is said to include an area called ], which includes ] in modern Turkey, where Abraham's father was born.
			], also known as Caesarea Palestinae, built under ] at the site of a former ]n naval station, became the capital city of ], Roman ] and Byzantine ] provinces.<ref>"Founded in the years 22-10 or 9 B.C. by Herod the Great, close to the ruins of a small Phoenician naval station named Strato's Tower (Stratonos Pyrgos, Turns Stratonis), which flourished during the 3d to 1st c. B.C. This small harbor was situated on the N part of the site. Herod dedicated the new town and its port (''limen Sebastos'') to ]. During the Early Roman period Caesarea was the seat of the Roman procurators of the province of Judea. Vespasian, proclaimed emperor at Caesarea, raised it to the rank of Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta, and later Alexander Severus raised it to the rank of Metropolis Provinciae Syriae Palestinae." A. Negev, "CAESAREA MARITIMA Palestine, Israel" in: Richard Stillwell et al. (eds.), ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'' (1976).</ref>]]
			In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler ] conquered the region, which changed hands several times during the ] and later ]. It ultimately fell to the ] between 219 and 200{{spaces}}BCE. During that period, the region became heavily ], building tensions between Greeks and locals.
	In {{Kjv|Exodus|13:17|Exodus 13:17}}, "And it came to pass, when Pharaoh had let the people go, that God led them not through the way of the land of the ], although that was near; for God said, Lest peradventure the people repent when they see war, and they return to ]."
			In 167{{spaces}}BCE, the ] erupted, leading to the establishment of an independent ] in Judea. From 110{{spaces}}BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, including ], ], ], ], and Idumea.{{sfn|Smith|1999|p=210}} The Jewish control over the wider region resulted in it also becoming known as ], a term that had previously only referred to the smaller region of the ].{{efn-lr|"In both the Idumaean and the Ituraean alliances, and in the annexation of Samaria, the Judaeans had taken the leading role. They retained it. The whole political–military–religious league that now united the hill country of Palestine from Dan to Beersheba, whatever it called itself, was directed by, and soon came to be called by others, 'the Ioudaioi{{'"}} {{harv|Smith|1999|p=210a}}}}<ref>Ben-Sasson, p.226, "The name Judea no longer referred only to{{spaces}}..."</ref> During the same period, the Edomites were converted to Judaism.{{sfn|Levin|2020|p=487}}
	The events of the ] of the ] take place entirely in the Holy Land.
			Between 73 and 63{{spaces}}BCE, the ] extended its influence into the region in the ]. Pompey conquered Judea in 63{{spaces}}BCE, splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. In around 40{{spaces}}BCE, the ] conquered Palestine, deposed the Roman ally ], and installed a puppet ruler of the Hasmonean line known as ].{{sfn|Neusner|1983|p=911}}{{sfn|Vermes|2014|p=36}} By 37{{spaces}}BCE, the Parthians withdrew from Palestine.{{sfn|Neusner|1983|p=911}}
	In the ], the term {{lang|ar|'''الأرض المقدسة'''}} ("Holy Land", ''Al-Ard Al-Muqaddasah'') is mentioned at least seven times, once when ] proclaims to the ]: "O my people! Enter the holy land which Allah hath assigned unto you, and turn not back ignominiously, for then will ye be overthrown, to your own ruin." (])
			Palestine is generally considered the "Cradle of ]".{{sfn|Evenari|1982|p=26}}{{sfn|Kårtveit|2014|p=209}}{{sfn|Sivan|2008|p=2}} Christianity, a religion based on the ] and ] of ], arose as a messianic sect from within ]. The three-year ], culminating in his ], is estimated to have occurred from 28 to 30{{spaces}}CE, although the ] is disputed by a minority of scholars.{{efn-lr|For example, in a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, ] (a secular agnostic) described the dispute, whilst concluding: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" {{harv|Ehrman|2011|p=285}}}}
	==History==
			] in ], after being rebuilt by ]. It was destroyed by the ] in 70 CE during the ].{{sfn|''Temple of Jerusalem''}}]]
	:''Main articles: ], ]''
			In the first and second centuries CE, the province of Judea became the site of two large-scale ]. During the ], which lasted from 66 to 73{{spaces}}CE, the Romans ] and destroyed the ].{{sfn|Zissu|2018|p=19}} In ], Jewish zealots preferred to commit suicide than endure Roman captivity. In 132{{spaces}}CE, another Jewish rebellion erupted. The ] took three years to put down, incurred massive costs on both the Romans and the Jews, and desolated much of Judea.{{sfn|Lewin|2005|p=33}}{{sfn|Eshel|2008|pp=125: Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war.}} The center of Jewish life in Palestine moved to the Galilee.<ref>{{harvnb|Schäfer|2003|p=163}}: The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. {{harvnb|Meyers|Chancey|2012|p=173}}: Galilee became the all-important focus of Jewish life</ref> During or after the revolt, ] joined the province of Iudaea with Galilee and the ] to form the new province of ], and Jerusalem was renamed "]". Some scholars view these actions as an attempt to disconnect the ] from their homeland,<ref name="H.H. Ben-Sasson, 1976, page 334">H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|978-0-674-39731-6}}, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Iudaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."</ref><ref>Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." {{ISBN|978-0-89236-800-6}}</ref> but this theory is debated.{{sfn|Jacobson|1999|pp=72–74}}
	]
	===] and ] periods (1 mya–5000 BCE)===
	Human remains found at El-'Ubeidiya, 2 miles (3 km) south of ] date back as early as 500,000 years ago.<ref name = "Shahinp3">Shahin (2005), p. 3</ref><ref>Galilee, Sea of. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved ], ], from </ref> The discovery of the ] in the Zuttiyeh Cave in Wadi Al-Amud near ] in 1925 provided some clues to human development in the area.<ref name= "Shahinp3">Shahin (2005), p. 3</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Human Evolution and Neanderthal Man|publisher=Antiquity Journal|url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/Ant/034/0090/Ant0340090.pdf}}</ref><ref> Amud. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved ], ], from </ref>
			Between 259 and 272, the region fell under the rule of ] as King of the ]. Following the victory of Christian emperor ] in the ], the Christianization of the Roman Empire began, and in 326, Constantine's mother ] visited ] and began the construction of churches and shrines. Palestine became a center of Christianity, attracting numerous monks and religious scholars. The ] during this period caused their near extinction. In 614{{spaces}}CE, Palestine was annexed by another Persian dynasty; the ], until returning to Byzantine control in 628{{spaces}}CE.<ref>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 196</ref>
	In the caves of ] in ] and Wadi Khareitun in ], stone, wood and animal bone tools were found and attributed to the ] culture (c. 12800–10300 BCE). Other remains from this era have been found at Tel Abu Hureura, Ein Mallaha, Beidha and ].<ref name= "Shahinp3" /><ref>Belfer-Cohen and Bar-Yosef, 2000, pp. 19–38.</ref>
			=== Early Muslim period ===
	Between 10000 and 5000 BCE, agricultural communities were established. Evidence of such settlements were found at Tell es-Sultan, Jericho and include mud-brick rounded and square dwellings, pottery shards, and fragments of woven fabrics.<ref name= "Shahinp4">Shahin (2005), page 4</ref><ref>Stearns, 2001, p. 13.</ref><ref>Harris, 1996, p. 253.</ref>
			{{multiple image
			| footer = ]
			| image1 = Dome of Rock, Temple Mount, Jerusalem.jpg
			| caption1 = The ], the world's first great work of ], constructed in 691.
			| width1 = 191
			| image2 = White to.jpg
			| caption2 = Minaret of the ] in ], constructed in 1318
			| width2 = 95
			}}
			Palestine was conquered by the ], beginning in 634{{spaces}}CE.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=i}} In 636, the ] during the ] marked the start of Muslim hegemony over the region, which became known as the military district of ] within the province of ] (Greater Syria).{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=47}} In 661, with the ], ] became the Caliph of the Islamic world after being crowned in Jerusalem.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=76}} The ], completed in 691, was the world's first great work of Islamic architecture.<ref>Brown, 2011, p. 122: 'the first great Islamic architectural achievement.'</ref>
			The majority of the population was Christian and was to remain so until the conquest of Saladin in 1187. The Muslim conquest apparently had little impact on social and administrative continuities for several decades.{{sfn|Avni|2014|pp=314,336}}{{efn-lr|"The religious situation also evolved under the new masters. Christianity did remain the majority religion, but it lost the privileges it had enjoyed." {{harv|Flusin|2011|pp=199–226, 215}}}}<ref>O'Mahony, 2003, p. 14: 'Before the Muslim conquest, the population of Palestine was overwhelmingly Christian, albeit with a sizeable Jewish community.'</ref>{{efn-lr|The earlier view, exemplifed by the writings of Moshe Gil, argued for a Jewish-Samaritan majority at the time of conquest: "We may reasonably state that at the time if the Muslim conquest, a large Jewish population still lived in Palestine. We do not know whether they formed the majority but we may assume with some certainly that they did so when grouped together with the Samaritans." {{harv|Gil|1997|p=3}}}} The word 'Arab' at the time referred predominantly to Bedouin nomads, though Arab settlement is attested in the Judean highlands and near Jerusalem by the 5th century, and some tribes had converted to Christianity.{{sfn|Avni|2014|pp=154–155}} The local population engaged in farming, which was considered demeaning, and were called ''Nabaț'', referring to ]-speaking villagers. A ], brought in the name of a Muslim freedman who settled in Palestine, ordered the Muslim Arabs not to settle in the villages, "for he who abides in villages it is as if he abides in graves".{{sfn|Gil|1997|pp=134–136}}
	===] period (4500–3000 BCE) and ] (3000–1200 BCE)===
	], by the American Sunday-School Union of Philadelphia.]]
	Along the Jericho-]-]-]-] route, a culture originating in ], marked by the use of copper and stone tools, brought new migrant groups to the region contributing to an increasingly urban fabric.<ref name= "Shahinp4" /><ref>Rosen, 1997, pp. 159–161.</ref><ref>Neil Asher Silberman, Thomas E. Levy, Bonnie L. Wisthoff, Ron E. Tappy, John L. Meloy "Near East" ''The Oxford Companion to Archaeology''. Brian M. Fagan, ed., Oxford University Press 1996.</ref>
			The ], who had spurred a strong economic resurgence in the area,{{sfn|Walmsley|2000|pp=265–343, p. 290}} were replaced by the ] in 750. ] became the administrative centre for the following centuries, while Tiberias became a thriving centre of Muslim scholarship.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=329}} From 878, Palestine was ruled from Egypt by semi-autonomous rulers for almost a century, beginning with the Turkish freeman ], for whom both Jews and Christians prayed when he lay dying{{sfn|Gil|1997|pp=306ff. and p. 307 n. 71; p. 308 n. 73}} and ending with the ] rulers. Reverence for Jerusalem increased during this period, with many of the Egyptian rulers choosing to be buried there.{{efn-lr|"Under the Tulunids, Syro-Egyptian territory was deeply imbued with the concept of an extraordinary role devolving upon Jerusalem in Islam as al-Quds, Bayt al-Maqdis or Bayt al-Muqaddas, the "House of Holiness", the seat of the Last Judgment, the Gate to Paradise for Muslims as well as for Jews and Christians. In the popular conscience, this concept established a bond between the three monotheistic religions. If Ahmad ibn Tulun was interred on the slope of the ] , ] and ] were laid to rest in Jerusalem in 910 and 933, as were their ] successors and ] ]]. To honor the great general and governor of Syria ], who died in 433/1042, the ] had his remains solemnly conveyed from Aleppo to Jerusalem in 448/1056-57." {{harv|Bianquis|1998|p=103}}}} However, the later period became characterized by persecution of Christians as the threat from Byzantium grew.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=324}} The ], with a predominantly ] army, conquered the region in 970, a date that marks the beginning of a period of unceasing warfare between numerous enemies, which destroyed Palestine, and in particular, devastating its Jewish population.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=336}} Between 1071 and 1073, Palestine was captured by the ],{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=410}} only to be recaptured by the Fatimids in 1098.{{sfn|Gil|1997|pp=209, 414}}
	By the early Bronze Age (3000–2200 BCE) independent ] city-states situated in plains and coastal regions and surrounded by mud-brick defensive walls were established and most of these cities relied on nearby agricultural hamlets for their food needs.<ref name= "Shahinp4" /><ref>Canaan. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved ], ], from .</ref>
			=== Crusader/Ayyubid period ===
	Archaeological finds from the early Canaanite era have been found at ], Jericho, Tel al-Far'a (Gaza), ], and ] (Deir Dibwan/Ramallah District), Tel an Nasbe (]) and ] (]).
			] fortress in ] was destroyed in 1291 and partially rebuilt in the 18th century.]]
			The Fatimids again lost the region to the ] in ]. The Crusaders set up<ref>], ''God's War: A New History of the Crusades'' (Penguin: 2006), pp. 201–202</ref> the ] (1099–1291).{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=826}} Their control of Jerusalem and most of Palestine lasted almost a century until their ] by ]'s forces in 1187,{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=15|loc={{sp}}}} after which most of Palestine was controlled by the ],{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=15|loc={{sp}}}} except for the years 1229–1244 when Jerusalem and other areas were retaken{{sfn|Boas|2001|pp=19–20}} by the ], by then ruled from ] (1191–1291), but, despite seven further crusades, the Franks were no longer a significant power in the region.{{sfn|Setton|1969|pp=615–621 (vol. 1)}} The ], which did not reach Palestine, led directly to the decline of the Byzantine Empire, dramatically reducing Christian influence throughout the region.{{sfn|Setton|1969|pp=152–185 (vol. 2)}}
			=== Mamluk period ===
	The Canaanite city-states held trade and diplomatic relations with ] and ]. Parts of the Canaanite urban civilization were destroyed around 2300 BCE, though there is no consensus as to why. Incursions by nomads from the east of the ] who settled in the hills followed soon thereafter.<ref name="Shahinp4"/><ref>Mills, 1990, p. 439.</ref>
			The ] was created in Egypt as an indirect result of the ].{{sfn|Setton|1969|pp=486–518 (vol. 2)}} The ] reached Palestine for the first time in 1260, beginning with the ] under ] general ], and reaching an apex at the pivotal ], where they were pushed back by the Mamluks.{{sfn|Krämer|2011|pp=35–39}}
			=== Ottoman period ===
	In the ] (2200–1500 BCE), ] was influenced by the surrounding civilizations of Egypt, ], ], and Syria. Diverse commercial ties and an agriculturally based economy led to the development of new pottery forms, the cultivation of grapes, and the extensive use of bronze.<ref name= "Shahinp4" /><ref name=MiddleBronzeAge>{{cite web|title=Palestine: Middle Bronze Age|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica Online|accessdate=2007-08-11|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45048/Palestine}}</ref> Burial customs from this time seemed to be influenced by a belief in the afterlife.<ref name= "Shahinp4" /><ref>Ember & Peregrine, 2002, p. 103.</ref>
			{{further|History of Palestine#Ottoman period}}
			In 1486, hostilities broke out between the Mamluks and the ] in a battle for control over western Asia, and the Ottomans conquered Palestine in 1516.{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=40}} Between the mid-16th and 17th centuries, a close-knit alliance of three local dynasties, the ] of ], the ] of ] and the ] of ], governed Palestine on behalf of the ] (imperial Ottoman government).{{sfn|Zeevi|1996|p=45}}
			], constructed in ] in 1784, is the largest and best preserved ] in the region.]]
	Political, commercial and military events during the ] period (1450–1350 BCE) were recorded by ambassadors and Canaanite proxy rulers for Egypt in 379 cuneiform tablets known as the ].<ref>William H. Propp "Amarna Letters" ''The Oxford Companion to the Bible''. Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan, eds. Oxford University Press Inc. 1993. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.</ref>
			In the 18th century, the ] clan under the leadership of ] ruled large parts of Palestine autonomously{{sfn|Phillipp|2013|pp=42–43}} until the Ottomans were able to defeat them in their ] strongholds in 1775–76.{{sfn|Joudah|1987|pp=115–117}} Zahir had turned the port city of ] into a major regional power, partly fueled by his monopolization of the ] and ] trade from Palestine to Europe. Acre's regional dominance was further elevated under Zahir's successor ] at the expense of ].{{sfn|Burns|2005|p=246}}
			In 1830, on the eve of ]'s invasion,{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=64}} the Porte transferred control of the sanjaks of Jerusalem and Nablus to ], the governor of Acre. According to Silverburg, in regional and cultural terms this move was important for creating an Arab Palestine detached from greater Syria (''bilad al-Sham'').{{sfn|Silverburg|2009|pp=9–36, p. 29 n. 32}} According to Pappe, it was an attempt to reinforce the Syrian front in face of Muhammad Ali's invasion.{{sfn|Pappe|1999|p=38}} Two years later, Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt,{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=64}} but Egyptian rule was challenged in 1834 by a ] against ] and other measures considered intrusive by the population.{{sfn|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|pp=7–8}} Its suppression devastated many of Palestine's villages and major towns.{{sfn|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=11}}
	By c. 1190 BCE, the ] arrived and mingled with the local population, losing their separate identity over several generations.<ref name="Shahinp6">Shahin (2005), p. 6</ref><ref>Carl S. Ehrlich "Philistines" ''The Oxford Guide to People and Places of the Bible''. Ed. Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.</ref>
			In 1840, Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further ].{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=71}} The death of ] marked the last local challenge to Ottoman centralization in Palestine,{{sfn|Yazbak|1998|p=3}} and beginning in the 1860s, Palestine underwent an acceleration in its socio-economic development, due to its incorporation into the global, and particularly European, economic pattern of growth. The beneficiaries of this process were Arabic-speaking Muslims and Christians who emerged as a new layer within the Arab elite.{{sfn|Gilbar|1986|p=188}} From 1880 large-scale Jewish immigration began, almost entirely from Europe, based on an explicitly ] ideology.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}} There was also a ].{{efn-lr|"In 1914 about 12,000 Jewish farmers and fieldworkers lived in approximately forty Jewish settlements{{snd}}and to repeat it once again, they were by no means all Zionists. The dominant languages were still Yiddish, Russian, Polish, Rumanian, Hungarian, or German in the case of Ashkenazi immigrants from Europe, and Ladino (or 'Judeo-Spanish') and Arabic in the case of Sephardic and Oriental Jews. Biblical Hebrew served as the sacred language, while modern Hebrew (Ivrit) remained for the time being the language of a politically committed minority that had devoted itself to a revival of 'Hebrew culture'." {{harv|Krämer|2011|p=120}}}}
	===] (1200–330 BCE)===
	Pottery remains found in ], ], ], ] and Gaza decorated with stylized birds provided the first archaeological evidence for Philistine settlement in the region. The Philistines are credited with introducing iron weapons and chariots to the local population.<ref>Philistine. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved ], ], from </ref>
			] preceded its spread within the Jewish community.{{sfn|Shapira|2014|p=15}} The government of Great Britain publicly supported it during ] with the ] of 1917.{{sfn|Krämer|2011|p=148}}
	Developments in Palestine between 1250 and 900 BCE have been the focus of debate between those who accept the Old Testament version on the conquest of Canaan by the Israelite tribes, and those who reject it.<ref name=Ladislau>{{cite journal|title=Historiographic Views on the Settlement of the Jewish Tribes in Canaan|author=Gyémánt, Ladislau|publisher=Sacra Scripta|volume=1/2003|date=2003|page=26 - 30|url=http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=ed58f96d-8032-41bb-8d65-f34a8b8f2a36&articleId=835a199a-72a0-4b2d-ba9c-32b1347129f5}}</ref> Niels Peter Lemche, of the ] of Biblical Studies, submits that the picture of ancient Israel "is contrary to any image of ancient Palestinian society that can be established on the basis of ancient sources from Palestine or referring to Palestine and that there is no way this image in the Bible can be reconciled with the historical past of the region."<ref name=LemcheJHS>{{cite web|title=On the Problems of Reconstructing Pre-Hellenistic Israelite (Palestinian) History|author=Niels Peter Lemche|publisher=Journal of Hebrew Scriptures|accessdate=2007-05-10|url=http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_13.htm}}</ref>
			=== British Mandate period ===
	Others point to ],<ref name=Moment>A magazine story of the site's discovery is available here: </ref><ref name=nytimes>{{cite news|title=King David's Palace Is Found, Archaeologist Says |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |date=] |accessdate=2007-05-24 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/05/international/middleeast/05jerusalem.html?ex=1280894400&en=3c435bc7bd0cd531&ei=5088 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name=sandiego>A San Diego Union Tribune article on the discovery: </ref> the ] at ]<ref>Matthew Sturgis, ''It ain't necessarily so'', ISBN 0-7472-4510-X</ref> and the ],<ref>Carol A. Redmount, 'Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt' in The Oxford History of the Biblical Word, ed: Michael D. Coogan, (Oxford University Press: 1999)</ref><ref>Stager, Lawrence E., "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel" in Michael Coogan ed. The Oxford History of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, 2001. p.92</ref><ref>M. G. Hasel, "Israel in the Merneptah Stela", BASOR 296, 1994, pp.54 & 56, n.12.</ref> and ]<ref>Baruch Margalit, "Studies in NWSemitic Inscriptions", ''Ugarit-Forschungen'' 26, p. 275</ref><ref>'']'', ], ].</ref><ref>For a full but technical discussion, see Lawrence J. Mykytiuk, _Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200–539 BCE_, Academia Biblica series, no. 12 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2004), pp. 265–277.</ref> among others, as providing some archaeological evidence of a nation that bears a resemblance to the Biblical Israel.{{Fact|date=August 2007}}
			{{main|Mandatory Palestine}}
			{{further|Zionism|Palestinian nationalism|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine}}
			{{multiple image
			| align = left
			| footer = ] and ]. The Mandatory authorities agreed a ]: in English and Arabic the name was simply "Palestine" ({{lang|ar|"فلسطين"}}), but the Hebrew version ({{lang|he|"פלשתינה"}}) also included the acronym ({{lang|he|"א״י"}}) for {{transliteration|he|]}} (Land of Israel).
			| image1 = British Mandate Palestinian passport.jpg
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			| width1 = 99
			| image2 = Mill (British Mandate for Palestine currency, 1927).jpg
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			| width2 = 150
			}}
			{{Annotated image
			| image= Survey of Palestine 1942-1958 1-100,000 sheet index.png
			| frame=no
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			| caption= ] 1942–1958 1–100,000 Topographical maps. Click on each blue link to see the individual original maps in high resolution.
			| annotations= {{Annotation |1=150 |2=25 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=95 |2=88 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=165 |2=88 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=93 |2=145 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=155 |2=155 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=93 |2=215 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=160 |2=215 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=38 |2=277 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=97 |2=277 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=150 |2=277 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=20 |2=340 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=83 |2=340 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=146 |2=340 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=20 |2=405 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=72 |2=405 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=155 |2=395 |3=] |text-align=center}} {{Annotation |1=13 |2=465 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=88 |2=465 |3=]}} {{Annotation |1=146 |2=455 |3=] |text-align=center}} {{Annotation |1=50 |2=525 |3=] |text-align=center}} {{Annotation |1=120 |2=525 |3=] |text-align=center}} {{Annotation |1=40 |2=580 |3=] |text-align=center}} {{Annotation |1=115 |2=585 |3=] |text-align=center}} {{Annotation |1=90 |2=660 |3=] |text-align=center}}
			}}
			The British began their ] in 1915.{{sfn|Morris|2001|p=67}} The war reached ], progressing to Gaza and around ].{{sfn|Morris|2001|p=67}} The British ].{{sfn|Morris|2001|pp=67–120}} They moved into the Jordan valley ] and a campaign by the Entente into northern Palestine led to victory at ].{{sfn|Morris|2001|pp=67–120}}
	====Hebrew Bible period====
	], c.830s BCE.
	{{legend|#00ff00|Kingdom of Judah}}
	{{legend|#008000|Kingdom of Israel}}
	{{legend|#777777|Philistine city-states}}
	{{legend|#3000ee|Phoenician states}}
	{{legend|#7777ff|Kingdom of Ammon}}
	{{legend|#ffff00|Kingdom of Edom}}
	{{legend|#007777|Kingdom of Aram-Damascus}}
	{{legend|#ffffff|Aramean tribes}}
	{{legend|#800080|Arubu tribes}}
	{{legend|#804020|Nabatu tribes}}
	{{legend|#005fff|Assyrian Empire}}
	{{legend|#808040|Kingdom of Moab}}]]
			The British were formally awarded ] in 1922.{{sfn|Segev|2001|pp=270–294}} The Arab Palestinians rioted in ], ], ], and revolted in ].{{sfn|Segev|2001|pp=1–13}} In 1947, following World War II and ], the British Government announced its desire to terminate the Mandate, and the ] adopted in November 1947 a ] recommending partition into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Segev|2001|pp=468–487}} A ] began immediately after the Resolution's adoption. The ] was ] in May 1948.{{sfn|Segev|2001|pp=487–521}}
	:''{{seealso|Archaeology of Israel}}
	:''{{seealso|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}''
			=== Arab–Israeli conflict ===
	Though the Biblical tradition holds that the ]s arrived to Canaan from Egypt, archaeology provides strong evidence that they emerged from among the local population existent there at the time; these events are generally dated to between the 13th and 12th centuries BCE.<ref name=Ladislau>{{cite journal|title=Historiographic Views on the Settlement of the Jewish Tribes in Canaan|author=Gyémánt, Ladislau|publisher=Sacra Scripta|volume=1/2003|date=2003|page=26 - 30|url=http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=ed58f96d-8032-41bb-8d65-f34a8b8f2a36&articleId=835a199a-72a0-4b2d-ba9c-32b1347129f5}}</ref> Archaeological evidence indicates that the late 13th, the 12th and the early 11th centuries BCE witnessed the foundation of perhaps hundreds of insignificant, unprotected village settlements, many in the mountains of Palestine.<ref name=LemcheJHS /> From around the 11th century BCE, there was a reduction in the number of villages, though this was counterbalanced by the rise of certain settlements to the status of fortified townships.<ref name=LemcheJHS />
			{{further|History of Israel|History of the State of Palestine}}
			In the ], Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of the Mandate territory, ] the regions of ] and ],{{sfn|Pappé|1994|p=119 "His (Abdallah) natural choice was the regions of Judea and Samaria..."}}{{efn-lr|"Transjordan, however, controlled large portions of Judea and Samaria, later known as the West Bank" {{harv|Tucker|Roberts|2008|pp=248–249, 500, 522}}}}{{sfn|Gerson|2012|p=93 "Trans-Jordan was also in control of all of Judea and Samaria (the West Bank)"}} renaming it the "]", while the ] was ].{{sfn|Pappé|1994|pp=102–135}}{{sfn|Khalidi|2007|pp=12–36}} Following the ], also known as ], the 700,000 Palestinians who fled or were driven from their homes were ] following the ].{{sfn|Pappé|1994|pp=87–101 and 203–243}}
			In the course of the ] in June 1967, Israel captured the rest of Mandate Palestine from Jordan and Egypt, and began a policy of establishing ] in those ]. From 1987 to 1993, the ] against Israel took place, which included the ] in 1988 and ended with the ] and the creation of the ].
	According to Biblical tradition, the ] was established by the Israelite tribes with ] as its first king in 1020 BCE.<ref name=MFA>{{cite web|title=Facts about Israel:History|publisher=Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affaits|accessdate=2007-05-10|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/History+of+Israel/Facts%20About%20Israel-%20History}}</ref> In 1000 BCE, ] was made the capital of King ]'s kingdom and it is believed that the ] was constructed in this period by ].<ref name=MFA/> By 930 BCE, the united kingdom split to form the northern ], and the southern ].<ref name=MFA/> These kingdoms co-existed with several more kingdoms in the greater Palestine area, including Philistine town states on the Southwestern Mediterranean coast, Edom, to the South of Judah, and Moab and Amon to the East of the river Jordan.<ref>Bienkowski, ''op.cit.''</ref>
			In 2000, the ] (also called al-Aqsa Intifada) began, and Israel built a ]. In the 2005 ], Israel withdrew all settlers and military presence from the Gaza Strip, but maintained military control of numerous aspects of the territory including its borders, air space and coast. Israel's ongoing military occupation of the Gaza Strip, the West Bank and East Jerusalem continues to be the world's ] in modern times.{{efn-lr|The majority of the international community (including the UN General Assembly, the United Nations Security Council, the European Union, the International Criminal Court, and the vast majority of human rights organizations) considers Israel to be continuing to occupying Gaza, the West Bank and East Jerusalem. The government of Israel and some supporters have, at times, disputed this position of the international community. In 2011, Andrew Sanger explained the situation as follows: "Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a Stale nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border. and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will. Israel continues to control six of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Troops from the Israeli Defence Force regularly enter pans of the territory and/or deploy missile attacks, drones and sonic bombs into Gaza. Israel has declared a no-go buffer zone that stretches deep into Gaza: if Gazans enter this zone they are shot on sight. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for inter alia electricity, currency, telephone networks, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry. It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied.",{{sfn|Sanger|2011|p=429}} and in 2012 Iain Scobbie explained: "Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza"{{sfn|Scobbie|2012|p=295}} and Michelle Gawerc wrote in the same year: "While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, Israel still controlled all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. ln addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water electricity sewage communication networks and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). In other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement Palestinians – as well as many human right organizations and international bodies – argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied."{{sfn|Gawerc|2012|p=44}}<br />For more details of this terminology dispute, including with respect to the current status of the Gaza Strip, see ] and ].}}{{efn-lr|For an explanation of the differences between an annexed but disputed territory (e.g. ]) and a militarily occupied territory, please see the article ]. The "longest military occupation" description has been described in a number of ways, including: "The Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza is the longest military occupation in modern times,"{{sfn|Hajjar|2005|p=96}} "...longest official military occupation of modern history—currently entering its thirty-fifth year,"{{sfn|Anderson|2001}} "...longest-lasting military occupation of the modern age, "{{sfn|Makdisi|2010|p=299}} "This is probably the longest occupation in modern international relations, and it holds a central place in all literature on the law of belligerent occupation since the early 1970s,"{{sfn|Kretzmer|2012|p=885}} "These are settlements and a military occupation that is the longest in the twentieth and twenty-first century, the longest formerly being the Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945. So this is thirty-three years old , pushing the record,"{{sfn|Said|2003|p=33}} "Israel is the only modern state that has held territories under military occupation for over four decades."{{sfn|Alexandrowicz|2012}} In 2014 Sharon Weill provided further context, writing: "Although the basic philosophy behind the law of military occupation is that it is a temporary situation modem occupations have well demonstrated that ''rien ne dure comme le provisoire'' A significant number of post-1945 occupations have lasted more than two decades such as the occupations of Namibia by South Africa and of East Timor by Indonesia as well as the ongoing occupations of Northern Cyprus by Turkey and of Western Sahara by Morocco. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories, <u>which is the longest in all occupation's history</u> has already entered its fifth decade."{{sfn|Weill|2014|p=22}}}}
	There was an at least partial ]ian withdrawal from Palestine in this period, though it is likely that ] was an Egyptian garrison as late as the beginning of the 10th century BCE.<ref name=LemcheJHS /> The socio-political system was characterized by local patrons fighting other local patrons, lasting until around the mid-9th century BCE when some local chieftains were able to create large political structures that exceeded the boundaries of those present in the Late Bronze Age.<ref name=LemcheJHS/>
			In 2008 ] was inscribed to UNESCO's list of ]; the first of four listings reflecting the significance of Palestinian culture globally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2020 |title=Żeby nie zapomnieć {{!}} Tygodnik Powszechny |url=https://www.tygodnikpowszechny.pl/zeby-nie-zapomniec-165818 |access-date=22 November 2023 |website=www.tygodnikpowszechny.pl |language=pl}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Rivoal |first=Isabelle |date=1 January 2001 |title=Susan Slyomovics, The Object of Memory. Arabs and Jews Narrate the Palestinian Village |url=https://journals.openedition.org/lhomme/6701 |journal=L'Homme. Revue française d'anthropologie |language=fr |issue=158–159 |pages=478–479 |doi=10.4000/lhomme.6701 |issn=0439-4216|doi-access=free }}</ref>
	Archaeological findings from this era include, among others, the ], from c. 850 BCE, which recounts the conquering of ], located East of the ], by king ], and the successful revolt of Moabian king ] against Omri's son, presumably ]; and the ], dated c. 835 BCE, describing King ] of Assyria's ], where he fought alongside the contingents of several kings, among them ] and King ].
			In November 2012, the status of Palestinian delegation in the ] was upgraded to ] as the ].{{sfn|UN GA/11317|2012}}{{efn-lr|See ] for further details}}
	Between 722 and 720 BCE, the northern ] was destroyed by the ] and the Israelite tribes - thereafter known as the (]) - were exiled.<ref name=MFA/> The most important finding from the southern Kingdom of Judah is the ], dated c. 700 BCE, which celebrates the successful encounter of diggers, digging from both sides of the Jerusalem wall to create the ] and water pool, mentioned in the ], in {{bibleverse||2Kings|20:20|KJV}}.{{fact|date=December 2007}} In 586 BCE, ] was conquered by the ] and Jerusalem and the ] destroyed.<ref name=MFA/> Most of the surviving ]s, and much of the other local population, were ].<ref name="Shahinp6" /><ref>"Babylon" ''A Dictionary of the Bible''. W. R. F. Browning. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.</ref>
			== Boundaries ==
	====Persian rule (538 BCE)====
			=== Pre-modern period ===
	After the ] was established, Jews were allowed to return to what their holy books had termed the ], and having been granted some autonomy by the Persian administration, it was during this period that the ] in Jerusalem was built.<ref name="Shahinp6" /><ref name=Edelman>{{cite web|title=Redating the Building of the Second Temple|author=Diana Edelman|date=November 2005|url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Edelman_Redating_Second_Temple.htm}}</ref> ], near ], was the northernmost province of the Persian administration in Palestine, and its southern borders were drawn at ].<ref name="Shahinp6" /><ref name=palestineeb>Palestine. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved ], ], from .</ref> Some of the local population served as soldiers and lay people in the Persian administration, while others continued to agriculture. In 400 BCE, the ] made inroads into southern Palestine and built a separate civilization in the ] that lasted until 160 BCE.<ref name="Shahinp6" /><ref name=Avdat>{{cite web|title=Avdat: A Nabatean City in the Negev|publisher=Jewish Virtual Library|accessdate=2007-08-11|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Archaeology/Avdat.html}}</ref>
			The boundaries of Palestine have varied throughout history.{{efn-lr|According to the Jewish Encyclopedia published between 1901 and 1906:{{sfn|Jewish Encyclopedia|1906}} "Palestine extends, from 31° to 33° 20' N. latitude. Its southwest point (at Raphia, Tell Rifaḥ, southwest of Gaza) is about 34° 15' E. longitude, and its northwest point (mouth of the Liṭani) is at 35° 15' E. longitude, while the course of the Jordan reaches 35° 35' to the east. The west-Jordan country has, consequently, a length of about 150 English miles from north to south, and a breadth of about {{convert|23|mi|0|abbr=out}} at the north and {{convert|80|mi|0|abbr=out}} at the south. The area of this region, as measured by the surveyors of the English Palestine Exploration Fund, is about {{convert|6040|mi2|0|abbr=out}}. The east-Jordan district is now being surveyed by the German Palästina-Verein, and although the work is not yet completed, its area may be estimated at {{convert|4000|mi2|0|abbr=out}}. This entire region, as stated above, was not occupied exclusively by the Israelites, for the plain along the coast in the south belonged to the Philistines, and that in the north to the Phoenicians, while in the east-Jordan country, the Israelitic possessions never extended farther than the Arnon (Wadi al-Mujib) in the south, nor did the Israelites ever settle in the most northerly and easterly portions of the plain of Bashan. To-day the number of inhabitants does not exceed 650,000. Palestine, and especially the Israelitic state, covered, therefore, a very small area, approximating that of the state of Vermont." From the Jewish Encyclopedia}}{{efn-lr|According to the ] (1911), Palestine is:{{sfn|EB|1911}} " geographical name of rather loose application. Etymological strictness would require it to denote exclusively the narrow strip of coast-land once occupied by the Philistines, from whose name it is derived. It is, however, conventionally used as a name for the territory which, in the Old Testament, is claimed as the inheritance of the pre-exilic Hebrews; thus it may be said generally to denote the southern third of the province of Syria. Except in the west, where the country is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, the limit of this territory cannot be laid down on the map as a definite line. The modern subdivisions under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire are in no sense conterminous with those of antiquity, and hence do not afford a boundary by which Palestine can be separated exactly from the rest of Syria in the north, or from the Sinaitic and Arabian deserts in the south and east; nor are the records of ancient boundaries sufficiently full and definite to make possible the complete demarcation of the country. Even the convention above referred to is inexact: it includes the Philistine territory, claimed but never settled by the Hebrews, and excludes the outlying parts of the large area claimed in Num. xxxiv. as the Hebrew possession (from the " River of Egypt " to Hamath). However, the Hebrews themselves have preserved, in the proverbial expression " from Dan to Beersheba " (Judg. xx.i, &c.), an indication of the normal north-and-south limits of their land; and in defining the area of the country under discussion it is this indication which is generally followed. Taking as a guide the natural features most nearly corresponding to these outlying points, we may describe Palestine as the strip of land extending along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea from the mouth of the Litany or Kasimiya River (33° 20' N.) southward to the mouth of the Wadi Ghuzza; the latter joins the sea in 31° 28' N., a short distance south of Gaza, and runs thence in a south-easterly direction so as to include on its northern side the site of Beersheba. Eastward there is no such definite border. The River Jordan, it is true, marks a line of ] between Western and ]; but it is practically impossible to say where the latter ends and the Arabian desert begins. Perhaps the line of the pilgrim road from Damascus to Mecca is the most convenient possible boundary. The total length of the region is about {{convert|140|m|2|abbr=on}}; its breadth west of the Jordan ranges from about {{convert|23|m|2|abbr=on}} in the north to about {{convert|80|m|2|abbr=on}} in the south."}} The ] (comprising Wadi Arabah, the ] and ]) has at times formed a political and administrative frontier, even within empires that have controlled both territories.{{sfn|Aharoni|1979|p=64}} At other times, such as during certain periods during the ] and ] states for example, as well as during the ], territories on both sides of the river formed part of the same administrative unit. During the ] ] period, parts of southern ] and the northern highland areas of Palestine and Jordan were administered as '']'', while the southern parts of the latter two formed part of '']'', which during the 9th century was attached to the administrative unit of '']''.{{sfn|Salibi|1993|pp=17–18}}
			The boundaries of the area and the ethnic nature of the people referred to by ] in the 5th century BCE as Palaestina vary according to context. Sometimes, he uses it to refer to the coast north of ]. Elsewhere, distinguishing the Syrians in Palestine from the Phoenicians, he refers to their land as extending down all the coast from Phoenicia to Egypt.{{sfn|Herodotus|1858|pp=Bk vii, Ch 89}} ], writing in ] in the 1st century CE, describes a region of Syria that was "formerly called ''Palaestina''" among the areas of the Eastern Mediterranean.<ref>], '']'' V.66 and 68.</ref>
	===]===
	====Hellenistic rule (333 BCE)====
	] in the 1st century CE as based on Robert W. Funk's ''The Acts of Jesus'', Michael Grant's's ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' and John P. Meier's ''A Marginal Jew''.]]
	The ] fell to Greek forces of the ] general ].<ref name = "Shahinp7">Shahin (2005), p. 7</ref><ref name=Hooker>{{cite web|title=Hellenistic Greece:Alexander the Great|publisher=Washington State University|date=1996|accessdate=2007-08-11|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/ALEX.HTM}}</ref> After his death, with the absence of heirs, his conquests were divided amongst his generals, while the region of the Jews ("Judah" or ] as it became known) was first part of the ] and then part of the ].<ref name=Pastor>Pastor, 1997, p. 41.</ref>
			Since the Byzantine Period, the Byzantine borders of ''Palaestina'' (''I'' and ''II'', also known as ''Palaestina Prima'', "First Palestine", and ''Palaestina Secunda'', "Second Palestine"), have served as a name for the geographic area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. Under Arab rule, ''Filastin'' (or ''Jund Filastin'') was used administratively to refer to what was under the Byzantines ''Palaestina Secunda'' (comprising ]), while ''Palaestina Prima'' (comprising the ] region) was renamed ''Urdunn'' ("Jordan" or ''Jund al-Urdunn'').{{sfn|Sharon|1988|p=4}}
	The landscape during this period was markedly changed by extensive growth and development that included urban planning and the establishment of well-built fortified cities.<ref name=Shahinp7 /><ref name=palestineeb/> ] ] was produced that absorbed Philistine traditions. Trade and commerce flourished, particularly in the most Hellenized areas, such as ], Jaffa,<ref>{{cite web|title=Palestine|publisher=Britannica|accessdate=2007-08-14|url=http://www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=108522&fullArticle=true&tocId=45078 }}</ref> Jerusalem,<ref>{{cite web|title=''The Reluctant Parting: How the New Testament's Jewish Writers Created a Christian Book''|author=Julie Galambush|publisher=HarperCollins.ca|date=2006|accessdate=2007-08-20|url=http://www.harpercollins.ca/global_scripts/product_catalog/book_xml.asp?isbn=0060872012&tc=cx}}</ref> Gaza,<ref>{{cite web|title=Gaza:Contested Crossroads|author=Dick Doughty|publisher=SaudiAramcoWorld|date=September-October 1994|accessdate=2007-08-20|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199405/gaza-contested.crossroads.htm}}</ref> and ancient Nablus (Tell Balatah).<ref>{{cite web|title=Tell Balatah (Shechem or Ancient Nablus)|publisher=World Monuments Watch:100 Most Endangered Sites 2006|accessdate=2007-08-20|url=http://wmf.org/resources/sitepages/palestinian_territories_tell_balatah.html}}</ref><ref name=Shahinp7 />
			=== Modern period ===
