Misplaced Pages

Caste system among South Asian Christians: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 21:10, 9 February 2008 editBakasuprman (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users19,844 edits spelling← Previous edit Latest revision as of 09:34, 21 October 2024 edit undo45.251.35.179 (talk) →Tamil Nadu: The Paravar are numerically small in Tamil Nadu and so I deleted the reference. 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|none}}
The '''Caste system among Indian Christians''' came about due to assimilation of local ] practices, and due to stratification by ]s of ]s<ref>Schwartzberg Atlas, v. , p. 232. - ]</ref>. ] are stratified by sect, location, and the ] of their predecessors<ref name="britannica"> Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>. For instance, the Syrian ] Christians in South India retain the middle caste status in society. Starting from the 16th century, Portuguese missionaries converted some of the lower-castes to Christianity<ref name="britannica" />.


The '''caste system among South Asian Christians''' often reflects stratification by sect, location, and the ] of their predecessors.<ref name="britannica"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129202451/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9360711/Christian-caste |date=2006-11-29 }} Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> There exists evidence to show that ] individuals have mobility within their respective castes.<ref name="fuller">{{cite journal |title=Kerala Christians and the Caste System |first=C. J. |last=Fuller |journal=Man |series=New series |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=March 1976 |pages=53–70 |doi=10.2307/2800388 |jstor=2800388 }}</ref> But, in some cases, social inertia caused by their old traditions and biases against other castes remain, causing caste system to persist among ]n Christians, to some extent.<ref name="AqeelFaruqi2018">{{cite web |last1=Aqeel |first1=Asif |last2=Faruqi |first2=Sama |title=Caste away: The ongoing struggle of Punjabi Christians |url=https://herald.dawn.com/news/1153539 |publisher=] |access-date=25 May 2021 |language=English |date=26 February 2018}}</ref><ref name="Khadka2016"/><ref name="britannica2">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9082413/Christian-caste|title=Christian caste|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref><ref> Brojendra Nath Banerjee, Uiliyāma Kerī Sṭāḍi eyāṇḍ Risārca Seṇṭāra. Page 42: "At stake is the fate of 16 million Christians of SC origin, who form 70–80 percent of the Christians in the country"</ref><ref>Carol Henderson Garcia, Carol E. Henderson 2002:40 "Today about 70 percent of Christians are Dalits"</ref><ref>Radhakrishnan 2005:23</ref><ref>Azariah 1985:5</ref> Christian priests, nuns, ]s and similar groups are found in ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book|title = Ethnographic discourse of the other: conceptual and methodological issues|pages = 39–116|author1=Panchanan Mohanty |author2=Ramesh C. Malik |author3=Eswarappa Kasi |publisher = Cambridge Scholars|year = 2009}}</ref>
Christian groups have adapted the ] in diverse ways across the subcontinent. Many of the discrimination faced by lower castes in other ] are present among Christians as well as some which are unique to this community. About 60-80% of ] are members of the Dalits or backward classes<ref>Azariah 1985:5</ref>.


==Regions==
==Christian castes by region==
{{main|Caste system in India|Caste-related violence in India}}
===Goa===
In the Indian state of ], mass conversions were carried out by Portuguese missionaries from the 16th century onwards. The Hindu converts retained their caste practices. The continued maintenance of the caste system among the Christians in Goa is attributed to the nature of mass conversions of entire villages, as a result of which existing social stratification was not affected. The Portuguese colonists, even during the ], did not do anything to change the caste system. Thus, the original Hindu ] in Goa now became Christian "Bamonn's", and the ] became Christian noblemen called "Chatim" or "Chardos".The Christian clergy became almost exclusively Bamonn .]'s who converted to Christianity became "Gauddo's", and ]s became "Sudir's". Finally, the ]s or "Untouchables" who converted to Christianity became "Maharas" and "Chambars" (an apellation of the anti-Dalit ethnic slur "Chamaar"). The upper caste Gaonkar Christians have demanded that only their community be given positions on the Pastoral Council of Goa's Catholic Church<ref> Indian Express - November 24, 1999</ref>


===Kerala (])===
Several ethnic groups who did not convert to Christianity and remained Hindus (such as ]) were incorporated into the Christian caste of "Chaddho"<ref>''''. webindia123.com</ref>.
] and ] in Kerala belong to different denominations. Intermarriage between different ethnic groups is rare. Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala, composed of the ], ], ], ], ],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bergunder |first1=Michael |title=The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Century |date=6 June 2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2734-0 |pages=15–16, 30, 36, 49, 55–56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGiv3riaunQC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hefner |first1=Robert W. |title=Global Pentecostalism in the 21st Century |date=2 October 2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-01094-0 |pages=197–199, 201–202 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bHHAAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> ], ], ], ], ], and the endogamous subcaste of ] form ~4% of the Christians in the state.<ref name="Fortescue1913">{{cite book |last1=Fortescue |first1=A. |title=The lesser eastern churches |date=1913 |publisher=Catholic Truth Society |location=London |isbn=978-1-177-70798-5 |pages=374–375 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKbuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA375 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |last1=Frykenberg |first1=R.E. |title=Thomas Christians:History & Tradition-Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thomas-Christians |website=www.britannica.com |date=March 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Fahlbusch1999">{{cite book |last1=Fahlbusch |first1=Erwin |last2=Lochman |first2=Jan Milic |last3=Bromiley |first3=Geoffrey William |last4=Mbiti |first4=John S. |last5=Pelikan |first5=Jaroslav |last6=Barrett |first6=David B. |last7=Vischer |first7=Lukas |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |date=1999 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |pages=686–687 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC&pg=PA687 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Lamport2018">{{cite book |last1=Lamport |first1=Mark A. |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South |date=1 June 2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-7157-9 |pages=893–894 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6xVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA894 |language=en}}</ref> ] are the ethnic Saint Thomas Christians (Nasranis) affiliated to various Pentecostal and independent Neo-Charismatic churches.


The ] of the state combined form 2.6% of the Christian community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kcbcsite.com/kerala1.php|title=KCBC|website=www.kcbcsite.com}}</ref>
===Kerala===
] derive their high caste status from the ] that they are converted ]s, who were ] by ]<ref>Fuller, C.J.<u>Indian Christians: Pollution and Origins.</u>''Man'', New Series, Vol. 12, No. 3/4. (Dec., 1977), pp. 528-529.</ref>


In the colonial period, many lower castes were converted to Christians by the European Missionaries but the new converts were not allowed to join the Saint Thomas Christian community and they continued to be considered as untouchables even by the Syrian Christians. However, due to evangelical missions of Syrian Christian Churches starting from late 19th century, a considerable population of lower-castes (in some cases even outside Kerala) are part of some Syrian Christian Churches such as the Mar Thoma and CSI churches.<ref>{{Cite web |last=rti_admin |date=2018-03-12 |title=Caste, Family, Self: Savarna Christian Perspectives |url=https://www.roundtableindia.co.in/caste-family-self-savarna-christian-perspectives/ |access-date=2024-04-13 |website=Round Table