	The Jewish population in Judea was allowed limited autonomy in religion and administration.<ref>Hayes & Mandell, 1998, p. 41.</ref>
			]
			Nineteenth-century sources refer to Palestine as extending from the sea to the caravan route, presumably the ] east of the Jordan River valley.{{sfn|Biger|2004|pp=19–20}} Others refer to it as extending from the sea to the desert.{{sfn|Biger|2004|pp=19–20}} Prior to the ] victory in World War I and the ], which created the British mandate in the ], most of the northern area of what is today Jordan formed part of the ] ] (]), while the southern part of Jordan was part of the ].{{sfn|Biger|2004|p=13}} What later became ] was in late Ottoman times divided between the ] (]) and the ].<ref name=Risalesi /> The ] provided its definition of the boundaries of Palestine in a statement to the ].{{sfn|Tessler|1994|p=163}}{{sfn|Biger|2004|pp=41–80}}
			The British administered ] after World War I, having promised to establish a ]. The modern definition of the region follows the boundaries of that entity, which were fixed in the North and East in 1920–23 by the ] (including the ]) and the ],{{sfn|Biger|2004|pp=133, 159}} and on the South by following the 1906 Turco-Egyptian boundary agreement.{{sfn|Biger|2004|p=80}}{{sfn|Kliot|1995|p=9}}
	====Hasmonean Dynasty (140 BCE)====
			{{Scrollable|height=auto|{{Palestinian territory development}}}}
			=== Current usage ===
	An independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmonean Dynasty existed from 140–37 BCE.
			{{further|Palestinian territories|State of Palestine|Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian enclaves}}
	In the second century BCE fascination in Jerusalem for Greek culture resulted in a movement to break down the separation of Jew and Gentile and some people even tried to disguise the marks of their circumcision.<ref name=Johnston186>Johnston, 2004, p. 186.</ref> Disputes between the leaders of the reform movement, ] and ], eventually led to civil war and the intervention of ].<ref name=Johnston186/> Subsequent persecution of the Jews led to the ] under the leadership of the ]s, and the construction of a native Jewish kingship under the Hasmonean Dynasty.<ref name=Johnston186/> After approximately a century of independence disputes between the Hasmonean rivals ] and ] led to control of the kingdom by the Roman army of ]. The territory then became first a ] ] under Hyrcanus and then, in 70CE, a Roman Province administered by the governor of Syria.<ref>Chancey, 2005, p. 44.</ref>
			{{see also|Borders of Israel}}
			The region of Palestine is the ] for the ] and the ], both of which are defined as relating to the whole historical region, usually defined as the localities within the border of ]. The 1968 ] described Palestine as the "homeland of the Arab Palestinian people", with "the boundaries it had during the British Mandate".{{sfn|Said|Hitchens|2001|p=199}}
	====Roman rule (63 BCE)====
	]
	Though General Pompey arrived in 63 BCE, Roman rule was solidified when ], whose dynasty was of ] ancestry, was appointed as king.<ref name=Shahinp7 /><ref name=Britannica>{{cite web|title=Herod|publisher=Concise Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2007-08-11|url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9040191/Herod}}</ref> Urban planning under the Romans was characterized by cities designed around the Forum - the central intersection of two main streets - the ], running north-south and the ] running east-west.<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web|title=Introducing Young People to the Protection of Heritage Sites and Historic Cities|publisher=UNESCO|date=2003|accessdate=2007-08-14|url=http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:2NfvwatBy4oJ:www.iccrom.org/eng/02info_en/02_04pdf-pubs_en/ICCROM_doc09_ManualSchoolTeachers_en.pdf }}</ref> Cities were connected by an extensive road network developed for economic and military purposes. Among the most notable archaeological remnants from this era are ] (Tel al-Fureidis) to the south of Bethlehem<ref name=Herodium>{{cite web|title=HERODIUM (Jebel Fureidis) Jordan/Israel|publisher=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites|accessdate=2007-08-11|url=http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.1979.a.php}}</ref> and ].<ref name=Shahinp7 /><ref name=Caesarea>{{cite web|title= publisher=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites|accessdate=2007-08-11|url=http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.887.a.php}}</ref>
			However, since the 1988 ], the term ] refers only to the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. This discrepancy was described by the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas as a negotiated concession in a September 2011 speech to the United Nations: "... we agreed to establish the State of Palestine on only 22% of the territory of historical Palestine – on all the Palestinian Territory occupied by Israel in 1967."{{sfn|''Haaretz''|2011}}
	Around the time associated with the birth of ], Roman Palestine was in a state of disarray and direct Roman rule was re-established.<ref name=Shahinp7 /><ref name=UNRV>{{cite web|title=Judaea-Palestine|publisher=UNRV History: Roman Empire|accessdate=2007-08-14|url=http://www.unrv.com/provinces/judaea.php}}</ref> The early Christians were oppressed and while most inhabitants became Romanized, others, particularly Jews, found Roman rule to be unbearable.<ref name=Shahinp7 /><ref name=UNRV />
			The term ''Palestine'' is also sometimes used in a limited sense to refer to ] of the ], a quasi-governmental entity which governs ] under the terms of the ].{{efn-lr|See for example, Palestinian school textbooks{{efn-lr|"The term Palestine in the textbooks refers to Palestinian National Authority." {{harv|Adwan|2006|p=242}}}}}}
	As a result of the ] (66-73), ] ] destroying the ], leaving only supporting walls, including the ]. In 135, following the fall of a ] led by ] in 132&ndash;135, the Roman emperor ] attempted the expulsion of Jews from Judea. His attempt was as unsuccessful as were most of Rome's many attempts to alter the demography of the Empire; this is demonstrated by the continued existence of the rabbinical academy of ] in Judea, and in any case large Jewish populations remained in Samaria and the Galilee.<ref name = "Lehmann" /> Tiberias became the headquarters of ]. The Romans joined the province of Judea (which already included Samaria) together with Galilee to form a new province, called by the familiar name of Syria Palaestina.<ref name = "Lehmann" />
			== Administration ==
	The Emperor ] (132 CE) renamed Jerusalem "]" and built temples there to honor ]. Christianity was practiced in secret and the ] of Palestine continued under ] (193–211 CE).<ref name=Shahinp7 /> New pagan cities were founded in Judea at ] (Beit Jibrin), Diopolis (]), and ] (]).<ref name=Shahinp7 /><ref name=palestineeb/>
			{{Administration in the Palestine region}}
			== Demographics ==
	====Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) rule (330–640 CE)====
			{{Main|Demographic history of Palestine}}
	]
	Emperor ] around 330 CE made Christianity the official religion of Palaestina.<ref name="Shahinp8">Shahin (2005), page 8</ref><ref name=Cohen>{{cite web|title=Legitimization Under Constantine|author=Shaye I.D. Cohen|publisher=PBS|accessdate=2007-08-11|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/why/legitimization.html}}</ref> After his mother Empress Helena identified the spot she believed to be where Christ was crucified, the ] was built in Jerusalem.<ref name=Shahinp8 /> The ] in Bethlehem and the ] in Jerusalem were also built during Constantine's reign.<ref name=Shahinp8 />
			=== Early demographics ===
	Palestine thus became a center for pilgrims and ] life for men and women from all over the world.<ref name=Shahinp8 /><ref name=palestineeb/> Many monasteries were built including the ] in ], Deir ] and Deir ] near Jericho, and Deir ] and Deir ] east of Bethlehem.<Ref name=Shahinp8 />
			{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; margin-left:60px; float:right"
	In 352 CE, a ] in Tiberias and other parts of the ] was brutally suppressed.
	In approximately 390 CE, Palaestina was further organised into three units: ''Palaestina Prima'', ''Secunda'', and ''Tertia'' (First, Second, and Third Palestine).<ref name=Shahinp8 /><ref name=NYTimes>{{cite web|title=Weathered by Miracles: A History of Palestine From Bonaparte and Muhammad Ali to Ben-Gurion and the Mufti|author=Thomas A. Idniopulos|date=1998|accessdate=2007-08-11|url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/i/idinopulos-miracles.html}}</ref> ''Palaestina Prima'' consisted of Judea, ], the coast, and ] with the governor residing in ]. ''Palaestina Secunda'' consisted of the Galilee, the lower ], the regions east of Galilee, and the western part of the former ] with the seat of government at ]. ''Palaestina Tertia'' included the ], southern ] &mdash; once part of Arabia &mdash; and most of ] with ] as the usual residence of the governor. Palestina Tertia was also known as Palaestina Salutaris.<ref name=Shahinp8 /><ref name=Salutaris>{{cite web|title=Roman Arabia|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2007-08-11|url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-439113/Palaestina-Salutaris}}</ref>
	In 536 CE, ] promoted the governor at ] to ] (anthypatos), giving him authority over the two remaining consulars. Justinian believed that the elevation of the governor was appropriate because he was responsible for "the province in which our Lord ]... appeared on earth".<ref name=Holum>Kenneth G. Holum "Palestine" ''The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium.'' Ed. Alexander P. Kazhdan. Oxford University Press 1991.</ref> This was also the principal factor explaining why Palestine prospered under the Christian Empire. The cities of Palestine, such as ], Jerusalem, Scythopolis, ], and Gaza reached their peak population in the late Roman period and produced notable Christian scholars in the disciplines of ], ], ], classicizing history and ].<ref name=Holum/>
	Byzantine administration of Palestine was temporarily suspended during the Persian occupation of 614&ndash;28, and then permanently after the Muslims arrived in 634 CE, defeating the empire's forces decisively at the ] in 636 CE. Jerusalem capitulated in 638 CE and Caesarea between 640 CE and 642 CE.<ref name=Holum/>
	===Arab Caliphate rule (638–1099 CE)===
	]
	In 638 CE, Caliph ] and ], the Byzantine governor of Jerusalem, signed ''Al-Uhda al-'Omariyya'' (]), an agreement that stipulated the rights and obligations of all non-Muslims in Palestine.<ref name="Shahinp8">Shahin (2005), page 8</ref> Jews were permitted to return to Palestine for the first time since the 500-year ban enacted by the Romans and maintained by Byzantine rulers.<ref name="Shahinp10">Shahin (2005), page 10</ref><ref name=palestineeb/>
	Omar Ibn al-Khattab was the first conqueror of Jerusalem to enter the city on foot, and when visiting the site that now houses the ], he declared it a sacred place of prayer.<ref></ref><ref>The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, the West, and the Future of the Holy City By Dore Gold, pg. 97</ref> Cities that accepted the new rulers, as recorded in registrars from the time, were: Jerusalem, Nablus, ], ], Tiberias, ], Caesarea, Lajjun, ], ], ], ], Gaza, ], ], ], ], ] and Ashkelon.<ref name="Shahinp10" />
	====] rule (661–750 CE)====
	Under Umayyad rule, the Byzantine province of Palaestina Prima became the administrative and military sub-province (''jund'') of ] - the Arabic name for Palestine from that point forward.<ref name=WKhalidi27>{{cite book|title=Before Their Diaspora|author=Walid Khalidi|publisher=Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington DC|date=1984|page=27 - 28}}</ref> It formed part of the larger province of ''ash-Sham'' (Arabic for ]).<ref name=Gerber>{{cite journal|title="Zionism, Orientalism, and the Palestinians"|author=Haim Gerber|publisher=''Journal of Palestine Studies''|date=Fall 2003|volume=Vol. 33, No. 1|pages=23-41|url=http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/jps.2003.33.1.23?cookieSet=1&journalCode=jps}}</ref> '']'' (Arabic جند فلسطين, literally "the army of Palestine") was a region extending from the Sinai to the plain of ]. Major towns included ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name=Parkes>{{cite web|title=Palestine Under the Caliphs|author=James Parkes|publisher=MidEastWeb|accessdate=2007-08-20|url=http://www.mideastweb.org/palcaliph1.htm}}</ref> ''Jund al-Urdunn'' (literally "the army of Jordan") was a region to the north and east of Filastin which included the cities of ], ] and ].<ref name=Parkes/>
	In 691, Caliph ] ordered that the ] be built on the site where the Islamic prophet ] is believed by Muslims to have begun his nocturnal journey to heaven, on the ]. About a decade afterward, Caliph ] had the ] built.<ref name=Faizer>{{cite web|title=The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem|author=Rizwi Faizer|publisher=Rizwi's Bibliography for Medieval Islam|date=1998|accessdate=2007-07-14|url=http://us.geocities.com/rfaizer/reviews/book9.html}}</ref>
	It was under Umayyad rule that Christians and Jews were granted the official title of "]" to underline the common monotheistic roots they shared with Islam.<ref name="Shahinp10" /><ref>Ahl al-Kitab. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved ], ], from </ref>
	====Abbasid rule (750–969 CE)====
	The ]-based ] Caliphs renovated and visited the holy shrines and sanctuaries in Jerusalem<ref name=Talhami>{{cite journal|title=The Modern History of Islamic Jerusalem: Academic Myths and Propaganda|author=Ghada Hashem Talhami|publisher=Middle East Policy Council|volume=Volume VII, No. 2|date=February 2000|accessdate=2007-08-20|url=http://www.mepc.org/journal_vol7/0002_talhami.asp}}</ref> and continued to build up Ramle.<ref name="Shahinp10" /><ref name=Lev>{{cite journal|title=The Ethics and Practice of Islamic Medieval Charity|author=Yaacov Lev|publisher=History Compass|volume=5, Issue 2|pages=603 - 618|date=2007}}</ref> Coastal areas were fortified and developed and port cities like Acre, ], Caesarea, ], Jaffa and ] received monies from the state treasury.<ref name="Shahinp11">Shahin (2005), p. 11</ref>{{Fact|date=August 2007}}
	A trade fair took place in Jerusalem every year on ] where merchants from ], ], ] and ] converged to acquire spices, soaps, silks, olive oil, sugar and glassware in exchange for European products.<ref name="Shahinp11" />{{Fact|date=August 2007}} European Christian pilgrims visited and made generous donations to Christian holy places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem.<ref name="Shahinp11" />{{Fact|date=August 2007}} Harun al-Rashid (786-809) established the Christian Pilgrims' Inn in Jerusalem, fulfilling Umar's pledge to Bishop Sophronious to allow freedom of religion and access to Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims.<ref name=MEI>{{cite web|title=Islamic Civilization: An Overview|author=M. Cherif Bassiouni|publisher=Middle East Institute: The George Camp Keiser Library|date=2004|accessdate=2007-08-14|url=http://www.mideasti.org/indepth/islam/civilization.html}}</ref>
	====Fatimid rule (969–1099 CE)====
	From their base in ], the ]s, who claimed to be descendants of Muhammad through his daughter ], conquered Palestine by way of Egypt in 969 CE.<ref name="Shahinp11" /><ref name=Arabnet>{{cite web|title=Egypt: The Fatimid Period 969 - 1771|publisher=Arab Net|date=2002|accessdate=2007-08-14|url=http://www.arab.net/egypt/et_fatimid.htm}}</ref> Jerusalem, Nablus, and Askalan were expanded and renovated under their rule.<ref name="Shahinp11" />{{Fact|date=August 2007}}
	After the 10th century, the division into ''Junds'' began to break down. In 1071, the ]-based ] ] captured Jerusalem only to hand it back in 1098.<ref name="Shahinp11" />
	: ''See also the , showing Jund boundaries (external link).''
	]
	===Crusader rule (1099–1187 CE)===
	{{seealso|Crusade}}
	{{seealso|Kingdom of Jerusalem}}
	Under the European rule, fortifications, castles, towers and fortified villages were built, rebuilt and renovated across Palestine largely in rural areas.<ref name=Shahinp11 /><ref name=Nicolle>{{cite book|title=Crusader Castles in the Holy Land 1192-1302|author=]|publisher=Osprey|isbn=9781841768274|date=July 2005|url=http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S8278~per=41}}</ref> A notable urban remnant of the Crusader architecture of this era is found in Acre's old city.<ref name=Shahinp11 /><ref name=IsraelAntiquities>{{cite web|title=Projects:The Old City of Akko (Acre)|publisher=Israeli Antiquities Authority|accessdate=2007-08-14|url=http://www.iaa-conservation.org.il/Projects_Item_eng.asp?subject_id=11&site_id=5&id=22}}</ref>
	In July 1187, the ]-based ] General Saladin commanded his troops to victory in the ].<ref name=Setton>Kenneth Setton, ed. '''' ] Press, 1958</ref><ref name="Shahinp12">Shahin (2005), page 12.</ref> Saladin went on to take Jerusalem. An agreement granting special status to the Crusaders allowed them to continue to stay in Palestine and In 1229, ] negotiated a 10-year treaty that placed Jerusalem, ] and Bethlehem once again under Crusader rule.<ref name=Setton/>
	In 1270, Sultan ] expelled the Crusaders from most of the country, though they maintained a base at Acre until 1291.<ref name=Setton/> Thereafter, any remaining Europeans either went home or merged with the local population.<ref name=Shahinp12 />{{Fact|date=August 2007}}
	===Mamluk rule (1270–1516 CE)===
	Palestine formed a part of the ] ] (district) under the rule of the ] of Egypt and was divided into three smaller ] (subdivisions) with capitals in Jerusalem, Gaza, and Safad.<ref name=Shahinp12 />{{Fact|date=August 2007}} Celebrated by Arab and Muslim writers of the time as the "blessed land of the Prophets and Islam's revered leaders,"<ref name=Shahinp12 /> Muslim sanctuaries were "rediscovered" and received many pilgrims.<ref name=WKhalidi28>{{cite book|title=Before Their Diaspora|author=Walid Khalidi|publisher=Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington DC|date=1984|page=28 - 29}}</ref>
	While the first half of the Mamluk era (1270-1382) saw the construction of many schools, lodgings for travellers (]s) and the renovation of mosques neglected or destroyed during the Crusader period,<ref name=WKhalidi28 /> the second half (1382-1517) was a period of decline as the Mamluks were engaged in battles with the ] in areas outside Palestine.<ref name=Shahinp12 /><ref name=Islamicity>{{cite web|title= Islam and Islamic History in Arabia
	and The Middle East: The Mongols and the Mamluks|publisher=Islamicity|accessdate=2007-08-14|url=http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/ihame/Sec11.htm}}</ref>
	In 1486, hostilities broke out between the Mamluks and the ] in a battle for control over western Asia. The Mamluk armies were eventually defeated by the forces of the Ottoman Sultan, ], and lost control of Palestine after the 1516 battle of ].<ref name=Shahinp12 /><ref>Chase, 2003, pp. 104-105.</ref>
	===Ottoman rule (1516–1917 CE)===
	] in 1683]]
	After the ] conquest, the name "Palestine" disappeared as the official name of an administrative unit, as the Turks often called their (sub)provinces after the capital. Since its 1516 incorporation in the Ottoman Empire, it was part of the'' ]'' (]) of Damascus-Syria until 1660, next of the ''vilayet'' of ] (Sidon), briefly interrupted by the 7 March 1799 - July 1799 French occupation of Jaffa, Haifa, and Caesarea. During the ] in 1799, ] prepared a proclamation declaring a Jewish state in Palestine. On 10 May 1832 it was one of the Turkish provinces annexed by ]'s shortly imperialistic Egypt (nominally still Ottoman), but in November 1840 direct Ottoman rule was restored.
	Still the old name remained in popular and semi-official use. Many examples of its usage in the 16th and 17th centuries have survived.<ref>Gerber, 1998.</ref> During the 19th century, the "Ottoman Government employed the term ''Arz-i Filistin'' (the 'Land of Palestine') in official correspondence, meaning for all intents and purposes the area to the west of the River Jordan which became 'Palestine' under the British in 1922".<ref>Mandel, 1976, p. ''xx''.</ref> Amongst the educated Arab public, ''Filastin'' was a common concept, referring either to the whole of Palestine or to the Jerusalem '']'' alone<ref>Porath, 1974, pp. 8-9.</ref> or just to the area around Ramle.<ref>Haim Gerber (1998) referring to ]s by two ] Syrian jurists.</ref>
	Ottoman rule over the region lasted until the ] (]) when the Ottomans ] with ] and the ]. During ], the Ottomans were driven from much of the area by the ] during the ].
	===The 20th century===
	]
	In European usage up to ], "Palestine" was used informally for a region that extended in the north-south direction typically from ] (south-east of ]) to the ] (now in Lebanon). The western boundary was the sea, and the eastern boundary was the poorly-defined place where the Syrian desert began. In various European sources, the eastern boundary was placed anywhere from the Jordan River to slightly east of ]. The ] was not included.<ref></ref>
	Under the ] of 1916, it was envisioned that most of Palestine, when freed from Ottoman control, would become an international zone not under direct French or British colonial control. Shortly thereafter, British foreign minister ] issued the ], which laid plans for a Jewish homeland to be established in Palestine eventually.
	The British-led ], commanded by ], captured Jerusalem on ], 1917 and occupied the whole of the Levant following the defeat of Turkish forces in Palestine at the ] in September 1918 and the capitulation of Turkey on ].<ref>Hughes, 1999, p. 17; p. 97.</ref>
	====British Mandate (1920–1948)====
	{{main|British Mandate of Palestine}}
	] were incorporated (under different legal and administrative arrangements) into the Mandate for Palestine issued by the ] to ] on ], ]]]
	The ] enacted English, ] and ] as its three official languages. The land designated by the mandate was called Palestine in English, Falastin (فلسطين) in ], and in Hebrew ''Palestina or ]'' ('''{{lang|he|(פלשתינה (א"י}}''').
	In April 1920 the Allied Supreme Council (the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan) met at ] and formal decisions were taken on the allocation of mandate territories. The United Kingdom accepted a mandate for Palestine, but the boundaries of the mandate and the conditions under which it was to be held were not decided. The Zionist Organization's representative at Sanremo, ], subsequently reported to his colleagues in London:
	<blockquote>There are still important details outstanding, such as the actual terms of the mandate and the question of the boundaries in Palestine. There is the delimitation of the boundary between French Syria and Palestine, which will constitute the northern frontier and the eastern line of demarcation, adjoining Arab Syria. The latter is not likely to be fixed until the Emir Feisal attends the Peace Conference, probably in Paris.<ref>'Zionist Aspirations: Dr Weizmann on the Future of Palestine', ''The Times'', Saturday, ], 1920; p. 15.</ref></blockquote>
	In July 1920, the French drove ] from ] ending his already negligible control over the region of Transjordan, where local chiefs traditionally resisted any central authority. The sheikhs, who had earlier pledged their loyalty to the ], asked the British to undertake the region's administration. ] asked for the extension of the Palestine government's authority to Transjordan, but at meetings in Cairo and Jerusalem between ] and ] in March 1921 it was agreed that Abdullah would administer the territory (initially for six months only) on behalf of the Palestine administration. In the summer of 1921 Transjordan was included within the Mandate, but excluded from the provisions for a ].<ref>Gelber, 1997, pp. 6-15.</ref> On ], 1922 the League of Nations approved the terms of the British Mandate over Palestine and Transjordan. On ] the League formally approved a memorandum from ] confirming the exemption of Transjordan from the clauses of the mandate concerning the creation of a Jewish national home and from the mandate's responsibility to ''facilitate'' Jewish immigration and land settlement.<ref>Sicker, 1999, p. 164.</ref> With Transjordan coming under the administration of the British Mandate, the mandate's collective territory became constituted of 23% Palestine and 77% Transjordan. <!--The British prevented Jewish immigration to Transjordan.<ref>United Nation </ref> NOT SUPPORTED BY SOURCE--> Transjordan was a very sparsely populated region (specially in comparison with Palestine proper) due to its relatively limited resources and largely desert environment.
	The award of the mandates was delayed as a result of the United States' suspicions regarding Britain's colonial ambitions and similar reservations held by Italy about France's intentions. France in turn refused to reach a settlement over Palestine until its own mandate in Syria became final. According to Louis:
	<blockquote>Together with the American protests against the issuance of mandates these triangular quarrels between the Italians, French, and British explain why the A mandates did not come into force until nearly four years after the signing of the ].... The British documents clearly reveal that Balfour's patient and skillful diplomacy contributed greatly to the final issuance of the A mandates for Syria and Palestine on ], 1923.<ref>Louis, 1969, p. 90.</ref></blockquote>
	Even before the Mandate came into legal effect in 1923 (]), British terminology sometimes used '"Palestine" for the part west of the Jordan River and "Trans-Jordan" (or ''Transjordania'') for the part east of the Jordan River.<ref>Ingrams, 1972</ref><ref>
	{{cite web | url = http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/349b02280a930813052565e90048ed1c | title = Mandate for Palestine - Interim report of the Mandatory to the LoN/Balfour Declaration text | accessdate = 2007-03-08 | date = 1921-07-30 | publisher = League of Nations | language = English}}</ref>
	]
	In the years following ], Britain's control over Palestine became increasingly tenuous. This was caused by a combination of factors, including:
	* Rapid deterioration due to the attacks by the ] and ] on British officials, armed forces, and strategic installations. This caused severe damage to British morale and prestige, as well as increasing opposition to the mandate in Britain itself, public opinion demanding to "bring the boys home".<ref>Colonel Archer-Cust, Chief Secretary of the British Government in Palestine, said in a lecture to the Royal Empire Society that "The hanging of the two British Sergeants did more than anything to get us out ". (The United Empire Journal, November-December 1949, taken from ''The Revolt'', by Menachem Begin)</ref>
	* World public opinion turned against Britain as a result of the British policy of preventing ] survivors from reaching Palestine, sending them instead to ], or even back to ], as in the case of ].
	* The costs of maintaining an army of over 100,000 men in Palestine weighed heavily on a British economy suffering from post-war depression, and was another cause for British public opinion to demand an end to the Mandate.
	* US Congress was delaying a loan necessary to prevent British bankruptcy. The delays were in response to the British refusal to fulfill a promise given to Truman that 100,000 Holocaust survivors would be allowed to migrate to Palestine.
	Finally in early 1947 the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and passed the responsibility over Palestine to the ].
	====UN partition====
	{{main|1947 UN Partition Plan}}
	]
	On ] ], the ] ], with a two-thirds majority international vote, passed the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181), a plan to resolve the ] by partitioning the territory into separate ]ish and ] states, with the Greater ] area (encompassing ]) coming under international control. Jewish leaders (including the ]), accepted the plan, while Palestinian Arab leaders rejected it and refused to negotiate. Neighboring Arab and Muslim states also rejected the partition plan. The Arab community reacted violently after the ] declared a ]. As armed skirmishes between Arab and Jewish paramilitary forces in Palestine continued, the British mandate ended on ], ], the establishment of the ] having been proclaimed the day before (see ]). The neighboring Arab states and armies (], ], ], ], ], ], ], and local ]s) immediately attacked Israel following its declaration of independence, and the ] ensued. Consequently, the partition plan was never implemented.
	===Current status===
	Following the ], the ] between Israel and neighboring Arab states eliminated Palestine as a distinct territory. With the establishment of Israel, the remaining lands were divided amongst Egypt, Syria and Jordan. The Arab governments at this point refused to set up a State of Palestine.
	]]]
	In addition to the UN-partitioned area it was allotted, Israel captured 26% of the Mandate territory west of the Jordan river. Jordan captured and annexed about 21% of the Mandate territory, known today as the ]. Jerusalem was divided, with Jordan taking the eastern parts, including the ], and Israel taking the western parts. The ] was captured by ].
	For a description of the massive population movements, Arab and Jewish, at the time of the 1948 war and over the following decades, see ] and ].
	] and the ], 2007]]
	From the 1960s onward, the term "Palestine" was regularly used in political contexts. Various declarations, such as the 15 November 1988 proclamation of a ] by the ] referred to a country called Palestine, defining its borders based on the U.N. Resolution 242 and 383 and the principle of land for peace. The ] was the 1967 border established by many UN resolutions including those mentioned above.
	In the course of the ] in June 1967, Israel captured the West Bank from Jordan and Gaza from Egypt.
	According to the ],<ref>
	Population data calculated from three pages of the online CIA World Factbook
	</ref> of the ten million people living between Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea, about five million (49%) identify as ], ], ] and/or ]. One million of those are ]. The other four million are residents of the West Bank and Gaza, which are under the jurisdiction of the ].
	In the West Bank, 360,000 ]s live in a hundred scattered settlements with connecting corridors. The 2.5 million West Bank Palestinians live in four blocs centered in Hebron, Ramallah, Nablus, and Jericho. In 2005, all the Israeli settlers were evacuated from the ] in keeping with ]'s plan for unilateral disengagement, and control over the area was transferred to the Palestinian Authority.
	==Demographics==
	===Early demographics===
	Estimating the population of Palestine in antiquity relies on 2 methods - censuses and writings made at the times, and the scientific method based on excavations and statistical methods that consider the number of settlements at the particular age, area of each settlement, density factor for each settlement.
	According to ], writing in the '']''<ref>, accessed ], 2007.</ref> (1901-1906), the ] contains a number of statements as to the number of Jews that left ], the descendants of the seventy sons and grandsons of ] who took up their residence in that country. Altogether, including ]s, there were 611,730 males over twenty years of age, and therefore capable of bearing arms; this would imply a population of about 3,154,000. The Census of ] is said to have recorded 1,300,000 males over twenty years of age, which would imply a population of over 5,000,000. The number of exiles who returned from ] is given at 42,360. ] declares that ] at its fall contained 600,000 persons; ], that there were as many as 1,100,000. According to Israeli archeologist Magen Broshi, "... the population of Palestine in antiquity did not exceed a million persons. It can also be shown, moreover, that this was more or less the size of the population in the peak period--the late ] period, around AD 600"<ref> Magen Broshi, The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period, ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 236, p.7, 1979.</ref> Similarly, a study by Yigal Shiloh of ] suggests that the population of Palestine in the Iron Age could have never exceeded a million. He writes: "... the population of the country in the Roman-Byzantine period greatly exceeded that in the Iron Age...If we accept Broshi's population estimates, which appear to be confirmed by the results of recent research, it follows that the estimates for the population during the Iron Age must be set at a lower figure."<ref>Yigal Shiloh, The Population of Iron Age Palestine in the Light of a Sample Analysis of Urban Plans, Areas, and Population Density, ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 239, p.33, 1980.</ref>
	] writes:<ref>Katz, p.113-115 {{he icon}}</ref>
	<blockquote>
	When Jewish independence came to an end in the year 70, the population numbered, at a conservative estimate, some 5 million people. (By ]' figures, there were nearer 7 million.) Even sixty years after the destruction of the Temple, at the outbreak of the revolt led by Bar Kochba in 132, when large numbers had fled or been deported, the Jewish population of the country must have numbered at least 3 million, according to ]' figures. Sixteen centuries later, when the practical possibility of the return to Zion appeared on the horizon, Palestine was a denuded, derelict, and depopulated country. The writings of travellers who visited Palestine in the late eighteenth and throughout the nineteenth century are filled with descriptions of its emptiness, its desolation. In 1738, ] wrote of the absence of people to fill - Palestine's fertile soil. In 1785, ] described the "rained" and "desolate" country. He had not seen the worst. Pilgrims and travellers continued to report in heartrending terms on its condition. Almost sixty years later, ], recalling Volney's description, wrote: "In his day the land had not fully reached its last degree of desolation and depopulation.<ref>Tomas Shaw, Travels and Observations Relating to Several Parts of Barbary and the Levant (London, 1767), p. 331ff.; Constantine Francois Volney, Travels Through Syria and Egypt in the Years 1783, 1784 and 1785 (London, 1787); Alexander Keith, The Land of Israel (Edinburgh, 1944), P. 465.</ref></blockquote>
	The table below represents estimates of the first century population of Palestine (as adapted from Byatt, 1973).
	<center>
	{| class="sortable wikitable"
	! Authority
	! Jews
	! Total population<sup>1</sup>
	|-		|-
	| Condor, C R<ref>''Hastings Bible Dictionary'', Vol. 3, 646.</ref>
	| -
	| 6 million
	|-
	| Juster, J<ref>''Les Juifs dans l'empire romain'' (1914), 1, 209f.</ref>
	| 5 million
	| >5 million
	|-
	| Mazar, Benjamin<ref>Referred to by W C Lowdermilk, ''Palestine, Land of Promise'',(1944), p. 47.</ref>
	| -
	| >4 million
	|-
	| Klausner, Joseph<ref>''From Jesus to Paul'' (1944), 33.</ref>
	| 3 million
	| 3.5 million
	|-
	| Grant, Michael<ref>''Herod the Great'' (1971), 165.</ref>
	| 3 million
	| not given
	|-
	| Baron, Salo W<ref>A Social and Religious History of the Jews, 2nd ed. (1952), Vol. 1, 168, 370-2.</ref>
	| 2-2.5 million
	| 2.5-3 million
	|-
	| Socin, A<ref>''Encyc. Biblica'' column 3550.</ref>
	| -
	| 2.5-3 million
	|-
	| Lowdermilk, W C<ref>Referred to by W C Lowdermilk, ''Palestine, Land of Promise'' (1944), 47.</ref>
	| -
	| 3 million
	|-
	| Avi-Yonah, M<ref>''The Holy Land'' (1966), 220, 221.</ref>
	| -
	| 2.8 million
	|-
	| Glueck, N<ref>Letter of 16 December 1941 reported by Lowdermilk, ibid, 47.</ref>
	| -
	| 2.5 million
	|-
	| Beloch, K J<ref>''Die Bevolkerung der griechischromischen Welt'' (1886), 242-9.</ref>
	| 2 million
	| not given
	|-
	| Grant, F C<ref>''Economic Background of the Gospels'' (1926), 83.</ref>
	| -
	| 1.5-2.5 million
	|-
	| Byatt, A<ref>Byatt, 1973.</ref>
	| -
	| 2.265 million
	|-
	| Daniel-Rops, H<ref>''Daily Life in Palestine at the Time of Christ'' (1962), 43.</ref>
	| 1.5 million
	| 2 million
	|-
	| Derwacter, F M<ref>''Preparing the Way for Paul'' (1930), 115.</ref>
	| 1 million
	| 1.5 million
	|-
	| Pfeiffer, R H<ref>''History of New Testament Times'' (1949), 189.</ref>
	| 1 million
	| not given
	|-
	| Harnack, A<ref>''Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums'' (1915), 1, 10.</ref>
	| 500,000
	| not given
	|-
	| Jeremias, J<ref>''Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus'' (1969), 205.</ref>
	| 500,000-600,000
	| not given
	|-
	| McCown, C C<ref>The Density of Population in Ancient Palestine, ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', Vol 66 (1947), 425-36.</ref>
	| <500,000
	| <1 million
	|}</center>
	<sup>'''1.'''</sup> There is no consensus on the population of Palestine in the first century of the Common Era; estimates range from under 1 million to 6 million.
	===Demographics in the late Ottoman and British Mandate periods===
	In the middle of the first century of the Ottoman rule, i.e. 1550 CE, ] in a study of Ottoman registers of the early Ottoman Rule of Palestine reports:<ref>Bernard Lewis, Studies in the Ottoman Archives--I, ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', University of London, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 469-501, 1954</ref>
	<blockquote>From the mass of detail in the registers, it is possible to extract something like a general picture of the economic life of the country in that period. Out of a total population of about 300,000 souls, between a fifth and a quarter lived in the six towns of ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The remainder consisted mainly of peasants, living in villages of varying size, and engaged in agriculture. Their main food-crops were wheat and barley in that order, supplemented by leguminous pulses, olives, fruit, and vegetables. In and around most of the towns there was a considerable number of vineyards, orchards, and vegetable gardens.
	</blockquote>
	By ] estimates in 1785, there were no more than 200,000 people in the country.<ref>Katz, 115 citing C.F.C Conte de Volney: Travels through Syria & Egypt in the years 1783, 1784, 1785 (London, 1798). Vol II p. 219 </ref>
	In his paper 'Demography in Israel/Palestine: Trends, Prospects and Policy Implications'<ref>DellaPergola, 2001, p. 5.</ref> Sergio DellaPergola, drawing on the work of Bachi (1975), provides rough estimates of the population of Palestine west of the River Jordan by religion groups from the first century onwards summarised in the table below.
	<center>
	{| class="sortable wikitable"
	! Year		! Year
	! Jews		! Jews
	! Christians		! Christians
	! Muslims		! Muslims
	! Total<sup>1</sup>		! Total
	|-		|-
	| First half 1st century CE		| First half 1st century CE
	| Majority		| Majority
	| -		| –
	| -		| –
	| ~2,500²		| ~2,500
	|-		|-
	| 5th century		| 5th century
	| Minority		| Minority
	| Majority		| Majority
	| -		| –
	| >1st century		| >1st C
	|-		|-
	| End 12th century		| End 12th century
Line 403:		Line 234:
	| >225		| >225
	|-		|-
	| 14th cent. before ]		| 14th century before ]
	| Minority		| Minority
	| Minority		| Minority
Line 409:		Line 240:
	| 225		| 225
	|-		|-
	| 14th cent. after Black Death		| 14th century after Black Death
	| Minority		| Minority
	| Minority		| Minority
	| Majority		| Majority
	| 150		| 150
			|- class="sortbottom"
			| colspan="7" span style="font-size:70%; text-align:left;" | Historical population table compiled by ].{{sfn|DellaPergola|2001|p=5}} Figures in thousands.
			|}
			Estimating the population of Palestine in antiquity relies on two methods – censuses and writings made at the times, and the scientific method based on excavations and statistical methods that consider the number of settlements at the particular age, area of each settlement, density factor for each settlement.
			The ] in the 2nd century CE saw a major shift in the population of Palestine. The sheer scale and scope of the overall destruction has been described by ] in his ''Roman History'', where he notes that Roman war operations in the country had left some 580,000 Jews dead, with many more dying of hunger and disease, while 50 of their most important outposts and 985 of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. "Thus," writes Dio Cassius, "nearly the whole of ] was made desolate."<ref>''Dio's Roman History'' (trans. Earnest Cary), vol. 8 (books 61–70), ]: London 1925, pp. –</ref>{{sfn|Taylor|2012}}
			According to ] Magen Broshi and Yigal Shiloh, the population of ancient Palestine did not exceed one million.{{efn-lr|"...{{spaces}}the population of Palestine in antiquity did not exceed a million persons. It can also be shown, moreover, that this was more or less the size of the population in the peak period—the late ] period, around AD 600" {{harv|Broshi|1979|p=7}}}}{{efn-lr|"...{{spaces}}the population of the country in the Roman-Byzantine period greatly exceeded that in the Iron Age... If we accept Broshi's population estimates, which appear to be confirmed by the results of recent research, it follows that the estimates for the population during the Iron Age must be set at a lower figure." {{harv|Shiloh|1980|p=33}}}} By 300{{spaces}}CE, Christianity had spread so significantly that Jews comprised only a quarter of the population.{{efn-lr|<q>By A.D. 300, Jews made up a mere quarter of the total population of the province of Syria Palaestina</q> {{harv|Krämer|2011|p=15}}}}
			=== Late Ottoman and British Mandate periods ===
			In a study of ] registers of the early Ottoman rule of Palestine, ] reports:<blockquote>he first half century of Ottoman rule brought a sharp increase in population. The towns grew rapidly, villages became larger and more numerous, and there was an extensive development of agriculture, industry, and trade. The two last were certainly helped to no small extent by the influx of Spanish and other Western Jews.</blockquote><blockquote>From the mass of detail in the registers, it is possible to extract something like a general picture of the economic life of the country in that period. Out of a total population of about 300,000 souls, between a fifth and a quarter lived in the six towns of ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The remainder consisted mainly of peasants, living in villages of varying size, and engaged in agriculture. Their main food-crops were wheat and barley in that order, supplemented by leguminous pulses, olives, fruit, and vegetables. In and around most of the towns there was a considerable number of vineyards, orchards, and vegetable gardens.{{sfn|Lewis|1954|p=487}}
			</blockquote>
			{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; margin-left:60px; float:right"
			|-
			! Year
			! Jews
			! Christians
			! Muslims
			! Total
	|-		|-
			| 1533–1539
	| 1533-1539
	| 5		| 5
	| 6		| 6
Line 421:		Line 271:
	| 157		| 157
	|-		|-
			| 1690–1691
	| 1690-1691
	| 2		| 2
	| 11		| 11
Line 462:		Line 312:
	| 1,181		| 1,181
	| 1,970		| 1,970
			|- class="sortbottom"
	|}</center>
			| colspan="7" span style="font-size:70%; text-align:left;" | Historical population table compiled by ].{{sfn|DellaPergola|2001|p=5}} Figures in thousands.
	<sup>'''1.'''</sup> Figures in thousands. The total includes Druzes and other small religious minorities.<br>
			|}
	<sup>'''2.'''</sup> There is no consensus on the population of Palestine in the first century of the Christian Era; estimates range from under 1 million to 6 million.
			According to Alexander Scholch, the population of Palestine in 1850 was about 350,000 inhabitants, 30% of whom lived in 13 towns; roughly 85% were Muslims, 11% were Christians and 4% Jews.{{sfn|Scholch|1985|p=503}}
			According to Ottoman statistics studied by ], the population of Palestine in the early 19th century was 350,000, in 1860 it was 411,000 and in 1900 about 600,000 of whom 94% were ].{{sfn|McCarthy|1990|p=26}} In 1914 Palestine had a population of 657,000 Muslim Arabs, 81,000 Christian Arabs, and 59,000 Jews.{{sfn|McCarthy|1990|p=30}} McCarthy estimates the non-Jewish population of Palestine at 452,789 in 1882; 737,389 in 1914; 725,507 in 1922; 880,746 in 1931; and 1,339,763 in 1946.{{sfn|McCarthy|1990|pp=37–38}}
	According to ], the population of Palestine in 1850 had about 350,000 inhabitants, 30% of whom lived in 13 towns; roughly 85% were Muslims, 11% were Christians and 4% Jews<ref>, 1985, p. 503.</ref>
	<center>
	{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:right; margin-right:60px"
	|-
	!rowspan=2|
	!rowspan=2 align=center |Qazas
	!rowspan=2| <small> Number of <br>Towns and <br>Villages</small>
	! colspan=4 rowspan=1 |<center>Number of Households</center>
			In 1920, the League of Nations' ''Interim Report on the Civil Administration of Palestine'' described the 700,000 people living in Palestine as follows:{{sfn|Kirk|2011|p=46}}{{blockquote|Of these, 235,000 live in the larger towns, 465,000 in the smaller towns and villages. Four-fifths of the whole population are Moslems. A small proportion of these are Bedouin Arabs; the remainder, although they speak Arabic and are termed Arabs, are largely of mixed race. Some 77,000 of the population are Christians, in large majority belonging to the Orthodox Church, and speaking Arabic. The minority are members of the Latin or of the Uniate Greek Catholic Church, or—a small number—are Protestants.
	|-
	!rowspan=1|<small>Muslims</small>
	!rowspan=1|<small>Christians</small>
	!rowspan=1|<small>Jews</small>
	!rowspan=1|<small>Total</small>
	|-
	| 1 ||align=left | '''Jerusalem'''
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Jerusalem</small>|| 1 || 1,025 ||738 ||630||2,393
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 116 || 6,118 ||1,202 ||<center>-</center> || 7,320
	|-
			The Jewish element of the population numbers 76,000. Almost all have entered Palestine during the last 40 years. Prior to 1850, there were in the country only a handful of Jews. In the following 30 years, a few hundreds came to Palestine. Most of them were animated by religious motives; they came to pray and to die in the Holy Land, and to be buried in its soil. After the persecutions in Russia forty years ago, the movement of the Jews to Palestine assumed larger proportions.}}
	|-
	| 2 ||align=left | '''Hebron'''
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Hebron</small>|| 1 || 2,800||<center>-</center> ||200||3,000
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 52 || 2,820||<center>-</center>||<center>-</center> || 2,820
	|-
			=== Current demographics ===
	|-
			{{See also|Demographics of Israel|Demographics of the Palestinian territories}}
	| 3 ||align=left | '''Gaza'''
			According to the ], {{as of|2015|lc=y}}, the total population of Israel was 8.5{{spaces}}million people, of which 75% were ], 21% ], and 4% "others".{{sfn|ICBoS: Population|2016}} Of the Jewish group, 76% were ] (born in Israel); the rest were ] (immigrants)—16% from Europe, the former Soviet republics, and the Americas, and 8% from Asia and Africa, including the ].{{sfn|ICBoS: Jews|2016}}
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Gaza</small>|| 1 || 2,690||65 ||<center>-</center>||2,755
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 55 || 6,417|| <center>-</center> || <center>-</center> || 6,417
	|-
			According to the ] evaluations, in 2015 the Palestinian population of the ] was approximately 2.9{{spaces}}million and that of the ] was 1.8{{spaces}}million.{{sfn|PCBoS: Estd Population|2016}} By 2022, the population of the Gaza strip had increased to an estimated 2,375,259,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arabic.news.cn/20230105/d4cd282fc5a44ff48c3cf460871f1e74/c.html |title=مليونان و375 ألف نسمة عدد سكان قطاع غزة مع نهاية 2022 |website=arabic.news.cn |access-date=5 January 2023 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105160533/http://arabic.news.cn/20230105/d4cd282fc5a44ff48c3cf460871f1e74/c.html |url-status=live}}</ref> corresponding to a density of more than 6,507 people per square kilometre.
	|-
	| 3 ||align=left | '''Jaffa'''
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Jaffa</small>|| 3 || 865||266||<center>-</center>||1,131
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Ludd</small>|| . || 700||207||<center>-</center> || 907
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Ramla</small>|| . || 675||250||<center>-</center> || 925
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 61 || 3,439||<center>-</center>||<center>-</center> || 3,439
	|-
			Both Israeli and Palestinian statistics include Arab residents of ] in their reports.{{sfn|Mezzofiore|2015}}{{Better source needed|date=May 2022}} According to these estimates the total population in the region of Palestine, as defined as Israel and the Palestinian territories, stands approximately 12.8{{spaces}}million.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}
	|-
	| 4||align=left | '''Nablus'''
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Nablus</small>|| 1 || 1,356||108 ||14||1,478
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 176 || 13,022|| 202 ||<center>-</center> || 13,224
	|-
			== Flora and fauna ==
	|-
			{{main|Biodiversity in Israel and Palestine}}
	| 5 ||align=left | '''Jinin'''
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Jinin</small>|| 1 || 656||16 ||<center>-</center>||672
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 39 || 2,120|| 17 || <center>-</center> || 2,137
	|-
			=== Flora distribution ===
	|-
			{{see also|Category:Flora of Palestine (region)|List of native plants of Flora Palaestina (A–B)}}
	| 6 ||align=left | '''Ajlun'''
			The ] is widely used in recording the distribution of plants. The scheme uses the code "PAL" to refer to the region of Palestine – a Level 3 area. The WGSRPD's Palestine is further divided into Israel (PAL-IS), including the Palestinian territories, and Jordan (PAL-JO), so is larger than some other definitions of "Palestine".{{sfn|Brummitt|2001}}
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 97 || 1,599|| 137 || <center>-</center> || 1,736
	|-
			=== Birds ===
	|-
			{{main|List of birds of Palestine}}
	| 7 ||align=left | '''Salt'''
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Salt</small>|| 1 || 500||250 ||<center>-</center>||750
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 12 || 685|| <center>-</center> || <center>-</center> || 685
	|-
			== See also ==
	|-
			* ]
	| 8 ||align=left | '''Akka'''
			* ]
	|-
			* ] (a.k.a. Palestinian archaeology)
	| ||align=left | <small>Gaza</small>|| 1 || 547||210 || 6 ||763
			* ]
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 34 || 1,768|| 1,021 || <center>-</center> || 2,789
	|-
			== Notes ==
	|-
			{{notelist-lr}}
	| 9 ||align=left | '''Haifa'''
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Haifa</small>|| 1 || 224||228 ||8 ||460
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 41 || 2,011|| 161 || <center>-</center> || 2,171
	|-
			=== Citations ===
	|-
			{{Reflist|20em}}
	| 10 ||align=left | '''Nazareth'''
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Nazareth</small>|| 1 || 275||1,073 ||<center>-</center>||1,348
	|-
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 38 || 1,606|| 544 || <center>-</center> || 2,150
	|-
			== Bibliography ==
	|-
			{{refbegin|30em}}
	| 11 ||align=left | '''Tiberias'''
			* {{Cite book| title = The Transformation of Palestine
	|-
			| editor-last = Abu-Lughod | editor-first = Ibrahim
	| ||align=left | <small>Tiberias</small>|| 1 || 159||66 || 400 ||625
			| year = 1971
	|-
			| publisher = Northwestern Press | location = Evanston, Illinois
	| ||align=left | <small>Countryside</small>|| 7 || 507|| <center>-</center> || <center>-</center> || 507
			}}
	|-
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = The Rise of the Sanjak of Jerusalem in the Late Nineteenth Century
			| last = Abu-Manneh
			| first = Butrus
			| year = 1999
			| title = The Israel/Palestine Question
			| editor-last = Pappé
			| editor-first = Ilan
			| publisher = Routledge
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OjuKhNEmFvoC
			| isbn = 978-0-415-16948-6
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Textbooks in the Palestinian National Authority
			| last = Adwan
			| first = Sami
			| year = 2006
			| title = Protection of Children During Armed Political Conflict: A Multidisciplinary Perspective
			| editor1-last = Greenbaum
			| editor1-first = Charles W.
			| editor2-last = Veerman
			| editor2-first = Philip E.
			| editor3-last = Bacon-Shnoor
			| editor3-first = Naomi
			| publisher = Intersentia
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9FTxoncXDwwC&pg=PA242
			| pages = 231–256
			| isbn = 978-90-5095-341-2
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography
			| last = Aharoni
			| first = Yohanan
			| publisher = Westminster John Knox Press
			| quote = The desert served as an eastern boundary in times when Transjordan was occupied. But when Transjordan became an unsettled region, a pasturage for desert nomads, then the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea formed the natural eastern boundary of Western Palestine.
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AMtoyNxWw0UC
			| date = 1 January 1979
			| page = 64
			| isbn = 978-0-664-24266-4
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The history of ancient Palestine
			| last = Ahlström
			| first = Gösta Werner
			| year = 1993
			| publisher = ]
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5cSAlLBZKaAC
			| isbn = 978-0-8006-2770-6
			}}
			* {{citation
			| title = The Justice of Occupation
			| last = Alexandrowicz
			| first = Ra'anan
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/25/opinion/the-justice-of-occupation.html?_r=0
			| date = 2012
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Editorial: Scurrying Towards Bethlehem
			| last = Anderson
			| first = Perry
			| year = 2001
			| author-link = Perry Anderson
			| magazine = ]
			| volume = 10
			| url = https://newleftreview.org/article/download_pdf?id=2330
			| access-date = 13 March 2015
			| archive-date = 1 October 2018
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181001124430/https://newleftreview.org/article/download_pdf?id=2330
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite book | title = Tiglath Pileser III | last = Anspacher | first = Abraham Samuel | year = 1912 | url = https://archive.org/stream/tiglathpileserii00anspuoft#page/48/mode/1up | via = ] }}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Claim of Dispossession
			| last = Avneri | first = Arieh L. | year = 1984
			| publisher = Hidekel Press | location = Tel Aviv
			| isbn = 978-0-87855-964-0
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach
			| last = Avni
			| first = Gideon
			| year = 2014
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLucAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA301
			| isbn = 978-0-19-968433-5
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Population of Israel
			| last = Bachi | first = Roberto | year = 1974
			| author-link = Roberto Bachi
			| publisher = Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University | location = Jerusalem
			}}
			* {{Cite book| chapter = Early Sedentism in the Near East: A Bumpy Ride to Village Life
			| last1 = Belfer-Cohen | first1 = Anna
			| last2 = Bar-Yosef | first2 = Ofer
			| year = 2000
			| title = Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: social organization, identity, and differentiation
			| editor-last = Kuijt | editor-first = Ian
			| publisher = Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers | location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-306-46122-4
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tulun to Kafur 868-969
			| last = Bianquis
			| first = Thierry
			| year = 1998
			| title = The Cambridge History of Egypt
			| editor1-last = Daly
			| editor1-first = Martin W.
			| editor2-last = Petry
			| editor2-first = Carl F.
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| volume = 2
			| pages = 86–119
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4X_d1sTjYC&pg=PA86
			| isbn = 978-0-521-47137-4
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = Where was Palestine? pre-World War I perception
			| last = Biger | first = Gideon
			| journal = AREA (Journal of the Institute of British Geographers)
			| year = 1981 | volume = 13 | number = 2 | pages = 153–160
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947
			| last = Biger
			| first = Gideon
			| year = 2004
			| publisher = RoutledgeCurzon
			| at = passim
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wUqRAgAAQBAJ
			| isbn = 978-1-135-76652-8
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape and Art in the Holy City Under Frankish Rule
			| last = Boas
			| first = Adrian J.
			| year = 2001
			| publisher = Routledge
			| location = London
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0TuCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1
			| pages = 19–20
			| isbn = 978-0-415-23000-1
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Ancient Records of Egypt: The first through the seventeenth dynasties
			| last = Breasted
			| first = James Henry
			| year = 2001
			| author-link = James Henry Breasted
			| publisher = University of Illinois Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mJPs-PA0AEUC&pg=PA24
			| isbn = 978-0-252-06990-1
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period
			| last = Broshi | first = Magen
			| journal = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
			| year = 1979 | volume = 236 | issue = 236 | pages = 1–10
			| doi = 10.2307/1356664 | jstor = 1356664 | pmid = 12338473 | s2cid = 24341643
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = A New Introduction to Islam | edition = 2nd
			| last = Brown | first = Daniel W.
			| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions: Edition 2
			| last = Brummitt
			| first = R.K.
			| year = 2001
			| publisher = International Working Group on Taxonomic Databases For Plant Sciences (TDWG)
			| url = http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/tdwg/TDWG_geo2.pdf
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160125135239/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/tdwg/TDWG_geo2.pdf
			| archive-date = 25 January 2016
			| isbn = 978-0-913196-72-4
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Damascus: A History
			| last = Burns
			| first = Ross
			| year = 2005
			| publisher = Routledge
			| location = London
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1_bQTrpf62cC&q=damascus
			| isbn = 978-0-415-27105-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Hamidian Palestine: Politics and Society in the District of Jerusalem 1872–1908
			| last = Büssow
			| first = Johann
			| year = 2011
			| publisher = BRILL
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=crPPX99rjYUC&pg=PA5
			| isbn = 978-90-04-20569-7
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = Josephus and Population Numbers in First-century Palestine
			| last = Byatt | first = Anthony | author-link= Anthony Byatt
			| journal = Palestine Exploration Quarterly
			| year = 1973 | volume = 105 | pages = 51–60
			| doi = 10.1179/peq.1973.105.1.51
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Peoples of Western Asia
			| edition = Illustrated
			| last = Cavendish
			| first = Marshall
			| year = 2007
			| publisher = Marshall Cavendish Corporation
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qA5LnP1pZacC&pg=PA559
			| isbn = 978-0-7614-7677-1
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Greco-Roman Culture and the Galilee of Jesus
			| last = Chancey | first = Mark A | year = 2005
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| isbn = 978-0-521-84647-9
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Firearms: a Global History to 1700
			| last = Chase | first = Kenneth | year = 2003
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| isbn = 978-0-521-82274-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Christian Survivor: How Roman Christianity Defeated Its Early Competitors
			| last = Crotty
			| first = Robert Brian
			| year = 2017
			| publisher = Springer
			| quote = The Babylonians translated the Hebrew name into Aramaic as Yehud Medinata ('the province of Judah') or simply 'Yehud' and made it a new Babylonian province. This was inherited by the Persians. Under the Greeks, Yehud was translated as Judaea and this was taken over by the Romans. After the Jewish rebellion of 135 CE, the Romans renamed the area Syria Palaestina or simply Palestine. The area described by these land titles differed to some extent in the different periods.
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6X6hDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25
			| page = 25 f.n. 4
			| isbn = 978-981-10-3214-1
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Israel and the Assyrians: Deuteronomy, the Succession Treaty of Esarhaddon, and the Nature of Subversion
			| last = Crouch
			| first = C. L.
			| publisher = SBL Press
			| quote = Judah's reason(s) for submitting to Assyrian hegemony, at least superficially, require explanation, while at the same time indications of its read-but-disguised resistance to Assyria must be uncovered... The political and military sprawl of the Assyrian empire during the late Iron Age in the southern Levant, especially toward its outer borders, is not quite akin to the single dominating hegemony envisioned by most discussions of hegemony and subversion. In the case of Judah it should be reiterated that Judah was always a vassal state, semi-autonomous and on the periphery of the imperial system, it was never a fully-integrated provincial territory. The implications of this distinction for Judah's relationship with and experience of the Assyrian empire should not be underestimated; studies of the expression of Assyria's cultural and political powers in its provincial territories and vassal states have revealed notable differences in the degree of active involvement in different types of territories. Indeed, the mechanics of the Assyrian empire were hardly designed for direct control over all its vassals' internal activities, provided that a vassal produced the requisite tribute and did not provoke trouble among its neighbors, the level of direct involvement from Assyria remained relatively low. For the entirety of its experience of the Assyrian empire, Judah functioned as a vassal state, rather than a province under direct Assyrian rule, thereby preserving at least a certain degree of autonomy, especially in its internal affairs. Meanwhile, the general atmosphere of Pax Assyriaca in the southern Levant minimized the necessity of (and opportunities for) external conflict. That Assyrians, at least in small numbers, were present in Judah is likely – probably a qipu and his entourage who, if the recent excavators of Ramat Rahel are correct, perhaps resided just outside the capital – but there is far less evidence than is commonly assumed to suggest that these left a direct impression of Assyria on this small vassal state... The point here is that, despite the wider context of Assyria's political and economic power in the ancient Near East in general and the southern Levant in particular, Judah remained a distinguishable and semi-independent southern Levantine state, '''part of but not subsumed by the Assyrian empire''' and, indeed, benefitting from it in significant ways.
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd3PBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18
			| date = 1 October 2014
			| isbn = 978-1-62837-026-3
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605-594 BC)
			| publisher = ]
			| url = https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx
			| url-status = live
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx
			| date = n.d.
			| access-date = 30 October 2014
			| archive-date = 30 October 2014
			| ref = {{harvid|British Museum|n.d.}}
			}}
			* {{citation
			| title = Demography in Israel/Palestine: Trends, Prospects, Policy Implications
			| last = DellaPergola
			| first = Sergio
			| year = 2001
			| author-link = Sergio DellaPergola
			| journal = IUSSP XXIVth General Population Conference in Salvador de Bahia, Brazil, 18–24 August 2001
			| url = http://archive.iussp.org/Brazil2001/s60/S64_02_dellapergola.pdf
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161202023038/http://archive.iussp.org/Brazil2001/s60/S64_02_dellapergola.pdf
			| archive-date = 2 December 2016
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Rediscovering Palestine: merchants and peasants in Jabal Nablus 1700–1900
			| last = Doumani | first = Beshara | year = 1995
			| publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley
			| isbn = 978-0-520-20370-9
			}}
			* {{citation| title = Canaanites and Philistines
			| last = Drews | first = Robert | year = 1998
			| journal = Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
			| volume = 23 | issue = 81 | pages = 39–61
			| doi = 10.1177/030908929802308104 | s2cid = 144074940
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Early Years of Nebuchadnezzar II (ABC 5)
			| url = https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html
			| date = 1 April 2006
			| access-date = 20 January 2019
			| archive-date = 5 May 2019
			| ref = {{harvid|Chronicle of Nebuchadnezzar II|2006}}
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Forged: writing in the name of God
			| last = Ehrman | first = B. | year = 2011
			| publisher = HarperCollins | isbn = 978-0-06-207863-6
			}}
			* {{cite encyclopedia| title = Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Vol. 8: South and Southwest Asia
			| edition = 1st
			| editor1-last = Ember | editor1-first = Melvin | editor1-link = Melvin Ember
			| editor2-last = Peregrine | editor2-first = Peter Neal | editor2-link = Peter N. Peregrine
			| year = 2001
			| publisher = Springer | location = New York and London
			| page = 185
			| isbn = 978-0-306-46262-7
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule
			| last = Ephal
			| first = Israel
			| year = 2000
			| title = The Cambridge Ancient History
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| volume = 11
			| pages = 139–
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nNDpPqeDjo0C&pg=PA139
			| isbn = 978-0-521-22804-6
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Dead Sea Scrolls and the Hasmonean State
			| last = Eshel | first = Hanan | year = 2008
			| author-link = Hanan Eshel
			| publisher = William B. Eerdmans and Yad Ben-Zvi Press | location = Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge and Jerusalem, Israel
			| series = Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature (SDSS)
			| isbn = 978-0-8028-6285-3
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Estimated Population in the Palestinian Territory Mid-Year by Governorate, 1997–2016
			| publisher = Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics
			| url = http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_Rainbow/Documents/gover_e.htm
			| date = 2016
			| access-date = 4 September 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|PCBoS: Estd Population|2016}}
			| archive-date = 8 June 2014
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140608204943/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_Rainbow/Documents/gover_e.htm
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = The Negev: The Challenge of a Desert
			| last = Evenari | first = Michael | year = 1982
			| publisher = Harvard University Press
			| quote = As the cradle of Christianity, Palestine became the center of religious worship for a vast empire
			| page = 26
			| isbn = 978-0-674-60672-2
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = The encyclopedia of Christianity
			| last1 = Fahlbusch
			| first1 = Erwin
			| last2 = Lochman
			| first2 = Jan Milic
			| last3 = Bromiley
			| first3 = Geoffrey William
			| last4 = Barrett
			| first4 = David B.
			| year = 2005
			| publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
			| location = Grand Rapids
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sCY4sAjTGIYC&pg=PA18
			| isbn = 978-0-8028-2416-5
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Palestine and the Palestinians | edition = 2nd
			| last1 = Farsoun | first1 = Samih K.
			| last2 = Aruri | first2 = Naseer
			| year = 2006
			| publisher = Westview Press | location = Boulder CO
			| isbn = 978-0-8133-4336-5
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Some Observations on the Name of Palestine
			| last = Feldman | first = Louis
			| journal = Hebrew Union College Annual
			| year = 1990 | volume = 61 | pages = 1–23
			| jstor = 23508170
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Some Observations on the Name of Palestine
			| last = Feldman
			| first = Louis H.
			| year = 1996
			| author-link = Louis Feldman
			| orig-year = First published 1990
			| title = Studies in Hellenistic Judaism
			| publisher = Brill
			| location = Leiden
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pACJYw0bg3QC&pg=PA553
			| pages = 553–576
			| isbn = 978-90-04-10418-1
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Quest for the Historical Israel
			| last1 = Finkelstein | first1 = I
			| last2 = Mazar | first2 = A.
			| last3 = Schmidt | first3 = B.
			| year = 2007
			| publisher = Society of Biblical Literature | location = Atlanta, GA
			| isbn = 978-1-58983-277-0
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts
			| last1 = Finkelstein | first1 = Israel
			| last2 = Silberman | first2 = Neil Asher
			| year = 2002
			| publisher = Simon & Schuster
			| isbn = 978-0-684-86912-4
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Palestinia Hagiography (Fourth-Eighth Centuries)
			| last = Flusin
			| first = Bernard
			| year = 2011
			| title = The Ashgate Research Companion to Byzantine Hagiography
			| editor-last = Efthymiadis
			| editor-first = Stephanos
			| publisher = Ashgate Publishing
			| volume = 1
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_MQEQOWFrAMC&pg=PA215
			| isbn = 978-0-7546-5033-1
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Full transcript of Abbas speech at UN General Assembly
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/full-transcript-of-abbas-speech-at-un-general-assembly-1.386385
			| date = 23 September 2011
			| ref = {{harvid|''Haaretz''|2011}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Prefiguring Peace: Israeli-Palestinian Peacebuilding Partnerships
			| last = Gawerc
			| first = Michelle
			| year = 2012
			| publisher = Lexington Books
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Hka8FZ4UdWUC&pg=PA44
			| page = 44
			| isbn = 978-0-7391-6610-9
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Jewish-Transjordanian Relations 1921–48: alliance of bars sinister
			| last = Gelber | first = Yoav | year = 1997
			| publisher = Routledge | location = London
			| isbn = 978-0-7146-4675-6
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = General Assembly Votes Overwhelmingly to Accord Palestine 'Non-Member Observer State' Status in United Nations
			| publisher = United Nations
			| url = https://www.un.org/press/en/2012/ga11317.doc.htm
			| date = 2012
			| access-date = 13 August 2015
			| ref = {{harvid|UN GA/11317|2012}}
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = ''Palestine'' and Other Territorial Concepts in the 17th Century
			| last = Gerber | first = Haim
			| journal = International Journal of Middle East Studies
			| year = 1998 | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 563–572
			| doi = 10.1017/S0020743800052569
			| s2cid = 162982234 }}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Israel, the West Bank and International Law
			| last = Gerson
			| first = Allan
			| year = 2012
			| publisher = Routledge
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nyl9BoCABEsC
			| page = 285
			| isbn = 978-0-7146-3091-5
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = A History of Palestine, 634–1099
			| last = Gil
			| first = Moshe
			| year = 1997
			| author-link = Moshe Gil
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=M0wUKoMJeccC
			| isbn = 978-0-521-59984-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = The Growing Economic Involvement of Palestine with the West, 1865–1914
			| last = Gilbar
			| first = Gad G.
			| year = 1986
			| title = Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: political, social and economic transformation
			| editor-last = Kushner
			| editor-first = David
			| publisher = Brill Academic Publishers
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XgRDT9wMUhYC&pg=PA188
			| pages = 188–210
			| isbn = 978-90-04-07792-8
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Ottoman Palestine: 1800–1914: studies in economic and social history
			| editor-last = Gilbar | editor-first = Gad G.
			| year = 1990
			| publisher = Brill
			| isbn = 978-90-04-07785-0
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Routledge Atlas of the Arab-Israeli Conflict
			| last = Gilbert | first = Martin | year = 2005
			| author-link = Martin Gilbert
			| publisher = Routledge | location = London
			| isbn = 978-0-415-35900-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Jews and Christians: Getting Our Stories Straight
			| last = Goldberg
			| first = Michael
			| year = 2001
			| publisher = Wipf and Stock Publishers
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XLBKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA147
			| isbn = 978-1-57910-776-5
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1
			| last = Grabbe
			| first = Lester L.
			| year = 2004
			| publisher = T & T Clark
			| url = {{Google books|-MnE5T_0RbMC|page=PA355|keywords=|text=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the|plainurl=yes}}
			| page = 355
			| isbn = 978-0-567-08998-4
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Legal Foundation and Borders of Israel Under International Law
			| last = Grief
			| first = Howard
			| year = 2008
			| publisher = Mazo Publishers
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yqk3XE196GsC&pg=PA33
			| isbn = 978-965-7344-52-1
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Giving the Sense: understanding and using Old Testament historical texts
			| edition = Illustrated
			| last1 = Grisanti
			| first1 = Michael A.
			| last2 = Howard
			| first2 = David M.
			| year = 2003
			| publisher = Kregel Publications
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=stMd0QV97IYC&pg=PA160
			| isbn = 978-0-8254-2892-0
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte | edition = 2nd
			| trans-title = Atlas of World History
			| publisher = Georg Westermann Verlag | location = Braunschweig
			| year = 2001
			| isbn = 978-3-07-509520-1
			| ref = {{harvid|GWV|2001}}
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza
			| last = Hajjar
			| first = Lisa
			| year = 2005
			| publisher = University of California Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mcjoHq2wqdUC&pg=PA96
			| page = 96
			| isbn = 978-0-520-24194-7
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: an investigation
			| editor-last = Hansen | editor-first = Mogens Herman
			| year = 2000
			| publisher = Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab | location = Copenhagen
			| isbn = 978-87-7876-177-4
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia
			| last = Harris | first = David Russell | year = 1996
			| publisher = Routledge | location = London
			| isbn = 978-1-85728-537-6
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity: from Alexander to Bar Kochba
			| last1 = Hayes | first1 = John H.
			| last2 = Mandell | first2 = Sara R
			| year = 1998
			| publisher = Westminster John Knox Press | location = Louisville KY
			| isbn = 978-0-664-25727-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Histories, full text of all books (Book I to Book IX)
			| last = Herodotus
			| year = 1858
			| author-link = Herodotus
			| editor-last = Rawlinson
			| editor-first = George
			| editor-link = George Rawlinson
			| url = http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html
			}}
			* {{Cite web
			| title = Herodotus, The Histories, book 3, chapter 91, section 1
			| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=3:chapter=91:section=1
			| ref = {{harvid|Herodotus 3:91:1}}
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Allenby and British Strategy in the Middle East, 1917–1919
			| last = Hughes | first = Mark | year = 1999
			| publisher = Routledge | location = London
			| isbn = 978-0-7146-4920-7
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Palestine Papers 1917–1922
			| last = Ingrams | first = Doreen | year = 1972
			| publisher = John Murray | location = London
			| isbn = 978-0-8076-0648-3
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Palestine and Israel
			| last = Jacobson | first = David
			| journal = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
			| year = 1999 | volume = 313 | issue = 313 | pages = 65–74
			| doi = 10.2307/1357617 | jstor = 1357617 | s2cid = 163303829
			}}
			* {{citation
			| title = When Palestine Meant Israel
			| last = Jacobson
			| first = David
			| year = 2001
			| journal = Biblical Archaeology Review
			| volume = 27
			| issue = 3
			| url = http://members.bib-arch.org/publication.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=27&Issue=3&ArticleID=3
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Jews, by Continent of Origin, Continent of Birth & Period of Immigration
			| publisher = Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
			| url = http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_09&CYear=2016
			| date = 2016
			| access-date = 4 September 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|ICBoS: Jews|2016}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Reading as a Philistine
			| last1 = Jobling
			| first1 = David
			| author-link1 = David Jobling
			| last2 = Rose
			| first2 = Catherine
			| year = 1996
			| title = Ethnicity and the Bible
			| editor-last = Brett
			| editor-first = Mark G.
			| publisher = BRILL
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RfFRhC4FpZkC&pg=PA404
			| isbn = 978-0-391-04126-4
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Religions of the Ancient World: a guide
			| last = Johnston | first = Sarah Iles | year = 2004
			| publisher = MA: Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, MA
			| isbn = 978-0-674-01517-3
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Revolt in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: The Era of Shaykh Zahir Al-ʻUmar
			| last = Joudah
			| first = Ahmad Hasan
			| year = 1987
			| publisher = Kingston Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zQAdAAAAMAAJ&q=dayr+hanna
			| isbn = 978-0-940670-11-2
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests
			| edition = Reprint, illustrated
			| last = Kaegi
			| first = Walter Emil
			| year = 1995
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YSULouFrzx4C&pg=PA41
			| isbn = 978-0-521-48455-8
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History
			| last = Karpat | first = Kemal H | year = 2002
			| publisher = Brill | location = Leiden
			| isbn = 978-90-04-12101-0
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Dilemmas of Attachment: Identity and Belonging among Palestinian Christians
			| last = Kårtveit | first = Bård | year = 2014
			| publisher = BRILL
			| quote = is widely regarded as the cradle of Christianity
			| page = 209
			| isbn = 978-90-04-27639-0
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Palestinian Identity. The Construction of Modern National Consciousness
			| last = Khalidi | first = Rashid | year = 1997
			| author-link = Rashid Khalidi
			| publisher = ] | location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-231-10515-6
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = The Palestinians and 1948: the underlying causes of failure
			| last = Khalidi
			| first = Rashid
			| year = 2007
			| author-link = Rashid Khalidi
			| orig-year = 1st ed. 2001
			| title = The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948
			| edition = 2nd
			| editor1-last = Rogan
			| editor1-first = Eugene L.
			| editor2-last = Shlaim
			| editor2-first = Avi
			| publisher = ]
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h3EOJGiBBpQC&pg=PR5
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h3EOJGiBBpQC
			| isbn = 978-0-521-69934-1
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines and Early Israel 1300–1100 BC
			| last = Killebrew | first = Ann E. | year = 2005
			| publisher = Society of Biblical Literature
			| isbn = 978-1-58983-097-4
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Palestinians: The Making of a People
			| last1 = Kimmerling | first1 = Baruch
			| last2 = Migdal | first2 = Joel S
			| year = 1994
			| publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge MA
			| isbn = 978-0-674-65223-1
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Palestinian People: A History
			| last1 = Kimmerling
			| first1 = Baruch
			| last2 = Migdal
			| first2 = Joel S.
			| author1-link = Baruch Kimmerling
			| author2-link = Joel S. Migdal
			| year = 2003
			| publisher = Harvard University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6NRYEr8FR1IC&q=Hebron+Ibrahim+August+1834
			| isbn = 978-0-674-01129-8
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Civilisations in Conflict?: Islam, the West and Christian Faith
			| last = Kirk
			| first = J Andrew
			| year = 2011
			| publisher = OCMS
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ckEzKBFqQPQC&pg=PA46
			| isbn = 978-1-870345-87-3
			}}
			* {{citation
			| title = The Evolution of the Egypt-Israel Boundary: From Colonial Foundations to Peaceful Borders
			| last = Kliot
			| first = Nurit
			| publisher = International Boundaries Research Unit
			| volume = 1
			| issue = 8
			| url = https://www.dur.ac.uk/ibru/publications/download/?id=207
			| date = 1995
			| isbn = 978-1-897643-17-4
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem
			| last = Köchler | first = Hans | year = 1981
			| author-link = Hans Köchler
			| publisher = Braumüller | location = Vienna
			| isbn = 978-3-7003-0278-0
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel
			| last = Krämer
			| first = Gudrun
			| year = 2011
			| publisher = Princeton University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tWrW_CKODdQC
			| isbn = 978-0-691-15007-9
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = The law of belligerent occupation in the Supreme Court of Israel
			| last = Kretzmer
			| first = David
			| author-link = David Kretzmer
			| journal = International Review of the Red Cross
			| year = 2012
			| volume = 94
			| issue = 885
			| pages = 207–236
			| url = https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/review/2012/irrc-885-kretzmer.pdf
			| doi = 10.1017/S1816383112000446
			| s2cid = 32105258
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Fatah and the Politics of Violence: the institutionalization of a popular Struggle
			| last = Kurz | first = Anat N | year = 2005
			| publisher = Sussex Academic Press | location = Brighton
			| isbn = 978-1-84519-032-3
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Jews and Muslims in the Arab world: haunted by pasts real and imagined
			| edition = Illustrated
			| last1 = Lassner
			| first1 = Jacob
			| last2 = Troen
			| first2 = Selwyn Ilan
			| year = 2007
			| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNCUXGoFWMC&pg=PA55
			| isbn = 978-0-7425-5842-7
			}}
			* {{cite encyclopedia
			| title = Palestine: History: 135–337: Syria Palaestina and the Tetrarchy
			| last = Lehmann
			| first = Clayton Miles
			| encyclopedia = The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces
			| publisher = University of South Dakota
			| quote = In the aftermath of the Bar Cochba Revolt, the Romans excluded Jews from a large area around Aelia Capitolina, which Gentiles only inhabited. The province now hosted two legions and many auxiliary units, two colonies, and—to complete the disassociation with Judaea—a new name, Syria Palaestina.
			| url = http://www.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/history.htm
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090811054625/http://www.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/history.htm
			| date =Summer 1998
			| access-date = 24 August 2014
			| archive-date = 11 August 2009<!-- 054625 -->
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism
			| last = Levin | first = Yigal
			| journal = Religions
			| date = 24 September 2020 | volume = 11 | issue = 10 | page = 487
			| doi = 10.3390/rel11100487 | issn = 2077-1444
			| doi-access = free
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine
			| last = Lewin
			| first = Ariel
			| year = 2005
			| publisher = Getty Publications
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zlToSqE0k_cC
			| isbn = 978-0-89236-800-6
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Studies in the Ottoman Archives—I
			| last = Lewis | first = Bernard
			| journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
			| year = 1954 | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 469–501
			| doi = 10.1017/s0041977x00086808 | s2cid = 162304704
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Islam in History: ideas, people and events in the Middle East
			| last = Lewis | first = Bernard | year = 1993
			| author-link = Bernard Lewis
			| publisher = Open Court Publishing | location = Chicago
			| isbn = 978-0-8126-9518-2
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = Features of the demography of Palestine
			| last = Loftus | first = J. P.
			| journal = Population Studies
			| year = 1948 | volume = 2 | pages = 92–114
			| doi = 10.1080/00324728.1948.10416341
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = The United Kingdom and the Beginning of the Mandates System, 1919–1922
			| last = Louis | first = Wm Roger
			| journal = ]
			| year = 1969 | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–96
			| doi = 10.1017/S0020818300025534 | s2cid = 154745632
			}}
			* {{Cite EB1911
			| last1 = Macalister | first1 = Robert Alexander Stewart
			| last2 = Cook | first2 = Stanley Arthur
			| last3 = Hart | first3 = John Henry Arthur
			| author1-link = R. A. Stewart Macalister
			| author2-link = Stanley Arthur Cook
			| editor-last = Chisholm | editor-first = Hugh
			| volume = 20
			| wstitle = Palestine
			| pages = 600–626
			| ref = {{harvid|EB|1911}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Palestine Inside Out: An Everyday Occupation
			| last = Makdisi
			| first = Saree
			| year = 2010
			| author-link = Saree Makdisi
			| publisher = W. W. Norton & Company
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2dBM3Ago2BAC&pg=PA299
			| isbn = 978-0-393-33844-7
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = A History of the Jewish People
			| last1 = Malamat
			| first1 = Abraham
			| last2 = Tadmor
			| first2 = Hayim
			| year = 1976
			| editor-last = Ben-Sasson
			| editor-first = Haim Hillel
			| publisher = Harvard University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PA226
			| isbn = 978-0-674-39731-6
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Arabs and Zionism Before World War I
			| last = Mandel | first = Neville J | year = 1976
			| publisher = University of California Press
			| isbn = 978-0-520-02466-3
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Protection, conservation and valorisation of Palestinian Cultural Patrimony
			| last = Maniscalco | first = Fabio | year = 2005
			| author-link = Fabio Maniscalco
			| publisher = Massa Publisher
			| isbn = 978-88-87835-62-5
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume III: AD 527–641
			| last1 = Martindale
			| first1 = John R.
			| last2 = Jones
			| first2 = A.H.M.
			| last3 = Morris
			| first3 = John
			| year = 1992
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fBImqkpzQPsC
			| isbn = 978-0-521-20160-5
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine-Israel
			| last = Masalha
			| first = Nur
			| year = 2007
			| author-link = Nur Masalha
			| publisher = Zed Books
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LAUeWo8NDK4C&pg=PA32
			| isbn = 978-1-84277-761-9
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = The Population of Palestine
			| last = McCarthy | first = Justin | year = 1990
			| publisher = Columbia University Press
			| isbn = 978-0-231-07110-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
			| title = Jordan: A Country Study
			| editor-last = Metz
			| editor-first = Helen Chapin
			| editor-link = Helen Chapin Metz
			| year = 1989
			| publisher = GPO for the Library of Congress
			| url = http://countrystudies.us/jordan/10.htm
			| isbn = 978-0-16-033746-8
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Divided Economy of Mandatory Palestine
			| last = Metzer | first = Jacob | year = 1998
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| series = Cambridge Middle East Studies, Series Number 11
			| isbn = 978-0-521-46550-2
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible
			| last1 = Meyers
			| first1 = Eric M.
			| last2 = Chancey
			| first2 = Mark A.
			| publisher = Yale University Press
			| volume = III
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vw-u7j4JxNYC
			| date = 25 September 2012
			| isbn = 978-0-300-14179-5
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Will Palestinians outnumber Israeli Jews by 2016?
			| last = Mezzofiore
			| first = Gianluca
			| newspaper = International Business Times
			| url = http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/will-palestinians-outnumber-israeli-jews-by-2016-1481628
			| date = 2 January 2015
			| access-date = 18 May 2016
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Mercer Dictionary of the Bible
			| last = Mills | first = Watson E | year = 1990
			| publisher = Mercer University Press
			| isbn = 978-0-86554-373-7
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = PA Weighs 'State of Palestine' Passport
			| last = Miskin
			| first = Maayana
			| website = Arutz Sheva
			| quote = A senior PA official revealed the plans in an interview with ''Al-Quds'' newspaper. The change to 'state' status is important because it shows that 'the state of Palestine is occupied,' he said.
			| url = http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/162844#.U5TD6vmICm6
			| url-status = live
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121207082503/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/162844
			| date = 5 December 2012
			| access-date = 8 June 2014
			| archive-date = 7 December 2012
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist–Arab Conflict, 1881–1999
			| last = Morris
			| first = Benny
			| year = 2001
			| author-link = Benny Morris
			| orig-year = First published 1999
			| publisher = ]
			| location = New York
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZawVAQAACAAJ
			| isbn = 978-0-679-74475-7
			}}
			* {{cite book| chapter = Jews in Iran
			| last = Neusner | first = J. | year = 1983
			| title = The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (2); the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods
			| editor-last = Yarshater | editor-first = Ehsan
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| isbn = 978-0-521-24693-4
			}}
			* {{cite journal |last=Noth |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Noth |title=Zur Geschichte des Namens Palästina |journal=Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins |volume=62 |issue=1/2 |year=1939 |pages=125–144 |publisher=Deutscher Verein zur Erforschung Palästinas |jstor=27930226}}
			* {{Cite book| chapter = The Christian Communities, religion, politics and church-state relations in Jerusalem: an historical survey
			| last = O'Mahony | first = Anthony | year = 2003
			| title = The Christian communities of Jerusalem and the Holy Land: Studies in History, Religion and Politics
			| publisher = University of Wales Press
			| isbn = 978-0-7083-1772-3
			}}
			* {{citation
			| title = Palestine
			| encyclopedia = ]
			| publisher = Funk & Wagnalls
			| url = http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=31&letter=P&search=palestine
			| date = 1906
			| ref = {{harvid|Jewish Encyclopedia|1906}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Palestinians win implicit U.N. recognition of sovereign state
			| publisher = ]
			| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-statehood-idUSBRE8AR0EG20121129
			| date = 29 November 2012
			| access-date = 29 November 2012
			| ref = {{harvid|Reuters: recognition|2012}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Introduction
			| last = Pappé
			| first = Ilan
			| year = 1994
			| author-link = Ilan Pappé
			| title = The Making of the Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1947–1951
			| publisher = ]
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zAJZCKAwtPMC&pg=PR5
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zAJZCKAwtPMC
			| isbn = 978-1-85043-819-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Israel/Palestine Question
			| last = Pappe
			| first = Ilan
			| year = 1999
			| author-link = Ilan Pappe
			| publisher = Taylor & Francis
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OjuKhNEmFvoC&pg=PA38
			| isbn = 978-0-415-16948-6
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Land and Economy in Ancient Palestine
			| last = Pastor | first = Jack | year = 1997
			| publisher = Routledge | location = London
			| isbn = 978-0-415-15960-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Acre: The Rise and Fall of a Palestinian City, 1730–1831
			| last = Phillipp
			| first = Thomas
			| year = 2013
			| publisher = Columbia University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=95I5QVdp4_gC&q=Zahir+Umar&pg=PA242
			| isbn = 978-0-231-50603-8
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Population, by Population Group
			| publisher = Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
			| url = http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_01&CYear=2016
			| date = 2016
			| access-date = 4 September 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|ICBoS: Population|2016}}
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement, 1918–1929
			| last = Porath | first = Yehoshua | year = 1974
			| publisher = Frank Cass | location = London
			| isbn = 978-0-7146-2939-1
			}}
			* {{Cite book| chapter = Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt
			| last = Redmount | first = Carol A | year = 1999
			| title = The Oxford History of the Biblical World
			| editor-last = Coogan | editor-first = Michael D.
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| isbn = 978-0-19-508707-9
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Physical geography of the Holy Land
			| last = Robinson | first = Edward | year = 1865
			| publisher = Crocker & Brewster | location = Boston
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921
			| last = Rogan | first = Eugene L | year = 2002
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| isbn = 978-0-521-89223-0
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Placenames of the World: origins and meanings of the names for 6,600 countries, cities, territories, natural features, and historic sites
			| edition = 2nd, illustrated
			| last = Room
			| first = Adrian
			| year = 2006
			| publisher = McFarland
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C&pg=PA285
			| isbn = 978-0-7864-2248-7
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Lithics After the Stone Age: a handbook of stone tools from the Levant
			| last = Rosen | first = Steven A | year = 1997
			| publisher = Rowman Altamira
			| isbn = 978-0-7619-9124-3
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = A History of Israel: from the rise of Zionism to our time | edition = 2nd
			| last = Sachar | first = Howard M. | year = 2006
			| author-link = Howard Sachar
			| publisher = Alfred A. Knopf
			| isbn = 978-0-679-76563-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Culture and Resistance: Conversations with Edward W. Said
			| last = Said
			| first = Edward
			| year = 2003
			| author-link = Edward Said
			| publisher = Pluto Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SUt6EAoH0xgC&pg=PA33
			| page = 33
			| isbn = 978-0-7453-2017-5
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Blaming the Victims: spurious scholarship and the Palestinian Question
			| last1 = Said | first1 = Edward
			| last2 = Hitchens | first2 = Christopher
			| author1-link = Edward Said
			| year = 2001
			| publisher = Verso
			| isbn = 978-1-85984-340-6
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Matthew's Christian-Jewish Community
			| last = Saldarini
			| first = Anthony
			| year = 1994
			| publisher = University of Chicago Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=btSZh4_vzqoC&pg=PA28
			| isbn = 978-0-226-73421-7
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = The Modern History of Jordan
			| last = Salibi | first = Kamal Suleiman | year = 1993
			| publisher = I.B.Tauris
			| pages = 17–18
			| isbn = 978-1-86064-331-6
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Sanger
			| first = Andrew
			| title = Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law - 2010
			| chapter = The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla
			| editor1-last = Schmitt
			| editor1-first = M.N.
			| editor2-last = Arimatsu
			| editor2-first = Louise
			| editor3-last = McCormack
			| editor3-first = Tim
			| year = 2011
			| volume = 13
			| page = 429
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hYiIWVlpFzEC&pg=PA429
			| doi = 10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14
			| isbn = 978-90-6704-811-8
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World
			| last = Schäfer
			| first = Peter
			| year = 2003
			| publisher = Psychology Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YBarWAR2qVkC
			| isbn = 978-0-415-30585-3
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Internet View of the Arabic World
			| last = Schiller
			| first = Jon
			| year = 2009
			| publisher = PublishAmerica
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ-VAkIdiX0C&pg=PA98
			| isbn = 978-1-4392-6326-6
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Tel Aviv: From Dream to City
			| last = Schlor | first = Joachim | year = 1999
			| publisher = Reaktion Books
			| isbn = 978-1-86189-033-7
			}}
			* {{Cite book| chapter = Population Characteristics of Jerusalem and Hebron Regions According to Ottoman Census of 1905
			| last = Schmelz | first = Uziel O. | year = 1990
			| title = Ottoman Palestine: 1800–1914
			| editor-last = Gilbar | editor-first = Gar G
			| publisher = Brill | location = Leiden
			| isbn = 978-90-04-07785-0
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = The Demographic Development of Palestine 1850–1882
			| last = Scholch | first = Alexander
			| journal = International Journal of Middle East Studies
			| year = 1985 | volume = XII | issue = 4 | pages = 485–505
			| doi = 10.1017/S0020743800029445 | jstor = 00207438
			| s2cid = 154921401 }}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung ("KGF", in English "Cuneiform inscriptions and Historical Research")
			| last = Schrader
			| first = Eberhard
			| year = 1878
			| author-link = Eberhard Schrader
			| publisher = J. Ricker'sche Buchhandlung
			| language = de
			| url = https://archive.org/stream/keilinschriften00schrgoog#page/n136/mode/1up
			| via = ]
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = International Law and the Classification of Conflicts
			| last = Scobbie
			| first = Iain
			| year = 2012
			| author-link = Iain Scobbie
			| editor-last = Wilmshurst
			| editor-first = Elizabeth
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GM90Xp03uuEC&pg=PA295
			| page = 295
			| isbn = 978-0-19-965775-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Nebi Musa, 1920
			| last = Segev
			| first = Tom
			| year = 2001
			| author-link = Tom Segev
			| orig-year = Original in 2000
			| title = One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate
			| others = Trans. Haim Watzman
			| publisher = ]
			| location = London
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XvT8CWv2DakC&pg=PA127
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XvT8CWv2DakC
			| isbn = 978-0-8050-6587-9
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = A History of the Crusades
			| editor-last = Setton | editor-first = Kenneth
			| year = 1969
			| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press
			}} In six volumes: (2nd ed. 1969); (1969); (1975); (1977); (1985); (1989)
			* {{Cite book| title = Palestine: a Guide
			| last = Shahin | first = Mariam | year = 2005
			| publisher = Interlink Books
			| isbn = 978-1-56656-557-8
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Israel a history, translated from Hebrew by Anthony Berris
			| last = Shapira | first = Anita | year = 2014
			| publisher = Weidenfeld and Nicolson | location = London
			| page = 15
			| isbn = 978-1-61168-352-3
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = The Holy Land in History and Thought: papers submitted to the International Conference on the Relations between the Holy Land and the World Outside It, Johannesburg, 1986
			| last = Sharon
			| first = Moshe
			| year = 1988
			| publisher = Brill Archive
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec4UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP15
			| isbn = 978-90-04-08855-9
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = The Population of Iron Age Palestine in the Light of a Sample Analysis of Urban Plans, Areas, and Population Density
			| last = Shiloh | first = Yigal
			| journal = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
			| year = 1980 | volume = 239 | issue = 239 | pages = 25–35
			| doi = 10.2307/1356754 | jstor = 1356754 | s2cid = 163824693
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Reshaping Palestine: from Muhammad Ali to the British Mandate, 1831–1922
			| last = Sicker | first = Martin | year = 1999
			| publisher = Praeger/Greenwood | location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-275-96639-3
			}}
			* {{Cite book| chapter = Diplomatic Recognition of States ''in statu nascendi'': The Case of Palestine
			| last = Silverburg | first = Sanford R. | year = 2009
			| title = Palestine and International Law: Essays on Politics and Economics
			| editor-last = Silverburg | editor-first = Sanford R.
			| publisher = Diplomatic Recognition of States
			| isbn = 978-0-7864-4248-5
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Palestine in Late Antiquity
			| last = Sivan | first = Hagith | year = 2008
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| page = 2
			| isbn = 978-0-19-160867-4
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = The Gentiles in Judaism
			| last = Smith
			| first = Morton
			| year = 1999
			| author-link = Morton Smith
			| title = Cambridge History of Judaism
			| publisher = CUP
			| volume = 3
			| page = 210
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MA-4VX5gWS4C&pg=PA210
			| isbn = 978-0-521-24377-3
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = State of Palestine name change shows limitations
			| agency = AP
			| quote = Israel remains in charge of territories the world says should one day make up that state.
			| url = https://news.yahoo.com/state-palestine-name-change-shows-limitations-200641448.html
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130110025703/http://news.yahoo.com/state-palestine-name-change-shows-limitations-200641448.html
			| date = 17 January 2013
			| archive-date = 10 January 2013
			| ref = {{harvid|AP|2013}}
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = Shifting Ottoman Conceptions of Palestine-Part 1: Filistin Risalesi and the two Jamals
			| last = Tamari
			| first = Salim
			| journal = Jerusalem Quarterly
			| year = 2011
			| issue = 49
			| pages = 28–37
			| url = http://www.jerusalemquarterly.org/images/ArticlesPdf/47-%20Shifting%20Ottoman.pdf
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea
			| last = Taylor
			| first = Joan E.
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| quote = Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XWIMFY4VnI4C&q=bar+kokhba%22+genocide%22&pg=PA243
			| date = 15 November 2012
			| isbn = 978-0-19-955448-5
			}}
			* {{Cite web
			| title = Temple of Jerusalem {{!}} Description, History, & Significance {{!}} Britannica
			| url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/Temple-of-Jerusalem
			| access-date = 28 February 2022
			| ref = {{harvid|''Temple of Jerusalem''}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
			| last = Tessler
			| first = Mark
			| year = 1994
			| publisher = Indiana University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3kbU4BIAcrQC&pg=PA163
			| isbn = 978-0-253-20873-6
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History
			| editor1-last = Tucker
			| editor1-first = Spencer C.
			| editor1-link = Spencer C. Tucker
			| editor2-last = Roberts
			| editor2-first = Priscilla
			| year = 2008
			| publisher = ABC-CLIO
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC
			| page = 1553
			| isbn = 978-1-85109-842-2
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Lack of sufficient services in Gaza could get worse without urgent action, UN warns
			| author = UN News Centre
			| publisher = UN Publications
			| url = https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=42751#.UP35DaF4YZc
			| date = 2012
			| access-date = 22 January 2013
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = The True Herod
			| last = Vermes | first = Géza | year = 2014
			| author-link = Géza Vermes
			| publisher = Bloomsbury
			| isbn = 978-0-567-48841-1
			}}
			* {{Cite book| chapter = Production, exchange and regional trade in the Islamic Wast Mediterranean: old structures, new systems?
			| last = Walmsley | first = Alan | year = 2000
			| title = The Long Eighth Century: Production, Distribution and Demand
			| editor1-last = Hansen | editor1-first = Inge Lyse
			| editor2-last = Wickham | editor2-first = Chris
			| publisher = BRILL
			| isbn = 978-90-04-11723-5
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law
			| last = Weill
			| first = Sharon
			| year = 2014
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bDnnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA22
			| page = 22
			| isbn = 978-0-19-968542-4
			}}
			* {{Cite book| chapter = The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)
			| last = Wenning | first = Robert | year = 2007
			| title = The World of the Nabataeans: Volume 2 of the International Conference the World of the Herods and the Nabataeans Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April, 2001
			| editor-last = Politis | editor-first = Konstantinos D
			| publisher = Franz Steiner Verlag | location = Wiesbaden
			| series = Oriens Et Occidens
			| isbn = 978-3-515-08816-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History
			| last = Whitelam
			| first = Keith W.
			| year = 1996
			| publisher = Routledge
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sHYeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40
			| isbn = 978-1-317-79916-0
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Haifa in the Late Ottoman Period, A Muslim Town in Transition, 1864–1914
			| last = Yazbak
			| first = Mahmoud
			| year = 1998
			| author-link = Mahmoud Yazbak
			| publisher = Brill Academic Pub
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DPseCvbPsKsC
			| isbn = 978-90-04-11051-9
			}}
			* {{citation| title = An Ottoman century: the district of Jerusalem in the 1600s
			| last = Zeevi | first = Dror | year = 1996
			| publisher = SUNY Press
			| isbn = 978-0-7914-2915-0
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| chapter = Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective
			| last = Zissu
			| first = Boaz
			| year = 2018
			| title = Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE
			| others = Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson
			| location = Leiden, The Netherlands
			| url = https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967
			| page = 19
			| isbn = 978-90-04-34986-5
			| oclc = 988856967
			}}
			{{refend}}
			== External links ==
	|-
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			]
	Figures from Ben-Arieh, in Scholch 1985, p. 388.
			]
			]
	According to ] statistics studied by ],<ref>McCarthy, 1990, p.26.</ref> the population of Palestine in the early 19th century was 350,000, in 1860 it was 411,000 and in 1900 about 600,000 of which 94% were ]. In 1914 Palestine had a population of 657,000 Muslim Arabs, 81,000 Christian Arabs, and 59,000 Jews.<ref>McCarthy, 1990.</ref>
			]
			]
	According to ], the Arab population of Palestine was about 260,000 in 1882. This number had doubled by 1914 and reached 600,000 by 1920 and 840,000 by 1931. Thus, between 1922 and 1946 the Arab population of Palestine increased by 118 percent, the highest rate of population growth among all Arab lands except ].<ref name=Sachar">Sachar, p. 167.</ref> McCarthy estimates the non-Jewish population of Palestine at 452,789 in 1882, 737,389 in 1914, 725,507 in 1922, 880,746 in 1931 and 1,339,763 in 1946.<ref>McCarthy, 1990, pp. 37-38.</ref>
			]
	====Travelers' impressions of 19th century Palestine====
	] visited Palestine in 1835, "Outside the gates of Jerusalem we saw indeed no living object, heard no living sound, we found the same void, the same silence ... as we should have expected before the entombed gates of Pompeii or Herculaneam a complete eternal silence reigns in the town, on the highways, in the country ... the tomb of a whole people.<ref> Katz, 114 citing Alphonse de Lamartine, ''Recollections of the East'', Vol. I (London, 1845), pp. 268, 308. </ref>
	] wrote an account of his visit to Palestine in 1867, and wrote in chapters 46,49,52 and 56 of '']'': "Palestine sits in sackcloth and ashes. Over it broods the spell of a curse that has withered its fields and fettered its energies. Palestine is desolate and unlovely -- Palestine is no more of this workday world. It is sacred to poetry and tradition, it is dreamland."(Chapter 56)<ref> .</ref> "There was hardly a tree or a shrub anywhere. Even the olive and the cactus, those fast friends of a worthless soil, had almost deserted the country". (Chapter 52)<ref> .</ref> "A desolation is here that not even imagination can grace with the pomp of life and action. We reached Tabor safely. We never saw a human being on the whole route". (Chapter 49) <ref>.</ref> "There is not a solitary village throughout its whole extent – not for thirty miles in either direction. ...One may ride ten miles (16 km) hereabouts and not see ten human beings." ...these unpeopled deserts, these rusty mounds of barrenness..."(Chapter 46) <ref>.</ref>
	] writes that "Twain's descriptions are high in Israeli government press handouts that present a case for Israel's redemption of a land that had previously been empty and barren. His gross characterizations of the land and the people in the time before mass Jewish immigration are also often used by US propagandists for Israel."<ref>K. Christison, Perceptions of Palestine: Their Influence on U.S. Middle East Policy, Univ. of California Press, 1999; p16.</ref> For example she noted that Twain described the Samaritans of Nablus at length without mentioning the much larger Arab population at all.<ref>K. Christison, Perceptions of Palestine: Their Influence on US Middle East Policy, Univ. of California Press, 1999; p. 20.</ref> The Arab population of Nablus at the time was about 20,000.<ref>B. B. Doumani, The political economy of population counts in Ottoman Palestine: Nablus, Circa 1950, ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol 26 (1994) 1-17.</ref>
	During the nineteenth century, many residents and visitors attempted to estimate the population without recourse to official data, and came up with a large number of different values. Estimates that are reasonably reliable are only available for the final third of the century, from which period Ottoman population and taxation registers have been preserved.<ref>J. McCarthy, The population of Ottoman Syria and Iraq, 1878-1914, ''Asian and African Studies'', vol. 15 (1981) pp. 3-44. K. H. Karpat, Ottoman population 1830-1914 (Univ. Wisconsin Press, 1985).</ref>
	After a visit to Palestine in 1891, ] wrote:
	<blockquote>
	From abroad, we are accustomed to believe that Eretz Israel is presently almost totally desolate, an uncultivated desert, and that anyone wishing to buy land there can come and buy all he wants. But in truth it is not so. In the entire land, it is hard to find tillable land that is not already tilled; only sandy fields or stony hills, suitable at best for planting trees or vines and, even that after considerable work and expense in clearing and preparing them- only these remain unworked. ... Many of our people who came to buy land have been in Eretz Israel for months, and have toured its length and width, without finding what they seek.<ref> Alan Dowty, Much Ado about Little: Ahad Ha'am's "Truth from Eretz Yisrael", Zionism, and the Arabs, ''Israel Studies'', Vol. 5, No. 2 (Fall 2000) 154-181.</ref>
	</blockquote>
	In 1852 the ] ] ] travelled across the ], which he described in his 1854 book ''The Lands of the Saracen; or, Pictures of Palestine, Asia Minor, Sicily and Spain'' as: "one of the richest districts in the world."<ref>http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10924/10924-h/10924-h.htm</ref>, while ], who visited Palestine in 1887, wrote that Palestine's ] was "a huge green lake of waving wheat, with its village-crowned mounds rising from it like islands; and it presents one of the most striking pictures of luxuriant fertility which it is possible to conceive."<ref>Abu-Lughod, 1971, p. 126.</ref>
	The Dutch scholar and cartographer ] visited Palestine in 1695, made a population census, and came to the conclusion that Palestine was mostly empty with several existing communities of Jews and Christians.<ref>RELANDI HADRIANI Palaestina ex monumentis veteribus illustrata.
	Trajecti Batavorum, Guilielmi, 1714., pages 648-649</ref>
	According to Paul Masson, a French economic historian, "wheat shipments from the Palestinian port of Acre had helped to save southern France from famine on numerous occasions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries."<ref>Marwan R. Beheiry, "The Agricultural Exports of Southern Palestine, 1885-1 9 14", ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', volume 10, No. 4, 198 1, p. 67.</ref>
	Walter C. Lowdermilk, Assistant Chief of the United States Soil Conservation Service has compared Palestine favorably to California:
	<blockquote>
	The similarity of Southern California and Palestine is so close in climate, topography, soils and vegetation that the present condition of similarly placed areas in California is a reliable index of the early condition of the land of Palestine. Vegetation varied from desert scrub on lower slopes of the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea, to luxuriant forests of Cedars of Lebanon on the flanks of Mount Hermon, similar to the desert vegetation from Coachella Valley below sea level in Southern California to pine and fir forests on lower slopes of Mt. Baldy (10,000 ft) in the San Gabriel Range. Rainfall favours Palestine, for Jaffa gets more rain 2 1.5 inches) per annum than Los Angeles (15.2 inches), and the Mt. Hermon mountain land mass gets up to {{convert|70|in|mm}} of rain while Mt. Baldy only {{convert|50|in|mm}}. Other comparisons are striking. The region of the Jordan River, including Palestine and Trans-Jordan and the maritime slopes, is quite similar to California, but has an added advantage of its limestone country rock. The climates are alike, the natural vegetation, the physiographic features, except for the great limestone springs in Palestine. Similar crops may be grown. Differences are that soils of Palestine were uniformly better, that uplands have been badly eroded from misuse, and that slopes of Palestine favoured tree crops and were terraced where surface rock was ready at hand..".<ref>''Palestine's Economic Future: A Review of Progress and Prospects'' (London: Percy Lund Humphries and Co., Ltd., 1946), pp. 19-23.</ref>
	</blockquote>
	Researcher Abelson writes:<ref> Palestine: The Original Sin , Meir Abelson </ref>{{quotation|In 1898, German ] also visited Palestine. He was appalled at the condition of the country. The Ottomans had stripped the forests for lumber and firewood. The Palestinian Arabs had let an old Roman aqueduct fall into ruin. The ultimate ecological curse was the ubiquitous herds of black goats. For nearly 2,000 years after the dispersion of the Jews, Arabs had allowed their goats to graze unfenced across Palestine. They had eaten the grass down to its roots, and the topsoil had eroded and blown away. The biblical land of milk and honey had become a dust bowl.|Palestine: The Original Sin|Meir Abelson}}
	====Official reports====
	The Report of the Palestine Royal Commission contains a description of Palestine's coastal plain in 1913: "The road leading from Gaza to the north was only a summer track suitable for transport by camels and carts...No orange groves, orchards or vineyards were to be seen until one reached Yabna ...Houses were all of mud. No windows were anywhere to be seen...The ploughs used were of wood...The yields were very poor...The sanitary conditions in the village were horrible. Schools did not exist...The western part, towards the sea, was almost a desert...The villages in this area were few and thinly populated. Many ruins of villages were scattered over the area, as owing to the prevalence of malaria, many villages were deserted by their inhabitants."<ref></ref>
	In 1920, the League of Nations' ''Interim Report on the Civil Administration of Palestine'' stated that there were 700,000 people living in Palestine:
	<blockquote>
	Of these 235,000 live in the larger towns, 465,000 in the smaller towns and villages. Four-fifths of the whole population are Moslems. A small proportion of these are Bedouin Arabs; the remainder, although they speak Arabic and are termed Arabs, are largely of mixed race. Some 77,000 of the population are Christians, in large majority belonging to the Orthodox Church, and speaking Arabic. The minority are members of the Latin or of the Uniate Greek Catholic Church, or--a small number--are Protestants.
	The Jewish element of the population numbers 76,000. Almost all have entered Palestine during the last 40 years. Prior to 1850 there were in the country only a handful of Jews. In the following 30 years a few hundreds came to Palestine. Most of them were animated by religious motives; they came to pray and to die in the Holy Land, and to be buried in its soil. After the persecutions in Russia forty years ago, the movement of the Jews to Palestine assumed larger proportions.<ref>
	</ref></blockquote>
	By 1948, the population had risen to 1,900,000, of whom 68% were ], and 32% were ] (] report, including ]).
	===Genetic analyses of regional populations===
	]
	According to various genetic studies, ]ish and ] populations and various Palestinian populations overlap genetically because they share some of the same Neolithic ancestors.
	Geneticists generally agree there was mixing in Middle East populations in prehistoric times. Nebel et al. (2000) doing ] ] analysis for patrilineal ancestry of Jews and Palestinian Muslims "revealed a common gene pool for a large portion of Y chromosomes, suggesting a relatively recent common ancestry". The two modal haplotypes that comprise the Palestinian Arab ] were very infrequent among Jews, "reflecting divergence and/or admixture from other populations". Nebel et al. regard their findings in good agreement with historical evidence that suggest that "Part, or perhaps the majority, of the Muslim Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century AD... These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistoric times.<ref> Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Deborah A. Weiss, Michael Weale, Marina Faerman, Ariella Oppenheim, Mark G. Thomas. 2000 "High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews". ''Human Genetics'' 107(6): 630-641.</ref>
	A subsequent study aimed at determining the genetic relationship among three Jewish communities (Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Kurdish) by the same group described two Y-chromosomal haplotype groups, Eu9 and Eu10, that represent a major part of Middle East ancestry. Eu9 appears to originate from the northern ], while Eu10 appears to come from the southern part of it. Jewish and Muslim Kurdish populations have high-frequency of Eu9 but generally lack Eu10, which is prevalent in Palestinian Muslims. The study proposes that <blockquote>...the Y chromosomes in Palestinian Arabs and Bedouin represent, to a large extent, early lineages derived from the Neolithic inhabitants of the area and additional lineages from more-recent population movements. The early lineages are part of the common chromosome pool shared with Jews. According to our working model, the more-recent migrations were mostly from the Arabian Peninsula, as is seen in the Arab-specific Eu 10 chromosomes that include the modal haplotypes observed in Palestinians and Bedouin... The study demonstrates that the Y chromosome pool of Jews is an integral part of the genetic landscape of the region and, in particular, that Jews exhibit a high degree of genetic affinity to populations living in the north of the Fertile Crescent.<ref> Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Bernd Brinkmann, Partha P. Majumder, Marina Faerman, Ariella Oppenheim. 2001. "The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East". ''American Journal of Human Genetics'' 69(5): 1095–1112.</ref>
	</blockquote>
	===The question of late Arab immigration to Palestine===
	Whether there was significant Arab immigration into Palestine after the beginning of Jewish settlement there in the late 19th century has been a matter of some controversy.
	] estimates the number of Arabs who immigrated to Palestine between 1922 and 1946 at 100,000.<ref name="Sachar167">Sachar, p. 167.</ref> He argues that
	<blockquote>
	The influx could be traced in some measure to the orderly government provided by the British; but far more, certainly, to the economic opportunities provided by Jewish settlement. The rise of the Yishuv benefited Arab life indirectly, by disproportionate Jewish contributions to the government revenue, and thereby to increase the mandatory expenditures on the Arab sector; and directly, by opening new markets for Arab produce and (until the civil war of 1936) new employment opportunities for the Arab labor. It was significant, for example, that the movement of Arabs within Palestine itself was largely to regions of Jewish concentration. Thus, Arab population increase during the 1930s was 87 percent in ], 61 percent in ], 37 percent in Jerusalem. A similar growth was registered in Arab towns located near Jewish agricultural villages. The 25 percent rise in of Arab participation in industry could be traced exclusively to the needs of the large Jewish immigration.<ref>Sachar, pp. 167&ndash;168</ref>
	</blockquote>
	According to ], 50,000 Arabs immigrated to Palestine from the neighboring lands between 1919 and 1939 "attracted by the improving agricultural conditions and growing job opportunities, most of them created by the Jews".<ref>Gilbert, 2005, p. 16.</ref>
	American economist argues that there likely was significant Arab immigration:
	<blockquote>
	There is every reason to believe that consequential immigration of Arabs into and within Palestine occurred during the Ottoman and British mandatory periods. Among the most compelling arguments in support of such immigration is the universally acknowledged and practiced linkage between regional economic disparities and migratory impulses. The precise magnitude of Arab immigration into and within Palestine is, as Bachi noted, unknown. Lack of completeness in Ottoman registration lists and British Mandatory censuses, and the immeasurable illegal, unreported, and undetected immigration during both periods make any estimate a bold venture into creative analysis. In most cases, those venturing into the realm of Palestinian demography—or other demographic analyses based on very crude data—acknowledge its limitations and the tentativeness of the conclusions that may be drawn.<ref>Gottheil, 2003.</ref>
	</blockquote>
	As McCarthy explains, "... evidence for Muslim immigration into Palestine is minimal. Because no Ottoman records of that immigration have yet been discovered, one is thrown back on demographic analysis to evaluate Muslim migration."<ref>McCarthy, 1990, p. 16.</ref> On the other hand,<ref>McCarthy, 1990, p. 33.</ref> ] has concluded that there was a small but significant unrecorded Muslim immigration into Palestine estimated at around 900 people per year or approximately 13,500 in total between 1931 and 1945.<ref>McCarthy, 1990, p. 33.</ref> McCarthy argues that there is no significant Arab immigration into mandatory Palestine:
	<blockquote>
	From analyses of rates of increase of the Muslim population of the three Palestinian sanjaks, one can say with certainty that Muslim immigration after the 1870s was small. Had there been a large group of Muslim immigrants their numbers would have caused an unusual increase in the population and this would have appeared in the calculated rate of increase from one registration list to another... Such an increase would have been easily noticed; it was not there.<ref>McCarthy, 1990, p. 16.</ref>
	</blockquote>
	<blockquote>
	The argument that Arab immigration somehow made up a large part of the Palestinian Arab population is thus statistically untenable. The vast majority of the Palestinian Arabs resident in 1947 were the sons and daughters of Arabs who were living in Palestine before modern Jewish immigration began. There is no reason to believe that they were not the sons and daughters of Arabs who had been in Palestine for many centuries.<ref>McCarthy, 1990, p. 38.</ref>
	</blockquote>
	McCarthy also concludes that there was no significant internal migration to Jewish areas attributable to better economic conditions:
	<blockquote>
	Some areas of Palestine did experience greater population growth than others, but the explanation for this is simple. Radical economic change was occurring all over the Mediterranean Basin at the time. Improved transportation, greater mercantile activity, and greater industry had increased the chances for employment in cities, especially coastal cities... Differential population increase was occurring all over the Eastern Mediterranean, not just in Palestine... The increase in Muslim population had little or nothing to do with Jewish immigration. In fact the province that experienced the greatest Jewish population growth (by .035 annually), Jerusalem Sanjak, was the province with the lowest rate of growth of Muslim population (.009).<ref>McCarthy, 1990, pp. 16-17.</ref>
	</blockquote>
	Gad Gilbar has also concluded that the prosperity of the Palestine in the 45-50 years before World War I was a result of the modernization and growth of the economy owing to its integration with the world economy and especially with the economies of Europe. Although the reasons for growth were exogenous to Palestine the bearers were not waves of Jewish immigration, foreign intervention nor Ottoman reforms but "primarily local Arab Muslims and Christians."<ref>Gilbar, 1986, p. 188.</ref>
	Demographer ], in his analysis of Ottoman registration data for 1905 populations of Jerusalem and Hebron '']'', found that most Ottoman citizens living in these areas, comprising about one quarter of the population of Palestine, were living at the place where they were born. Specifically, of Muslims, 93.1% were born in their current locality of residence, 5.2% were born elsewhere in Palestine, and 1.6% were born outside Palestine. Of Christians, 93.4% were born in their current locality, 3.0% were born elsewhere in Palestine, and 3.6% were born outside Palestine. Of Jews (excluding the large fraction who were not Ottoman citizens), 59.0% were born in their current locality, 1.9% were born elsewhere in Palestine, and 39.0% were born outside Palestine.<ref>Schmelz, 1990, pp. 15-67.</ref>
	] believes that the notion of "large-scale immigration of Arabs from the neighboring countries" is a myth "proposed by Zionist writers". He writes:
	<blockquote>
	As all the research by historian Fares Abdul Rahim and geographers of modern Palestine shows, the Arab population began to grow again in the middle of the nineteenth century. That growth resulted from a new factor: the demographic revolution. Until the 1850s there was no "natural" increase of the population, but this began to change when modern medical treatment was introduced and modern hospitals were established, both by the Ottoman authorities and by the foreign Christian missionaries. The number of births remained steady but infant mortality decreased. This was the main reason for Arab population growth. ... No one would doubt that some migrant workers came to Palestine from Syria and Trans-Jordan and remained there. But one has to add to this that there were migrations in the opposite direction as well. For example, a tradition developed in Hebron to go to study and work in Cairo, with the result that a permanent community of Hebronites had been living in Cairo since the fifteenth century. Trans-Jordan exported unskilled casual labor to Palestine; but before 1948 its civil service attracted a good many educated Palestinian Arabs who did not find work in Palestine itself. Demographically speaking, however, neither movement of population was significant in comparison to the decisive factor of natural increase.<ref>Porath, Y. (1986). . ''New York Review of Books''. ], 32 (21 & 22).</ref>
	</blockquote>
	] responds to Porath by saying that the argument that 'substantial immigration of Arabs to Palestine took place during the first half of the twentieth century is supported by an array of ] statistics and contemporary accounts, the bulk of which have not been questioned by anyone. Professor Porath replied with an array of data culled from expert demographers to confirm his position.'<ref>, ''The New York Review of Books'', Volume 33, Number 5, ], 1986.</ref>
	===Current demographics===
	{{seealso|Demographics of Israel|Demographics of the Palestinian territories|Demographics of Jordan}}
	According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, as of May 2006, of Israel's 7 million people, 77% were ]s, 18.5% ]s, and 4.3% "others".<ref name="pdf2">{{cite web| url= http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf| title=Population, by religion and population group| accessdate=2006-04-08| first =Government of Israel| last =Central Bureau of Statistics |format=PDF}} </ref> Among Jews, 68% were ] (Israeli-born), mostly second- or third-generation Israelis, and the rest are ] — 22% from Europe and the ], and 10% from Asia and Africa, including the ].<ref name="pdf3">{{cite web| url= http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_24.pdf| title=Jews and others, by origin, continent of birth and period of immigration| accessdate=2006-04-08| first =Government of Israel| last =Central Bureau of Statistics |format=PDF}} </ref>
	According to Palestinian evaluations, The ] is inhabited by approximately 2.4 million ]s and the ] by another 1.4 million. According to a study presented at The Sixth Herzliya Conference on The Balance of Israel's National Security<ref name=Herzliya>{{cite web
	|title = Arab Population in the West Bank & Gaza: The Million Person Gap
	|author = Bennett Zimmerman & Roberta Seid
	|publisher = American-Israel Demographic Research Group
	|date = ], ]
	|url = http://www.pademographics.com
	|accessdate = 2006-09-27
	}}</ref> there are 1.4 million Palestinians in the West Bank. This study was criticised by demographer Sergio DellaPergola, who estimated 3.33 million Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip combined at the end of 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=Letter to the Editor|publisher = ''Azure''|date = Winter 2007, No. 27 |author = Sergio DellaPergola|url = http://www.azure.org.il/magazine/magazine.asp?id=356|accessdate=2007-01-11}}</ref>
	According to these Israeli and Palestinian estimates, the population in Israel and the Palestinian Territories stands at 9.8-10.8 million.
	Jordan has a population of around 6,000,000 (2007 estimate).<ref>, accessed ], 2007.</ref><ref>, accessed ], 2007.</ref> Palestinians constitute approximately half of this number.<ref>, Minorities at Risk, accessed ], 2007.</ref>
	==See also==
	{{commonscat|Maps of the history of the Middle East}}
	{{wikiquote}}
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	*] covers roughly the same region, with a different focus
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	==External links==
	*The Hope Simpson Report (London, 1930)
	*Palestine Royal Commission Report (the Peel Report) (London, 1937)
	*Report to the Council of the League of Nations (1928)
	*Report to the Council of the League of Nations (1929)
	*Report to the Council of the League of Nations (1934)
	*Report to the Council of the League of Nations (1935)
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	* from the Common Language Project
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	==References==
	{{Reflist|2}}
	==Bibliography==
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	*Avneri, Arieh (1984), The Claim of Dispossession, Tel Aviv: Hidekel Press
	*Bachi, Roberto (1974), The Population of Israel, Jerusalem: Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University
	*Belfer-Cohen, Anna and Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2000). Early Sedentism in the Near East. A Bumpy Ride to Village Life. In Ian Kuijt (Ed.). ''Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation''. Springer. ISBN 0306461226
	*Biger, Gideon (1981). Where was Palestine? Pre-World War I perception, ''AREA'' (Journal of the Institute of British Geographers) Vol 13, No. 2, pp. 153-160.
	*Broshi, Magen (1979). The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period, ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 236, p.7, 1979.
	*Byatt, Anthony (1973). Josephus and population numbers in first century Palestine. ''Palestine Exploration Quarterly'', 105, pp.51-60.
	*Chancey, Mark A. (2005). ''Greco-Roman Culture and the Galilee of Jesus''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521846471
	*Chase, Kenneth (2003). ''Firearms: A Global History to 1700''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521822742
	*Doumani, Beshara (1995). ''Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants and Peasants in Jabal Nablus 1700-1900''. UC Press. ISBN 0-520-20370-4
	*Ember, Melvin & Peregrine, Peter N. (2002). ''Encyclopedia of Prehistory.'' Springer. ISBN 0306462621
	*Farsoun, Samih K. and Naseer Aruri (2006), ''Palestine and the Palestinians'', Westview Press, 2nd edition, ISBN 0-8133-4336-4
	*Gelber, Yoav (1997). ''Jewish-Transjordanian Relations 1921-48: Alliance of Bars Sinister''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-4675-X
	*Gerber, Haim (1998). "Palestine" and other territorial concepts in the 17th century, ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol 30, pp. 563-572.
	*Gilbar, Gar G. (ed.), ''Ottoman Palestine: 1800-1914''. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-07785-5
	*Gilbar, Gar G. (1986). The Growing Economic Involvement of Palestine With the West, 1865-1914. In David Kushner (Ed.). ''Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation''. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004077928
	*] (2005). ''The Routledge Atlas of the Arab-Israeli Conflict''. Routledge. ISBN 0415359007
	*Gottheil, Fred M. (2003) , '']'', X(1).
	*Hansen, Mogens Herman (Ed.) (2000). ''A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation''. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. ISBN 8778761778
	*Harris, David Russell (1996). ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia''. Routledge. ISBN 1857285379
	*Hayes, John H. and Mandell, Sara R. (1998). ''The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity: From Alexander to Bar Kochba''. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664257275
	*Hughes, Mark (1999). ''Allenby and British Strategy in the Middle East, 1917-1919''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-4920-1
	*Ingrams, Doreen (1972). ''Palestine Papers 1917-1922''. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-8076-0648-0
	*] (1997). ''Palestinian Identity. The Construction of Modern National Consciousness''. ]. ISBN 0-231-10515-0
	*Johnston, Sarah Iles (2004). ''Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674015177
	*Karpat, Kemal H. (2002). ''Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History''. Brill. ISBN 90-04-12101-3
	{{col-2}}
	*] (1973) ''Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine'' Shapolsky Pub; ISBN 0-933503-03-2
	*Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). ''Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines and Early Israel 1300-1100 BCE''. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 1589830970
	*Kimmerling, Baruch and Migdal, Joel S. (1994). ''Palestinians: The Making of a People'', Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-65223-1
	*] (1981). ''The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem''. Vienna: Braumüller. ISBN 3-7003-0278-9
	*Le Strange, Guy (1965). ''Palestine under the Moslems'' (Originally published in 1890; reprinted by Khayats) ISBN 0-404-56288-4
	*Loftus, J. P. (1948), Features of the demography of Palestine, Population Studies, Vol 2
	*Louis, Wm. Roger (1969). The United Kingdom and the Beginning of the Mandates System, 1919-1922. ''International Organization'', 23(1), pp. 73-96.
	*McCarthy, Justin (1990). ''The Population of Palestine''. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-07110-8.
	*Mandel, Neville J. (1976). ''The Arabs and Zionism Before World War I''. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02466-4
	*]. (2005). ''Protection, conservation and valorisation of Palestinian Cultural Patrimony'' Massa Publisher. ISBN 88-87835-62-4.
	*Metzer, Jacob (1988). ''The Divided Economy of Mandatory Palestine''. Cambridge University Press.
	*Mills, Watson E. (1990). ''Mercer Dictionary of the Bible''. Mercer University Press. ISBN 0865543739
	*Pastor, Jack (1997). ''Land and Economy in Ancient Palestine''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415159601
	*Porath, Yehoshua (1974). ''The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement'', 1918-1929. London: Frank Cass. ISBN 0-7146-2939-1
	*Redmount, Carol A. 'Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt' in ''The Oxford History of the Biblical World'', ed: Michael D. Coogan, (Oxford University Press: 1999)
	*Rogan, Eugene L. (2002). ''Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850-1921''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-89223-6.
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	*] (2006). ''A Histoiry of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time'', 2nd ed., revised and updated. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0679765638
	*Schlor, Joachim (1999). ''Tel Aviv: From Dream to City''. Reaktion Books. ISBN 1-86189-033-8
	*Scholch, Alexander (1985) ''"The Demographic Development of Palestine 1850-1882"'', International Journal of Middle East Studies, XII, 4, November 1985, pp. 485-505
	*Shahin, Mariam (2005). ''Palestine: A Guide'', Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X
	*Schmelz, Uziel O. (1990) Population characteristics of Jerusalem and Hebron regions according to Ottoman Census of 1905. In Gar G. Gilbar, ed., ''Ottoman Palestine: 1800-1914''.Leiden: Brill.
	*Shiloh, Yigal (1980). The Population of Iron Age Palestine in the Light of a Sample Analysis of Urban Plans, Areas, and Population Density, ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 239, p.33, 1980.
	*Sicker, Martin (1999). ''Reshaping Palestine: From Muhammad Ali to the British Mandate, 1831-1922''. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 0-275-96639-9
	*Stearns, Peter N. {{worldhistory}}
	*Twain, Mark (1867). ''Innocents Abroad''. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-243708-5
	*]
	*Westermann, ''Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte''. ISBN 3-07-509520-6
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Latest revision as of 14:58, 8 January 2025

Geographic region in West Asia For other regions with the same name, see Palestine (disambiguation) § Geographic region.

PalestineΠαλαιστίνη (Greek) Palaestina (Latin) فِلَسْطِين‎ (Arabic) פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה or אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל (Hebrew)
Boundaries of the Roman province Syria Palaestina, where dashed green line shows the boundary between Byzantine Palaestina Prima (later Jund Filastin) and Palaestina Secunda (later Jund al-Urdunn), as well as Palaestina Salutaris (later Jebel et-Tih and the Jifar)   Borders of Mandatory Palestine   Borders between Israel and the Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza Strip) which are claimed by the State of Palestine as its borders
Languages	Arabic, Hebrew
Ethnic groups	Arabs, Jews, Samaritans
Countries	Israel  Palestine  Jordan

The region of Palestine, also known as historic Palestine, is a geographical area in West Asia. It includes modern-day Israel and Palestine, as well as parts of northwestern Jordan in some definitions. Other names for the region include Canaan, the Promised Land, the Land of Israel, or the Holy Land.

The earliest written record referring to Palestine as a geographical region is in the Histories of Herodotus in the 5th century BCE, which calls the area Palaistine, referring to the territory previously held by Philistia, a state that existed in that area from the 12th to the 7th century BCE. The Roman Empire conquered the region and in 6 CE established the province known as Judaea, but then in 132 CE in the period of the Bar Kokhba revolt the province was expanded and renamed Syria Palaestina. In 390, during the Byzantine period, the region was split into the provinces of Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda, and Palaestina Tertia. Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the military district of Jund Filastin was established. While Palestine's boundaries have changed throughout history, it has generally comprised the southern portion of regions such as Syria or the Levant.

As the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity, Palestine has been a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. In the Bronze Age, it was home to Canaanite city-states; and the later Iron Age saw the emergence of Israel and Judah. It has since come under the sway of various empires, including the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, and the Seleucid Empire. The brief Hasmonean dynasty ended with its gradual incorporation into the Roman Empire, and later the Byzantine Empire, during which Palestine became a center of Christianity. In the 7th century, Palestine was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending Byzantine rule in the region; Rashidun rule was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate, the Abbasid Caliphate, and the Fatimid Caliphate. Following the collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been established through the Crusades, the population of Palestine became predominantly Muslim. In the 13th century, it became part of the Mamluk Sultanate, and after 1516, spent four centuries as part of the Ottoman Empire.

During World War I, Palestine was occupied by the United Kingdom as part of the Sinai and Palestine campaign. Between 1919 and 1922, the League of Nations created the Mandate for Palestine, which came under British administration as Mandatory Palestine through the 1940s. Tensions between Jews and Arabs escalated into the 1947–1949 Palestine war, which ended with the establishment of Israel on most of the territory, and neighboring Jordan and Egypt controlling the West Bank and the Gaza Strip respectively. The 1967 Six-Day War saw Israel's occupation of both territories, which has been among the core issues of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

Etymology

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the name Palestine. The name is found throughout recorded history. Examples of historical maps of the region that contain the name Palestine are shown above: (1) Pomponius Mela (Latin, c. 43 CE); (2) Notitia Dignitatum (Latin, c. 410 CE); (3) Tabula Rogeriana (Arabic, 1154 CE); (4) Cedid Atlas (Ottoman Turkish, 1803 CE)

Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew Pelesheth. The term "Peleset" (transliterated from hieroglyphs as P-r-s-t) is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c. 1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. The first known mention is at the temple at Medinet Habu which refers to the Peleset among those who fought with Egypt in Ramesses III's reign, and the last known is 300 years later on Padiiset's Statue. Seven known Assyrian inscriptions refer to the region of "Palashtu" or "Pilistu", beginning with Adad-nirari III in the Nimrud Slab in c. 800 BCE through to a treaty made by Esarhaddon more than a century later. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term.

The first clear use of the term Palestine to refer to the entire area between Phoenicia and Egypt was in 5th century BCE ancient Greece, when Herodotus wrote of a "district of Syria, called Palaistínē" (Ancient Greek: Συρίη ἡ Παλαιστίνη καλεομένη) in The Histories, which included the Judean mountains and the Jordan Rift Valley. Approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in Meteorology, in which he included the Dead Sea. Later Greek writers such as Polemon and Pausanias also used the term to refer to the same region, which was followed by Roman writers such as Ovid, Tibullus, Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, Dio Chrysostom, Statius, Plutarch as well as Romano-Jewish writers Philo of Alexandria and Josephus. The term was first used to denote an official province in c. 135 CE, when the Roman authorities, following the suppression of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, renamed the province of Judaea "Syria Palaestina". There is circumstantial evidence linking Hadrian with the name change, but the precise date is not certain.

The term is generally accepted to be a cognate of the biblical name Peleshet (פלשת Pəlésheth, usually transliterated as Philistia). The term and its derivates are used more than 250 times in Masoretic-derived versions of the Hebrew Bible, of which 10 uses are in the Torah, with undefined boundaries, and almost 200 of the remaining references are in the Book of Judges and the Books of Samuel. The term is rarely used in the Septuagint, which used a transliteration Land of Phylistieim (Γῆ τῶν Φυλιστιείμ), different from the contemporary Greek place name Palaistínē (Παλαιστίνη). It is also theorized to be the portmanteau of the Greek word for the Philistines and palaistês, which means "wrestler/rival/adversary". This aligns with the Greek practice of punning place names since the latter is also the etymological meaning for Israel.

The Septuagint instead used the term "allophuloi" (άλλόφυλοι, "other nations") throughout the Books of Judges and Samuel, such that the term "Philistines" has been interpreted to mean "non-Israelites of the Promised Land" when used in the context of Samson, Saul and David, and Rabbinic sources explain that these peoples were different from the Philistines of the Book of Genesis.

During the Byzantine period, the region of Palestine within Syria Palaestina was subdivided into Palaestina Prima and Secunda, and an area of land including the Negev and Sinai became Palaestina Salutaris. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic. The use of the name "Palestine" became common in Early Modern English, was used in English and Arabic during the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem and was revived as an official place name with the British Mandate for Palestine.

Some other terms that have been used to refer to all or part of this land include Canaan, Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael or Ha'aretz), the Promised Land, the region of Syria, the Holy Land, Iudaea Province, Judea, Coele-Syria, "Israel HaShlema", Kingdom of Israel, Kingdom of Jerusalem, Zion, Retenu (Ancient Egyptian), Southern Syria, Southern Levant and Syria Palaestina.

History

Main article: History of Palestine For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Palestine region.

Overview

For a more comprehensive list, see Time periods in the Palestine region.

Situated at a strategic location between Egypt, Syria and Arabia, and the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity, the region has a long and tumultuous history as a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. The region has been controlled by numerous peoples, including ancient Egyptians, Canaanites, Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Achaemenids, ancient Greeks, Romans, Parthians, Sasanians, Byzantines, the Arab Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates, Crusaders, Ayyubids, Mamluks, Mongols, Ottomans, the British, and modern Israelis and Palestinians.

Ancient period

See also: Canaan, History of ancient Israel and Judah, and Philistines

The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities and civilization. During the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550 and 1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy (Canaan) during the wider Bronze Age collapse.

The Israelites emerged from a dramatic social transformation that took place in the people of the central hill country of Canaan around 1200 BCE, with no signs of violent invasion or even of peaceful infiltration of a clearly defined ethnic group from elsewhere. During the Iron Age, the Israelites established two related kingdoms, Israel and Judah. The Kingdom of Israel emerged as an important local power by the 10th century BCE before falling to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE. Israel's southern neighbor, the Kingdom of Judah, emerged in the 8th or 9th century BCE and later became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian and then the Neo-Babylonian Empire before a revolt against the latter led to its destruction in 586 BCE. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c. 740 BCE, which was itself replaced by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in c. 627 BCE.

In 587/6 BCE, Jerusalem was besieged and destroyed by the second Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar II, who subsequently exiled the Judeans to Babylon. The Kingdom of Judah was then annexed as a Babylonian province. The Philistines were also exiled. The defeat of Judah was recorded by the Babylonians.

In 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. According to the Hebrew Bible and implications from the Cyrus Cylinder, the exiled Jews were eventually allowed to return to Jerusalem. The returned population in Judah were allowed to self-rule under Persian governance, and some parts of the fallen kingdom became a Persian province known as Yehud. Except Yehud, at least another four Persian provinces existed in the region: Samaria, Gaza, Ashdod, and Ascalon, in addition to the Phoenician city states in the north and the Arabian tribes in the south. During the same period, the Edomites migrated from Transjordan to the southern parts of Judea, which became known as Idumaea. The Qedarites were the dominant Arab tribe; their territory ran from the Hejaz in the south to the Negev in the north through the period of Persian and Hellenistic dominion.

Classical antiquity

In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region, which changed hands several times during the wars of the Diadochi and later Syrian Wars. It ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219 and 200 BCE. During that period, the region became heavily hellenized, building tensions between Greeks and locals.

In 167 BCE, the Maccabean Revolt erupted, leading to the establishment of an independent Hasmonean Kingdom in Judea. From 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, including Samaria, Galilee, Iturea, Perea, and Idumea. The Jewish control over the wider region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea, a term that had previously only referred to the smaller region of the Judaean Mountains. During the same period, the Edomites were converted to Judaism.

Between 73 and 63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War. Pompey conquered Judea in 63 BCE, splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. In around 40 BCE, the Parthians conquered Palestine, deposed the Roman ally Hyrcanus II, and installed a puppet ruler of the Hasmonean line known as Antigonus II. By 37 BCE, the Parthians withdrew from Palestine.

Palestine is generally considered the "Cradle of Christianity". Christianity, a religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, arose as a messianic sect from within Second Temple Judaism. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28 to 30 CE, although the historicity of Jesus is disputed by a minority of scholars.

In the first and second centuries CE, the province of Judea became the site of two large-scale Jewish revolts against Rome. During the First Jewish-Roman War, which lasted from 66 to 73 CE, the Romans razed Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. In Masada, Jewish zealots preferred to commit suicide than endure Roman captivity. In 132 CE, another Jewish rebellion erupted. The Bar Kokhba revolt took three years to put down, incurred massive costs on both the Romans and the Jews, and desolated much of Judea. The center of Jewish life in Palestine moved to the Galilee. During or after the revolt, Hadrian joined the province of Iudaea with Galilee and the Paralia to form the new province of Syria Palaestina, and Jerusalem was renamed "Aelia Capitolina". Some scholars view these actions as an attempt to disconnect the Jewish people from their homeland, but this theory is debated.

Between 259 and 272, the region fell under the rule of Odaenathus as King of the Palmyrene Empire. Following the victory of Christian emperor Constantine in the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy, the Christianization of the Roman Empire began, and in 326, Constantine's mother Saint Helena visited Jerusalem and began the construction of churches and shrines. Palestine became a center of Christianity, attracting numerous monks and religious scholars. The Samaritan Revolts during this period caused their near extinction. In 614 CE, Palestine was annexed by another Persian dynasty; the Sassanids, until returning to Byzantine control in 628 CE.

Early Muslim period

The Dome of the Rock, the world's first great work of Islamic architecture, constructed in 691.Minaret of the White Mosque in Ramla, constructed in 1318Arab architecture in the Umayyad and Mamluk periods

Palestine was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, beginning in 634 CE. In 636, the Battle of Yarmouk during the Muslim conquest of the Levant marked the start of Muslim hegemony over the region, which became known as the military district of Jund Filastin within the province of Bilâd al-Shâm (Greater Syria). In 661, with the Assassination of Ali, Muawiyah I became the Caliph of the Islamic world after being crowned in Jerusalem. The Dome of the Rock, completed in 691, was the world's first great work of Islamic architecture.

The majority of the population was Christian and was to remain so until the conquest of Saladin in 1187. The Muslim conquest apparently had little impact on social and administrative continuities for several decades. The word 'Arab' at the time referred predominantly to Bedouin nomads, though Arab settlement is attested in the Judean highlands and near Jerusalem by the 5th century, and some tribes had converted to Christianity. The local population engaged in farming, which was considered demeaning, and were called Nabaț, referring to Aramaic-speaking villagers. A ḥadīth, brought in the name of a Muslim freedman who settled in Palestine, ordered the Muslim Arabs not to settle in the villages, "for he who abides in villages it is as if he abides in graves".

The Umayyads, who had spurred a strong economic resurgence in the area, were replaced by the Abbasids in 750. Ramla became the administrative centre for the following centuries, while Tiberias became a thriving centre of Muslim scholarship. From 878, Palestine was ruled from Egypt by semi-autonomous rulers for almost a century, beginning with the Turkish freeman Ahmad ibn Tulun, for whom both Jews and Christians prayed when he lay dying and ending with the Ikhshidid rulers. Reverence for Jerusalem increased during this period, with many of the Egyptian rulers choosing to be buried there. However, the later period became characterized by persecution of Christians as the threat from Byzantium grew. The Fatimids, with a predominantly Berber army, conquered the region in 970, a date that marks the beginning of a period of unceasing warfare between numerous enemies, which destroyed Palestine, and in particular, devastating its Jewish population. Between 1071 and 1073, Palestine was captured by the Great Seljuq Empire, only to be recaptured by the Fatimids in 1098.

Crusader/Ayyubid period

The Fatimids again lost the region to the Crusaders in 1099. The Crusaders set up the Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1291). Their control of Jerusalem and most of Palestine lasted almost a century until their defeat by Saladin's forces in 1187, after which most of Palestine was controlled by the Ayyubids, except for the years 1229–1244 when Jerusalem and other areas were retaken by the Second Kingdom of Jerusalem, by then ruled from Acre (1191–1291), but, despite seven further crusades, the Franks were no longer a significant power in the region. The Fourth Crusade, which did not reach Palestine, led directly to the decline of the Byzantine Empire, dramatically reducing Christian influence throughout the region.

Mamluk period

The Mamluk Sultanate was created in Egypt as an indirect result of the Seventh Crusade. The Mongol Empire reached Palestine for the first time in 1260, beginning with the Mongol raids into Palestine under Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa, and reaching an apex at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut, where they were pushed back by the Mamluks.

Ottoman period

Further information: History of Palestine § Ottoman period

In 1486, hostilities broke out between the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire in a battle for control over western Asia, and the Ottomans conquered Palestine in 1516. Between the mid-16th and 17th centuries, a close-knit alliance of three local dynasties, the Ridwans of Gaza, the Turabays of al-Lajjun and the Farrukhs of Nablus, governed Palestine on behalf of the Porte (imperial Ottoman government).

In the 18th century, the Zaydani clan under the leadership of Zahir al-Umar ruled large parts of Palestine autonomously until the Ottomans were able to defeat them in their Galilee strongholds in 1775–76. Zahir had turned the port city of Acre into a major regional power, partly fueled by his monopolization of the cotton and olive oil trade from Palestine to Europe. Acre's regional dominance was further elevated under Zahir's successor Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar at the expense of Damascus.

In 1830, on the eve of Muhammad Ali's invasion, the Porte transferred control of the sanjaks of Jerusalem and Nablus to Abdullah Pasha, the governor of Acre. According to Silverburg, in regional and cultural terms this move was important for creating an Arab Palestine detached from greater Syria (bilad al-Sham). According to Pappe, it was an attempt to reinforce the Syrian front in face of Muhammad Ali's invasion. Two years later, Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but Egyptian rule was challenged in 1834 by a countrywide popular uprising against conscription and other measures considered intrusive by the population. Its suppression devastated many of Palestine's villages and major towns.

In 1840, Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The death of Aqil Agha marked the last local challenge to Ottoman centralization in Palestine, and beginning in the 1860s, Palestine underwent an acceleration in its socio-economic development, due to its incorporation into the global, and particularly European, economic pattern of growth. The beneficiaries of this process were Arabic-speaking Muslims and Christians who emerged as a new layer within the Arab elite. From 1880 large-scale Jewish immigration began, almost entirely from Europe, based on an explicitly Zionist ideology. There was also a revival of the Hebrew language and culture.

Christian Zionism in the United Kingdom preceded its spread within the Jewish community. The government of Great Britain publicly supported it during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917.

British Mandate period

Main article: Mandatory Palestine Further information: Zionism, Palestinian nationalism, and United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine Palestine passport and Palestine coin. The Mandatory authorities agreed a compromise position regarding the Hebrew name: in English and Arabic the name was simply "Palestine" ("فلسطين"), but the Hebrew version ("פלשתינה") also included the acronym ("א״י") for Eretz Yisrael (Land of Israel). Metulla Haifa Safad Zikhron
Yaaqov Nazareth TelAviv Nablus Yibna Ramle Jerusalem Gaza Hebron Dead Sea Rafa Beersheba Jebel
Usdum Nitsana Ovdat Nahal
Haarava Har
Lotz Har
Omer Har
Tzenifim Yotvata Eilat Survey of Palestine 1942–1958 1–100,000 Topographical maps. Click on each blue link to see the individual original maps in high resolution.

The British began their Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1915. The war reached southern Palestine in 1917, progressing to Gaza and around Jerusalem by the end of the year. The British secured Jerusalem in December 1917. They moved into the Jordan valley in 1918 and a campaign by the Entente into northern Palestine led to victory at Megiddo in September.

The British were formally awarded the mandate to govern the region in 1922. The Arab Palestinians rioted in 1920, 1921, 1929, and revolted in 1936. In 1947, following World War II and The Holocaust, the British Government announced its desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly adopted in November 1947 a Resolution 181(II) recommending partition into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem. A civil war began immediately after the Resolution's adoption. The State of Israel was declared in May 1948.

Arab–Israeli conflict

Further information: History of Israel and History of the State of Palestine

In the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of the Mandate territory, Jordan captured the regions of Judea and Samaria, renaming it the "West Bank", while the Gaza Strip was captured by Egypt. Following the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight, also known as al-Nakba, the 700,000 Palestinians who fled or were driven from their homes were not allowed to return following the Lausanne Conference of 1949.

In the course of the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the rest of Mandate Palestine from Jordan and Egypt, and began a policy of establishing Jewish settlements in those territories. From 1987 to 1993, the First Palestinian Intifada against Israel took place, which included the Declaration of the State of Palestine in 1988 and ended with the 1993 Oslo Peace Accords and the creation of the Palestinian National Authority.

In 2000, the Second Intifada (also called al-Aqsa Intifada) began, and Israel built a separation barrier. In the 2005 Israeli disengagement from Gaza, Israel withdrew all settlers and military presence from the Gaza Strip, but maintained military control of numerous aspects of the territory including its borders, air space and coast. Israel's ongoing military occupation of the Gaza Strip, the West Bank and East Jerusalem continues to be the world's longest military occupation in modern times.

In 2008 Palestinian hikaye was inscribed to UNESCO's list of intangible cultural heritage; the first of four listings reflecting the significance of Palestinian culture globally.

In November 2012, the status of Palestinian delegation in the United Nations was upgraded to non-member observer state as the State of Palestine.

Boundaries

Pre-modern period

The boundaries of Palestine have varied throughout history. The Jordan Rift Valley (comprising Wadi Arabah, the Dead Sea and River Jordan) has at times formed a political and administrative frontier, even within empires that have controlled both territories. At other times, such as during certain periods during the Hasmonean and Crusader states for example, as well as during the biblical period, territories on both sides of the river formed part of the same administrative unit. During the Arab Caliphate period, parts of southern Lebanon and the northern highland areas of Palestine and Jordan were administered as Jund al-Urdun, while the southern parts of the latter two formed part of Jund Dimashq, which during the 9th century was attached to the administrative unit of Jund Filastin.

The boundaries of the area and the ethnic nature of the people referred to by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE as Palaestina vary according to context. Sometimes, he uses it to refer to the coast north of Mount Carmel. Elsewhere, distinguishing the Syrians in Palestine from the Phoenicians, he refers to their land as extending down all the coast from Phoenicia to Egypt. Pliny, writing in Latin in the 1st century CE, describes a region of Syria that was "formerly called Palaestina" among the areas of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Since the Byzantine Period, the Byzantine borders of Palaestina (I and II, also known as Palaestina Prima, "First Palestine", and Palaestina Secunda, "Second Palestine"), have served as a name for the geographic area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. Under Arab rule, Filastin (or Jund Filastin) was used administratively to refer to what was under the Byzantines Palaestina Secunda (comprising Judaea and Samaria), while Palaestina Prima (comprising the Galilee region) was renamed Urdunn ("Jordan" or Jund al-Urdunn).

Modern period

Nineteenth-century sources refer to Palestine as extending from the sea to the caravan route, presumably the Hejaz-Damascus route east of the Jordan River valley. Others refer to it as extending from the sea to the desert. Prior to the Allied Powers victory in World War I and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, which created the British mandate in the Levant, most of the northern area of what is today Jordan formed part of the Ottoman Vilayet of Damascus (Syria), while the southern part of Jordan was part of the Vilayet of Hejaz. What later became Mandatory Palestine was in late Ottoman times divided between the Vilayet of Beirut (Lebanon) and the Sanjak of Jerusalem. The Zionist Organization provided its definition of the boundaries of Palestine in a statement to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.

The British administered Mandatory Palestine after World War I, having promised to establish a homeland for the Jewish people. The modern definition of the region follows the boundaries of that entity, which were fixed in the North and East in 1920–23 by the British Mandate for Palestine (including the Transjordan memorandum) and the Paulet–Newcombe Agreement, and on the South by following the 1906 Turco-Egyptian boundary agreement.

Modern evolution of Palestine

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1916–1922 various proposals: Three proposals for the post World War I administration of Palestine. The red line is the "International Administration" proposed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, the dashed blue line is the 1919 Zionist Organization proposal at the Paris Peace Conference, and the thin blue line refers to the final borders of the 1923–48 Mandatory Palestine.1937 British proposal: The first official proposal for partition, published in 1937 by the Peel Commission. An ongoing British Mandate was proposed to keep "the sanctity of Jerusalem and Bethlehem", in the form of an enclave from Jerusalem to Jaffa, including Lydda and Ramle.1947 UN proposal: Proposal per the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine (UN General Assembly Resolution 181 (II), 1947), prior to the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The proposal included a Corpus Separatum for Jerusalem, extraterritorial crossroads between the non-contiguous areas, and Jaffa as an Arab exclave. 1947 Jewish private land ownership: Jewish-owned lands in Mandatory Palestine as of 1947 in blue, constituting 7.4% of the total land area, of which more than half was held by the JNF and PICA. White is either public land or Palestinian-Arab-owned lands including related religious trusts.1949 armistice lines: The Jordanian-annexed West Bank (light green) and Egyptian client state All-Palestine Protectorate (dark green), after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, showing 1949 armistice lines.1967 territorial changes: During the Six-Day War, Israel captured the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights, together with the Sinai Peninsula (later traded for peace after the Yom Kippur War). In 1980–81 Israel annexed East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights. Neither Israel's annexation nor the PLO claim over East Jerusalem gained international recognition. 1995 Oslo II Accord: Under the Oslo Accords, the Palestinian National Authority was created to provide a Palestinian interim self-government in the West Bank and the interior of the Gaza Strip. Its second phase envisioned "Palestinian enclaves".2005–present: After the Israeli disengagement from Gaza and clashes between the two main Palestinian parties following the Hamas electoral victory, two separate executive governments took control in the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza.Ethnic majority by settlement (present): The map indicates the ethnic majority of settlements (cities, villages and other communities).

Current usage

Further information: Palestinian territories, State of Palestine, Palestinian National Authority, and Palestinian enclaves See also: Borders of Israel

The region of Palestine is the eponym for the Palestinian people and the culture of Palestine, both of which are defined as relating to the whole historical region, usually defined as the localities within the border of Mandatory Palestine. The 1968 Palestinian National Covenant described Palestine as the "homeland of the Arab Palestinian people", with "the boundaries it had during the British Mandate".

However, since the 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the term State of Palestine refers only to the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. This discrepancy was described by the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas as a negotiated concession in a September 2011 speech to the United Nations: "... we agreed to establish the State of Palestine on only 22% of the territory of historical Palestine – on all the Palestinian Territory occupied by Israel in 1967."

The term Palestine is also sometimes used in a limited sense to refer to the parts of the Palestinian territories currently under the administrative control of the Palestinian National Authority, a quasi-governmental entity which governs parts of the State of Palestine under the terms of the Oslo Accords.

Administration

Overview of administration and sovereignty in Israel, the Palestinian territories and the Golan Heights
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Area		Administered by	Recognition of governing authority	Sovereignty claimed by	Recognition of claim
Gaza Strip		Palestinian National Authority (de jure) Controlled by Hamas (de facto)	Witnesses to the Oslo II Accord	State of Palestine	146 UN member states
West Bank	Palestinian enclaves (Areas A and B)	Palestinian National Authority and Israeli military
	Area C	Israeli enclave law (Israeli settlements) and Israeli military (Palestinians under Israeli occupation)
	East Jerusalem	Israeli administration	Honduras, Guatemala, Nauru, and the United States		China, Russia
West Jerusalem			Russia, Czech Republic, Honduras, Guatemala, Nauru, and the United States	United Nations as an international city along with East Jerusalem	Various UN member states and the European Union; joint sovereignty also widely supported
Golan Heights			United States	Syria	All UN member states except the United States
Israel (Green Line border)			165 UN member states	Israel	165 UN member states

Demographics

Main article: Demographic history of Palestine

Early demographics

Year	Jews	Christians	Muslims	Total
First half 1st century CE	Majority	–	–	~2,500
5th century	Minority	Majority	–	>1st C
End 12th century	Minority	Minority	Majority	>225
14th century before Black Death	Minority	Minority	Majority	225
14th century after Black Death	Minority	Minority	Majority	150
Historical population table compiled by Sergio DellaPergola. Figures in thousands.

Estimating the population of Palestine in antiquity relies on two methods – censuses and writings made at the times, and the scientific method based on excavations and statistical methods that consider the number of settlements at the particular age, area of each settlement, density factor for each settlement.

The Bar Kokhba revolt in the 2nd century CE saw a major shift in the population of Palestine. The sheer scale and scope of the overall destruction has been described by Dio Cassius in his Roman History, where he notes that Roman war operations in the country had left some 580,000 Jews dead, with many more dying of hunger and disease, while 50 of their most important outposts and 985 of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. "Thus," writes Dio Cassius, "nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate."

According to Israeli archaeologists Magen Broshi and Yigal Shiloh, the population of ancient Palestine did not exceed one million. By 300 CE, Christianity had spread so significantly that Jews comprised only a quarter of the population.

Late Ottoman and British Mandate periods

In a study of Ottoman registers of the early Ottoman rule of Palestine, Bernard Lewis reports:

he first half century of Ottoman rule brought a sharp increase in population. The towns grew rapidly, villages became larger and more numerous, and there was an extensive development of agriculture, industry, and trade. The two last were certainly helped to no small extent by the influx of Spanish and other Western Jews.

From the mass of detail in the registers, it is possible to extract something like a general picture of the economic life of the country in that period. Out of a total population of about 300,000 souls, between a fifth and a quarter lived in the six towns of Jerusalem, Gaza, Safed, Nablus, Ramle, and Hebron. The remainder consisted mainly of peasants, living in villages of varying size, and engaged in agriculture. Their main food-crops were wheat and barley in that order, supplemented by leguminous pulses, olives, fruit, and vegetables. In and around most of the towns there was a considerable number of vineyards, orchards, and vegetable gardens.

Year	Jews	Christians	Muslims	Total
1533–1539	5	6	145	157
1690–1691	2	11	219	232
1800	7	22	246	275
1890	43	57	432	532
1914	94	70	525	689
1922	84	71	589	752
1931	175	89	760	1,033
1947	630	143	1,181	1,970
Historical population table compiled by Sergio DellaPergola. Figures in thousands.

According to Alexander Scholch, the population of Palestine in 1850 was about 350,000 inhabitants, 30% of whom lived in 13 towns; roughly 85% were Muslims, 11% were Christians and 4% Jews.

According to Ottoman statistics studied by Justin McCarthy, the population of Palestine in the early 19th century was 350,000, in 1860 it was 411,000 and in 1900 about 600,000 of whom 94% were Arabs. In 1914 Palestine had a population of 657,000 Muslim Arabs, 81,000 Christian Arabs, and 59,000 Jews. McCarthy estimates the non-Jewish population of Palestine at 452,789 in 1882; 737,389 in 1914; 725,507 in 1922; 880,746 in 1931; and 1,339,763 in 1946.

In 1920, the League of Nations' Interim Report on the Civil Administration of Palestine described the 700,000 people living in Palestine as follows:

Of these, 235,000 live in the larger towns, 465,000 in the smaller towns and villages. Four-fifths of the whole population are Moslems. A small proportion of these are Bedouin Arabs; the remainder, although they speak Arabic and are termed Arabs, are largely of mixed race. Some 77,000 of the population are Christians, in large majority belonging to the Orthodox Church, and speaking Arabic. The minority are members of the Latin or of the Uniate Greek Catholic Church, or—a small number—are Protestants. The Jewish element of the population numbers 76,000. Almost all have entered Palestine during the last 40 years. Prior to 1850, there were in the country only a handful of Jews. In the following 30 years, a few hundreds came to Palestine. Most of them were animated by religious motives; they came to pray and to die in the Holy Land, and to be buried in its soil. After the persecutions in Russia forty years ago, the movement of the Jews to Palestine assumed larger proportions.

Current demographics

See also: Demographics of Israel and Demographics of the Palestinian territories

According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, as of 2015, the total population of Israel was 8.5 million people, of which 75% were Jews, 21% Arabs, and 4% "others". Of the Jewish group, 76% were Sabras (born in Israel); the rest were olim (immigrants)—16% from Europe, the former Soviet republics, and the Americas, and 8% from Asia and Africa, including the Arab countries.

According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics evaluations, in 2015 the Palestinian population of the West Bank was approximately 2.9 million and that of the Gaza Strip was 1.8 million. By 2022, the population of the Gaza strip had increased to an estimated 2,375,259, corresponding to a density of more than 6,507 people per square kilometre.

Both Israeli and Palestinian statistics include Arab residents of East Jerusalem in their reports. According to these estimates the total population in the region of Palestine, as defined as Israel and the Palestinian territories, stands approximately 12.8 million.

Flora and fauna

Main article: Biodiversity in Israel and Palestine

Flora distribution

See also: Category:Flora of Palestine (region) and List of native plants of Flora Palaestina (A–B)

The World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions is widely used in recording the distribution of plants. The scheme uses the code "PAL" to refer to the region of Palestine – a Level 3 area. The WGSRPD's Palestine is further divided into Israel (PAL-IS), including the Palestinian territories, and Jordan (PAL-JO), so is larger than some other definitions of "Palestine".

Birds

Main article: List of birds of Palestine

See also

• Cartography of Palestine
• Place names of Palestine
• Levantine archaeology (a.k.a. Palestinian archaeology)
• Palestine Exploration Fund

Notes

1. פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה Pāleśtīnā has been used to refer to the region, particularly before 1948, and פָלַסְטִין Fālasṭīn after 1948.
   אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל ʾEreṣ Yiśrāʾēl ("Land of Israel"), sometimes called simply הָאָרֶץ hāʾĀreṣ ("the Land") or abbreviated א"י.
2. Northwestern parts, according to some definitions.
3. Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistínē; Latin: Palaestina; Arabic: فِلَسْطِيْن, Filasṭīn, or Levantine Arabic: فَلَسْطِيْن Falasṭīn or فِلِسْطِين Filisṭīn; Hebrew: פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה Palestīna or אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל ʾEreṣ Yiśrāʾēl
4. Eberhard Schrader wrote in his seminal "Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung" ("KGF", in English "Cuneiform inscriptions and Historical Research") that the Assyrian tern "Palashtu" or "Pilistu" referred to the wider Palestine or "the East" in general, instead of "Philistia" (Schrader 1878, pp. 123–124; Anspacher 1912, p. 48).
5. "The earliest occurrence of this name in a Greek text is in the mid-fifth century B.C., Histories of Herodotus, where it is applied to the area of the Levant between Phoenicia and Egypt." ... "The first known occurrence of the Greek word Palaistine is in the Histories of Herodotus, written near the mid-fifth century B.C. Palaistine Syria, or simply Palaistine, is applied to what may be identified as the southern part of Syria, comprising the region between Phoenicia and Egypt. Although some of Herodotus' references to Palestine are compatible with a narrow definition of the coastal strip of the Land of Israel, it is clear that Herodotus does call the whole land by the name of the coastal strip." ... "It is believed that Herodotus visited Palestine in the fifth decade of the fifth century B.C."  ..."In the earliest Classical literature references to Palestine generally applied to the Land of Israel in the wider sense." (Jacobson 1999)
6. "As early as the Histories of Herodotus, written in the second half of the fifth century BCE, the term Palaistinê is used to describe not just the geographical area where the Philistines lived, but the entire area between Phoenicia and Egypt—in other words, the Land of Israel. Herodotus, who had traveled through the area, would have had firsthand knowledge of the land and its people. Yet he used Palaistinê to refer not to the Land of the Philistines, but to the Land of Israel" (Jacobson 2001)
7. In The Histories, Herodotus referred to the practice of male circumcision associated with the Hebrew people: "the Colchians, the Egyptians, and the Ethiopians, are the only nations who have practised circumcision from the earliest times. The Phoenicians and the Syrians of Palestine themselves confess that they learnt the custom of the Egyptians ... Now these are the only nations who use circumcision." (Herodotus 1858, pp. Bk ii, Ch 104)
8. "Rabbinic sources insist that the Philistines of Judges and Samuel were different people altogether from the Philistines of Genesis. (Midrash Tehillim on Psalm 60 (Braude: vol. 1, 513); the issue here is precisely whether Israel should have been obliged, later, to keep the Genesis treaty.) This parallels a shift in the Septuagint's translation of Hebrew pelistim. Before Judges, it uses the neutral transliteration phulistiim, but beginning with Judges it switches to the pejorative allophuloi. " (Jobling & Rose 1996, p. 404)
9. For example, the 1915 Filastin Risalesi ("Palestine Document"), an Ottoman army (VIII Corps) country survey which formally identified Palestine as including the sanjaqs of Akka (the Galilee), the Sanjaq of Nablus, and the Sanjaq of Jerusalem (Kudus Sherif)
10. The New Testament, taking up a term used once in the Tanakh (1 Samuel 13:19), speaks of a larger theologically-defined area, of which Palestine is a part, as the "land of Israel" (γῆ Ἰσραήλ) (Matthew 2:20–21), in a narrative paralleling that of the Book of Exodus.
11. "The parallels between this narrative and that of Exodus continue to be drawn. Like Pharaoh before him, Herod, having been frustrated in his original efforts, now seeks to achieve his objectives by implementing a program of infanticide. As a result, here – as in Exodus – rescuing the hero's life from the clutches of the evil king necessitates a sudden flight to another country. And finally, in perhaps the most vivid parallel of all, the present narrative uses virtually the same words of the earlier one to provide the information that the coast is clear for the herds safe return: here, in Matthew 2:20, 'go … for those who sought the child's life are dead; there, in Exodus 4:19, go back… for all the men who sought your life are dead'" (Goldberg 2001, p. 147).
12. Other writers, such as Strabo, referred to the region as Coele-Syria ("all Syria") around 10–20 CE (Feldman 1996, pp. 557–558).
13. "Several scholars hold the revisionist thesis that the Israelites did not move to the area as a distinct and foreign ethnic group at all, bringing with them their god Yahwe and forcibly evicting the indigenous population, but that they gradually evolved out of an amalgam of several ethnic groups, and that the Israelite cult developed on "Palestinian" soil amid the indigenous population. This would make the Israelites "Palestinians" not just in geographical and political terms (under the British Mandate, both Jews and Arabs living in the country were defined as Palestinians), but in ethnic and broader cultural terms as well. While this does not conform to the conventional view, or to the understanding of most Jews (and Arabs, for that matter), it is not easy to either prove or disprove. For although the Bible speaks at length about how the Israelites "took" the land, it is not a history book to draw reliable maps from. There is nothing in the extra-biblical sources, including the extensive Egyptian materials, to document the sojourn in Egypt or the exodus so vividly described in the Bible (and commonly dated to the thirteenth century). Biblical scholar Moshe Weinfeld sees the biblical account of the exodus, and of Moses and Joshua as founding heroes of the "national narration", as a later rendering of a lived experience that was subsequently either "forgotten" or consciously repressed – a textbook case of the "invented tradition" so familiar to modern students of ethnicity and nationalism." (Krämer 2011, p. 8)
14. (Temple of Jerusalem): totally destroyed the building in 587/586
15. "In both the Idumaean and the Ituraean alliances, and in the annexation of Samaria, the Judaeans had taken the leading role. They retained it. The whole political–military–religious league that now united the hill country of Palestine from Dan to Beersheba, whatever it called itself, was directed by, and soon came to be called by others, 'the Ioudaioi'" (Smith 1999, p. 210a)
16. For example, in a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman (a secular agnostic) described the dispute, whilst concluding: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" (Ehrman 2011, p. 285)
17. "The religious situation also evolved under the new masters. Christianity did remain the majority religion, but it lost the privileges it had enjoyed." (Flusin 2011, pp. 199–226, 215)
18. The earlier view, exemplifed by the writings of Moshe Gil, argued for a Jewish-Samaritan majority at the time of conquest: "We may reasonably state that at the time if the Muslim conquest, a large Jewish population still lived in Palestine. We do not know whether they formed the majority but we may assume with some certainly that they did so when grouped together with the Samaritans." (Gil 1997, p. 3)
19. "Under the Tulunids, Syro-Egyptian territory was deeply imbued with the concept of an extraordinary role devolving upon Jerusalem in Islam as al-Quds, Bayt al-Maqdis or Bayt al-Muqaddas, the "House of Holiness", the seat of the Last Judgment, the Gate to Paradise for Muslims as well as for Jews and Christians. In the popular conscience, this concept established a bond between the three monotheistic religions. If Ahmad ibn Tulun was interred on the slope of the Muqattam , Isa ibn Musa al-Nashari and Takin were laid to rest in Jerusalem in 910 and 933, as were their Ikhshidid successors and Kafir . To honor the great general and governor of Syria Anushtakin al-Dizbiri, who died in 433/1042, the Fatimid Dynasty had his remains solemnly conveyed from Aleppo to Jerusalem in 448/1056-57." (Bianquis 1998, p. 103)
20. "In 1914 about 12,000 Jewish farmers and fieldworkers lived in approximately forty Jewish settlements – and to repeat it once again, they were by no means all Zionists. The dominant languages were still Yiddish, Russian, Polish, Rumanian, Hungarian, or German in the case of Ashkenazi immigrants from Europe, and Ladino (or 'Judeo-Spanish') and Arabic in the case of Sephardic and Oriental Jews. Biblical Hebrew served as the sacred language, while modern Hebrew (Ivrit) remained for the time being the language of a politically committed minority that had devoted itself to a revival of 'Hebrew culture'." (Krämer 2011, p. 120)
21. "Transjordan, however, controlled large portions of Judea and Samaria, later known as the West Bank" (Tucker & Roberts 2008, pp. 248–249, 500, 522)
22. The majority of the international community (including the UN General Assembly, the United Nations Security Council, the European Union, the International Criminal Court, and the vast majority of human rights organizations) considers Israel to be continuing to occupying Gaza, the West Bank and East Jerusalem. The government of Israel and some supporters have, at times, disputed this position of the international community. In 2011, Andrew Sanger explained the situation as follows: "Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a Stale nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border. and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will. Israel continues to control six of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Troops from the Israeli Defence Force regularly enter pans of the territory and/or deploy missile attacks, drones and sonic bombs into Gaza. Israel has declared a no-go buffer zone that stretches deep into Gaza: if Gazans enter this zone they are shot on sight. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for inter alia electricity, currency, telephone networks, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry. It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied.", and in 2012 Iain Scobbie explained: "Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza" and Michelle Gawerc wrote in the same year: "While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, Israel still controlled all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. ln addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water electricity sewage communication networks and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). In other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement Palestinians – as well as many human right organizations and international bodies – argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied."
    For more details of this terminology dispute, including with respect to the current status of the Gaza Strip, see International views on the Israeli-occupied territories and Status of territories captured by Israel.
23. For an explanation of the differences between an annexed but disputed territory (e.g. Tibet) and a militarily occupied territory, please see the article Military occupation. The "longest military occupation" description has been described in a number of ways, including: "The Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza is the longest military occupation in modern times," "...longest official military occupation of modern history—currently entering its thirty-fifth year," "...longest-lasting military occupation of the modern age, " "This is probably the longest occupation in modern international relations, and it holds a central place in all literature on the law of belligerent occupation since the early 1970s," "These are settlements and a military occupation that is the longest in the twentieth and twenty-first century, the longest formerly being the Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945. So this is thirty-three years old , pushing the record," "Israel is the only modern state that has held territories under military occupation for over four decades." In 2014 Sharon Weill provided further context, writing: "Although the basic philosophy behind the law of military occupation is that it is a temporary situation modem occupations have well demonstrated that rien ne dure comme le provisoire A significant number of post-1945 occupations have lasted more than two decades such as the occupations of Namibia by South Africa and of East Timor by Indonesia as well as the ongoing occupations of Northern Cyprus by Turkey and of Western Sahara by Morocco. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories, which is the longest in all occupation's history has already entered its fifth decade."
24. See United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19 for further details
25. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia published between 1901 and 1906: "Palestine extends, from 31° to 33° 20' N. latitude. Its southwest point (at Raphia, Tell Rifaḥ, southwest of Gaza) is about 34° 15' E. longitude, and its northwest point (mouth of the Liṭani) is at 35° 15' E. longitude, while the course of the Jordan reaches 35° 35' to the east. The west-Jordan country has, consequently, a length of about 150 English miles from north to south, and a breadth of about 23 miles (37 km) at the north and 80 miles (129 km) at the south. The area of this region, as measured by the surveyors of the English Palestine Exploration Fund, is about 6,040 square miles (15,644 km). The east-Jordan district is now being surveyed by the German Palästina-Verein, and although the work is not yet completed, its area may be estimated at 4,000 square miles (10,360 km). This entire region, as stated above, was not occupied exclusively by the Israelites, for the plain along the coast in the south belonged to the Philistines, and that in the north to the Phoenicians, while in the east-Jordan country, the Israelitic possessions never extended farther than the Arnon (Wadi al-Mujib) in the south, nor did the Israelites ever settle in the most northerly and easterly portions of the plain of Bashan. To-day the number of inhabitants does not exceed 650,000. Palestine, and especially the Israelitic state, covered, therefore, a very small area, approximating that of the state of Vermont." From the Jewish Encyclopedia
26. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911), Palestine is: " geographical name of rather loose application. Etymological strictness would require it to denote exclusively the narrow strip of coast-land once occupied by the Philistines, from whose name it is derived. It is, however, conventionally used as a name for the territory which, in the Old Testament, is claimed as the inheritance of the pre-exilic Hebrews; thus it may be said generally to denote the southern third of the province of Syria. Except in the west, where the country is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, the limit of this territory cannot be laid down on the map as a definite line. The modern subdivisions under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire are in no sense conterminous with those of antiquity, and hence do not afford a boundary by which Palestine can be separated exactly from the rest of Syria in the north, or from the Sinaitic and Arabian deserts in the south and east; nor are the records of ancient boundaries sufficiently full and definite to make possible the complete demarcation of the country. Even the convention above referred to is inexact: it includes the Philistine territory, claimed but never settled by the Hebrews, and excludes the outlying parts of the large area claimed in Num. xxxiv. as the Hebrew possession (from the " River of Egypt " to Hamath). However, the Hebrews themselves have preserved, in the proverbial expression " from Dan to Beersheba " (Judg. xx.i, &c.), an indication of the normal north-and-south limits of their land; and in defining the area of the country under discussion it is this indication which is generally followed. Taking as a guide the natural features most nearly corresponding to these outlying points, we may describe Palestine as the strip of land extending along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea from the mouth of the Litany or Kasimiya River (33° 20' N.) southward to the mouth of the Wadi Ghuzza; the latter joins the sea in 31° 28' N., a short distance south of Gaza, and runs thence in a south-easterly direction so as to include on its northern side the site of Beersheba. Eastward there is no such definite border. The River Jordan, it is true, marks a line of delimitation between Western and Eastern Palestine; but it is practically impossible to say where the latter ends and the Arabian desert begins. Perhaps the line of the pilgrim road from Damascus to Mecca is the most convenient possible boundary. The total length of the region is about 140 m (459.32 ft); its breadth west of the Jordan ranges from about 23 m (75.46 ft) in the north to about 80 m (262.47 ft) in the south."
27. "The term Palestine in the textbooks refers to Palestinian National Authority." (Adwan 2006, p. 242)
28. See for example, Palestinian school textbooks
29. "... the population of Palestine in antiquity did not exceed a million persons. It can also be shown, moreover, that this was more or less the size of the population in the peak period—the late Byzantine period, around AD 600" (Broshi 1979, p. 7)
30. "... the population of the country in the Roman-Byzantine period greatly exceeded that in the Iron Age... If we accept Broshi's population estimates, which appear to be confirmed by the results of recent research, it follows that the estimates for the population during the Iron Age must be set at a lower figure." (Shiloh 1980, p. 33)
31. By A.D. 300, Jews made up a mere quarter of the total population of the province of Syria Palaestina (Krämer 2011, p. 15)

Citations

1. Publishing, Britannica Educational (1 October 2010). Historic Palestine, Israel, and the Emerging Palestinian Autonomous Areas. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-395-3 – via Google Books.
2. Svirsky, Marcelo; Ben-Arie, Ronnen (7 November 2017). From Shared Life to Co-Resistance in Historic Palestine. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-78348-965-7 – via Google Books.
3. Domínguez de Olazábal, Itxaso (3 October 2022). "On Indigenous Refusal against Externally-Imposed Frameworks in Historic Palestine". Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 51 (1): 212–236. doi:10.1177/03058298221131359. ISSN 0305-8298 – via CrossRef.
4. Lehmann 1998.
5. Reuters: recognition 2012.
6. Miskin 2012.
7. AP 2013.
8. Fahlbusch et al. 2005, p. 185.
9. Breasted 2001, p. 24.
10. ^ Sharon 1988, p. 4.
11. ^ Room 2006, p. 285.
12. Herodotus 3:91:1.
13. Jacobson 1999, p. 65.
14. Jacobson 1999, pp. 66–67.
15. ^ Robinson, 1865, p.15: "Palestine, or Palestina, now the most common name for the Holy Land, occurs three times in the English version of the Old Testament; and is there put for the Hebrew name פלשת, elsewhere rendered Philistia. As thus used, it refers strictly and only to the country of the Philistines, in the southwest corner of the land. So, too, in the Greek form, Παλαςτίνη, it is used by Josephus. But both Josephus and Philo apply the name to the whole land of the Hebrews; and Greek and Roman writers employed it in the like extent."
16. Louis H. Feldman, whose view differs from that of Robinson, thinks that Josephus, when referring to Palestine, had in mind only the coastal region, writing: "Writers on geography in the first century clearly differentiate Judaea from Palestine. ... Jewish writers, notably Philo and Josephus, with few exceptions refer to the land as Judaea, reserving the name Palestine for the coastal area occupied by the Philistines." (END QUOTE). See: p. 1 in: (Feldman 1990, pp. 1–23).
17. ^ Feldman 1996, p. 553.
18. Lewis 1954, p. 153.
19. ^ Jacobson 1999, pp. 72–74.
20. Noth 1939.
21. Jacobson 1999, p. : "In the earliest Classical literature references to Palestine generally applied to the Land of Israel in the wider sense. A reappraisal of this question has given rise to the proposition that the name Palestine, in its Greek form Palaistine, was both a transliteration of a word used to describe the land of the Philistines and, at the same time, a literal translation of the name Israel. This dual interpretation reconciles apparent contradictions in early definitions of the name Palaistine and is compatible with the Greeks' penchant for punning, especially on place names."
22. Beloe, W. (1821). Herodotus, Vol.II. London. p. 269. It should be remembered that Syria is always regarded by Herodotus as synonymous with Assyria. What the Greeks called Palestine the Arabs call Falastin, which is the Philistines of Scripture. (tr. from Greek, with notes)
23. "Palestine and Israel", David M. Jacobson, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 313 (February 1999), pp. 65–74; "The Southern and Eastern Borders of Abar-Nahara," Steven S. Tuell, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 284 (November 1991), pp. 51–57; "Herodotus' Description of the East Mediterranean Coast", Anson F. Rainey, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 321 (February 2001), pp. 57–63; Herodotus, Histories
24. Jobling & Rose 1996, p. 404a.
25. Drews 1998, p. 49: "Our names 'Philistia' and 'Philistines' are unfortunate obfuscations, first introduced by the translators of the LXX and made definitive by Jerome's Vg. When turning a Hebrew text into Greek, the translators of the LXX might simply—as Josephus was later to do—have Hellenized the Hebrew פְּלִשְׁתִּים as Παλαιστίνοι, and the toponym פְּלִשְׁתִּ as Παλαιστίνη. Instead, they avoided the toponym altogether, turning it into an ethnonym. As for the ethnonym, they chose sometimes to transliterate it (incorrectly aspirating the initial letter, perhaps to compensate for their inability to aspirate the sigma) as φυλιστιιμ, a word that looked exotic rather than familiar, and more often to translate it as άάλλόφυλοι. Jerome followed the LXX's lead in eradicating the names, 'Palestine' and 'Palestinians', from his Old Testament, a practice adopted in most modern translations of the Bible."
26. Drews 1998, p. 51: "The LXX's regular translation of פְּלִשְׁתִּים into άλλόφυλοι is significant here. Not a proper name at all, allophyloi is a generic term, meaning something like 'people of other stock'. If we assume, as I think we must, that with their word allophyloi the translators of the LXX tried to convey in Greek what p'lištîm had conveyed in Hebrew, we must conclude that for the worshippers of Yahweh p'lištîm and b'nê yiśrā'ēl were mutually exclusive terms, p'lištîm (or allophyloi) being tantamount to 'non-Judaeans of the Promised Land' when used in a context of the third century BCE, and to 'non-Israelites of the Promised Land' when used in a context of Samson, Saul and David. Unlike an ethnonym, the noun פְּלִשְׁתִּים normally appeared without a definite article."
27. ^ Kaegi 1995, p. 41.
28. Marshall Cavendish, 2007, p. 559.
29. Krämer 2011, p. 16.
30. Büssow 2011, p. 5.
31. Abu-Manneh 1999, p. 39.
32. ^ Tamari 2011, pp. 29–30: "Filastin Risalesi, is the salnameh type military handbook issued for Palestine at the beginning of the Great War... The first is a general map of the country in which the boundaries extend far beyond the frontiers of the Mutasarflik of Jerusalem, which was, until then, the standard delineation of Palestine. The northern borders of this map include the city of Tyre (Sur) and the Litani River, thus encompassing all of the Galilee and parts of southern Lebanon, as well as districts of Nablus, Haifa and Akka—all of which were part of the Wilayat of Beirut until the end of the war."
33. ^ Biger 2004, pp. 133, 159.
34. Whitelam 1996, pp. 40–42.
35. Masalha 2007, p. 32.
36. Saldarini 1994, pp. 28–29.
37. Ahlström 1993, pp. 72–111.
38. Ahlström 1993, pp. 282–334.
39. Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 107.
40. Crouch 2014.
41. Ahlström 1993, pp. 655–741, 754–784.
42. British Museum n.d.
43. Chronicle of Nebuchadnezzar II 2006.
44. Ahlström 1993, pp. 804–890.
45. Crotty 2017, p. 25 f.n. 4.
46. Grabbe 2004, p. 355.
47. Ephal 2000, p. 156.
48. ^ Levin 2020, p. 487.
49. Wenning 2007, pp. 26: All that can be said with certainty is that the Nabataeans are known in the sources since the fourth century B.C. Up to that time the Qedarites, the dominant Arab tribe of the Persian period, controlled the south from the Hejaz and all of the Negev.
50. David F. Graf, 'Petra and the Nabataeans in the Early Hellenistic Period: the literary and archaeological evidence,' in Michel Mouton, Stephan G. Schmid (eds.), Men on the Rocks: The Formation of Nabataean Petra, Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH, 2013 pp.35–55 pp.47–48: 'the Idumean texts indicate that a large portion of the community in southern Palestine were Arabs, many of whom have names similar to those in the "Nabataean" onomasticon of later periods.' (p.47).
51. "Founded in the years 22-10 or 9 B.C. by Herod the Great, close to the ruins of a small Phoenician naval station named Strato's Tower (Stratonos Pyrgos, Turns Stratonis), which flourished during the 3d to 1st c. B.C. This small harbor was situated on the N part of the site. Herod dedicated the new town and its port (limen Sebastos) to Caesar Augustus. During the Early Roman period Caesarea was the seat of the Roman procurators of the province of Judea. Vespasian, proclaimed emperor at Caesarea, raised it to the rank of Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta, and later Alexander Severus raised it to the rank of Metropolis Provinciae Syriae Palestinae." A. Negev, "CAESAREA MARITIMA Palestine, Israel" in: Richard Stillwell et al. (eds.), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (1976).
52. Smith 1999, p. 210.
53. Ben-Sasson, p.226, "The name Judea no longer referred only to ..."
54. ^ Neusner 1983, p. 911.
55. Vermes 2014, p. 36.
56. Evenari 1982, p. 26.
57. Kårtveit 2014, p. 209.
58. Sivan 2008, p. 2.
59. Temple of Jerusalem.
60. Zissu 2018, p. 19.
61. Lewin 2005, p. 33.
62. Eshel 2008, pp. 125: Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war..
63. Schäfer 2003, p. 163: The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 173: Galilee became the all-important focus of Jewish life
64. H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Iudaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."
65. Ariel Lewin. The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6
66. Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 196
67. Gil 1997, p. i.
68. Gil 1997, p. 47.
69. Gil 1997, p. 76.
70. Brown, 2011, p. 122: 'the first great Islamic architectural achievement.'
71. Avni 2014, pp. 314, 336.
72. O'Mahony, 2003, p. 14: 'Before the Muslim conquest, the population of Palestine was overwhelmingly Christian, albeit with a sizeable Jewish community.'
73. Avni 2014, pp. 154–155.
74. Gil 1997, pp. 134–136.
75. Walmsley 2000, pp. 265–343, p. 290.
76. Gil 1997, p. 329.
77. Gil 1997, pp. 306ff. and p. 307 n. 71, p. 308 n. 73.
78. Gil 1997, p. 324.
79. Gil 1997, p. 336.
80. Gil 1997, p. 410.
81. Gil 1997, pp. 209, 414.
82. Christopher Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades (Penguin: 2006), pp. 201–202
83. Gil 1997, p. 826.
84. ^ Krämer 2011, p. 15, .
85. Boas 2001, pp. 19–20.
86. Setton 1969, pp. 615–621 (vol. 1).
87. Setton 1969, pp. 152–185 (vol. 2).
88. Setton 1969, pp. 486–518 (vol. 2).
89. Krämer 2011, pp. 35–39.
90. Krämer 2011, p. 40.
91. Zeevi 1996, p. 45.
92. Phillipp 2013, pp. 42–43.
93. Joudah 1987, pp. 115–117.
94. Burns 2005, p. 246.
95. ^ Krämer 2011, p. 64.
96. Silverburg 2009, pp. 9–36, p. 29 n. 32.
97. Pappe 1999, p. 38.
98. Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, pp. 7–8.
99. Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 11.
100. Krämer 2011, p. 71.
101. Yazbak 1998, p. 3.
102. Gilbar 1986, p. 188.
103. Shapira 2014, p. 15.
104. Krämer 2011, p. 148.
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106. ^ Morris 2001, pp. 67–120.
107. Segev 2001, pp. 270–294.
108. Segev 2001, pp. 1–13.
109. Segev 2001, pp. 468–487.
110. Segev 2001, pp. 487–521.
111. Pappé 1994, p. 119 "His (Abdallah) natural choice was the regions of Judea and Samaria...".
112. Gerson 2012, p. 93 "Trans-Jordan was also in control of all of Judea and Samaria (the West Bank)".
113. Pappé 1994, pp. 102–135.
114. Khalidi 2007, pp. 12–36.
115. Pappé 1994, pp. 87–101 and 203–243.
116. Sanger 2011, p. 429.
117. Scobbie 2012, p. 295.
118. Gawerc 2012, p. 44.
119. Hajjar 2005, p. 96.
120. Anderson 2001.
121. Makdisi 2010, p. 299.
122. Kretzmer 2012, p. 885.
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124. Alexandrowicz 2012.
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130. EB 1911.
131. Aharoni 1979, p. 64.
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• Yazbak, Mahmoud (1998). Haifa in the Late Ottoman Period, A Muslim Town in Transition, 1864–1914. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 978-90-04-11051-9.
• Zeevi, Dror (1996), An Ottoman century: the district of Jerusalem in the 1600s, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2915-0
• Zissu, Boaz (2018). "Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective". Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE. Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson. Leiden, The Netherlands. p. 19. ISBN 978-90-04-34986-5. OCLC 988856967.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links

Palestinian territories travel guide from Wikivoyage

v t e Palestinian nationalism and the Occupied Palestinian Territory

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v t e Palestine region articles
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Abrahamic holy places	Cave of the Patriarchs Joseph's Tomb Rachel's Tomb Lot's Tomb Christianity Church of the Holy Sepulchre Church of the Nativity Basilica of the Annunciation Islam Dome of the Rock Al-Aqsa Mosque Great Mosque of Gaza Judaism Four Holy Cities Western Wall
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v t e People and things in the Quran
Characters Non-humans Allāh ('The God') Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous) Animals Related The baqara (cow) of Israelites The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey) The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave The namlah (female ant) of Solomon The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah The nāqat (she-camel) of Ṣāliḥ Non-related ʿAnkabūt (Female spider) Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth) Ḥimār (Wild ass) Naḥl (Honey bee) Qaswarah ('Lion', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter') Malāʾikah (Angels) Angels of Hell Mālik Zabāniyah Bearers of the Throne Harut and Marut Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes) Raqib Atid Munkar and Nakir Muqarrabun Jibrīl (Gabriel, chief) Ar-Rūḥ ('The Spirit') Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ('The Trustworthy Spirit') Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ('The Holy Spirit') Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael) Malakul-Mawt (Angel of Death, Azrael) Mīkāil (Michael) Jinn (Genies) Jann ʿIfrīt Sakhr (Asmodeus) Qarīn Shayāṭīn (Demons) Iblīs ash-Shayṭān (the (chief) Devil) Mārid ('Rebellious one') Others Ghilmān or Wildān Ḥūr Prophets Mentioned Ādam (Adam) Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha) Ayyūb (Job) Dāwūd (David) Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?) Hārūn (Aaron) Hūd (Eber?) Idrīs (Enoch?) Ilyās (Elijah) ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam) Isḥāq (Isaac) Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) Dhabih Ullah Lūṭ (Lot) Ṣāliḥ Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?) Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David) ʿUzair (Ezra?) Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah) Yaʿqūb (Jacob) Isrāʾīl (Israel) Yūnus (Jonah) Dhūn-Nūn ('He of the Fish (or Whale)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)') Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ('Companion of the Whale') Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob) Zakariyyā (Zechariah) Ulul-ʿAzm ('Those of the Perseverance and Strong Will') Muḥammad Aḥmad Other names and titles of Muhammad ʿĪsā (Jesus) Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah) Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary) Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God) Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God) Nūḥ (Noah) Debatable ones Dhūl-Qarnain Luqmān Maryam (Mary) Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?) Implied Irmiyā (Jeremiah) Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel) Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses) People of Prophets Good ones Adam's immediate relatives Martyred son Wife Believer of Ya-Sin Family of Noah Father Lamech Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos Luqman's son People of Abraham Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo Ishmael's mother Isaac's mother People of Jesus Disciples (including Peter) Mary's mother Zechariah's wife People of Solomon Mother Queen of Sheba Vizier Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son) People of Joseph Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon) Egyptians ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin) Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd)) Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah) Mother People of Aaron and Moses Egyptians Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura) Imraʾat Firʿawn (Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim the Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses) Magicians of the Pharaoh Wise, pious man Moses' wife Moses' sister-in-law Mother Sister Evil ones Āzar (possibly Terah) Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time) Hāmān Jālūt (Goliath) Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses) As-Sāmirī Abū Lahab Slayers of Ṣāliḥ's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr) Implied or not specified Abraha Abu Bakr Bal'am/Balaam Barṣīṣā Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua Luqman's son Nebuchadnezzar II Nimrod Rahmah the wife of Ayyub Shaddad Groups Mentioned Aṣḥāb al-Jannah People of Paradise People of the Burnt Garden Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath) Jesus' apostles Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus) Companions of Noah's Ark Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim? Companions of the Elephant People of al-Ukhdūd People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin People of Yathrib or Medina Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah) Nation of Noah Tribes, ethnicities or families ‘Ajam Ar-Rūm (literally 'The Romans') Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel) Muʾtafikāt (Sodom and Gomorrah) People of Ibrahim People of Ilyas People of Nuh People of Shuaib Ahl Madyan People of Madyan) Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ('Companions of the Wood') Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah) Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog People of Fir'aun Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad) Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad) Anṣār (literally 'Helpers') Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina) People of Mecca Wife of Abu Lahab Children of Ayyub Sons of Adam Wife of Nuh Wife of Lut Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog) Son of Nuh Aʿrāb (Arabs or Bedouins) ʿĀd (people of Hud) Companions of the Rass Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba) People of Sabaʾ or Sheba Quraysh Thamūd (people of Ṣāliḥ) Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ('Companions of the Stoneland') Ahl al-Bayt ('People of the Household') Household of Abraham Brothers of Yūsuf Lot's daughters Progeny of Imran Household of Moses Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim Daughters of Muhammad Muhammad's wives Household of Salih Implicitly mentioned Amalek Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah) Banu Nadir Banu Qaynuqa Banu Qurayza Iranian people Umayyad Dynasty Aus and Khazraj People of Quba Religious groups Ahl al-Dhimmah Kāfirūn disbelievers Majūs Zoroastrians Munāfiqūn (Hypocrites) Muslims Believers Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil) Ruhban (Christian monks) Qissis (Christian priest) Yahūd (Jews) Ahbār (Jewish scholars) Rabbani/Rabbi Sabians Polytheists Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot
Locations Mentioned Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ('The Holy Land') 'Blessed' Land' Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally 'The Garden') Jahannam (Hell) Door of Hittah Madyan (Midian) Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn Miṣr (Mainland Egypt) Salsabīl (A river in Paradise) In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan) Al-Aḥqāf ('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills') Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars) Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib) ʿArafāt and Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām Al-Ḥijr (Hegra) Badr Ḥunayn Makkah (Mecca) Bakkah Ḥaraman Āminan ('Sanctuary (which is) Secure') Kaʿbah (Kaaba) Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham) Safa and Marwa Sabaʾ (Sheba) ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba) Rass Sinai Region or Tīh Desert Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa) Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai) Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ('The Blessed Place') Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor In Mesopotamia Al-Jūdiyy Munzalanm-Mubārakan ('Place-of-Landing Blessed') Bābil (Babylon) Qaryat Yūnus ('Township of Jonah,' that is Nineveh) Religious locations Bayʿa (Church) Miḥrāb Monastery Masjid (Mosque, literally 'Place of Prostration') Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ('The Sacred Grove') Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration') Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca) Masjid al-Dirar A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly: Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque) The Prophet's Mosque Salat (Synagogue) Implied Antioch Antakya Arabia Al-Ḥijāz (literally 'The Barrier') Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad (Black Stone) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il Cave of Hira Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull) Hudaybiyyah Ta'if Ayla Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia) Canaan Cave of Seven Sleepers Dār an-Nadwa Jordan River Nile River Palestine River Paradise of Shaddad
Events, incidents, occasions or times Incident of Ifk Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Decree) Event of Mubahala Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Ma'rib in Sheba) The Farewell Pilgrimage Treaty of Hudaybiyyah Battles or military expeditions Battle of al-Aḥzāb ('the Confederates') Battle of Badr Battle of Hunayn Battle of Khaybar Battle of Uhud Expedition of Tabuk Conquest of Mecca Days Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday) As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday) Days of battles Days of Hajj Doomsday Months of the Islamic calendar 12 months: Four holy months Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month) Ramaḍān Pilgrimages Al-Ḥajj (literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage) Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage) Times for prayer or remembrance Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ): Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night) Al-Ghuduww ('The Mornings') Al-Bukrah ('The Morning') Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ('The Morning') Al-Layl ('The Night') Al-ʿIshāʾ ('The Late-Night') Aẓ-Ẓuhr ('The Noon') Dulūk ash-Shams ('Decline of the Sun') Al-Masāʾ ('The Evening') Qabl al-Ghurūb ('Before the Setting (of the Sun)') Al-Aṣīl ('The Afternoon') Al-ʿAṣr ('The Afternoon') Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ('Before the rising of the Sun') Al-Fajr ('The Dawn') Implied Ghadir Khumm Laylat al-Mabit First Pilgrimage
Other Holy books Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus) Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad) Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham) At-Tawrāt (The Torah) Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses) Tablets of Stone Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David) Umm al-Kitāb ('Mother of the Book(s)') Objects of people or beings Heavenly food of Jesus' apostles Noah's Ark Staff of Musa Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah) Throne of Bilqis Trumpet of Israfil Mentioned idols (cult images) 'Ansāb Jibt and Ṭāghūt (False god) Of Israelites Baʿal The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites Of Noah's people Nasr Suwāʿ Wadd Yaghūth Yaʿūq Of Quraysh Al-Lāt Al-ʿUzzā Manāt Celestial bodies Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'): Al-Qamar (The Moon) Kawākib (Planets) Al-Arḍ (The Earth) Nujūm (Stars) Ash-Shams (The Sun) Plant matter Baṣal (Onion) Fūm (Garlic or wheat) Shaṭʾ (Shoot) Sūq (Plant stem) Zarʿ (Seed) Fruits ʿAdas (Lentil) Baql (Herb) Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber) Rummān (Pomegranate) Tīn (Fig) Zaytūn (Olive) In Paradise Forbidden fruit of Adam Bushes, trees or plants Plants of Sheba Athl (Tamarisk) Sidr (Lote-tree) Līnah (Tender Palm tree) Nakhl (Date palm) Sidrat al-Muntahā Zaqqūm Liquids Māʾ (Water or fluid) Nahr (River) Yamm (River or sea) Sharāb (Drink)
Note: Names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)

v t e Nakba
Background	Mandatory Palestine Israeli Declaration of Independence Sectarian conflict in Mandatory Palestine New Historians Palestine Plan Dalet 1947 partition plan
Main articles	1947–1949 Palestine war 1947–1948 civil war 1948 Arab–Israeli War 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight causes UNRWA Nakba Day Nakba denial Palestine refugee camps Palestinian refugee Palestinian right of return Present absentee Transfer Committee Resolution 194
Key incidents	The battle of Hatikvah Neighborhood (1947) Battle of Haifa Deir Yassin massacre Expulsion from Lydda and Ramle
Notable writers	Aref al-Aref Yoav Gelber Efraim Karsh Walid Khalidi Nur Masalha Benny Morris Ilan Pappé Tom Segev Avraham Sela Avi Shlaim The Origins and Evolution of the Palestine Problem
Related categories/lists	Villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestinian exodus
Related templates	Palestinians Arab–Israeli conflict Israeli–Palestinian conflict Gaza–Israel conflict
The Holocaust and the Nakba

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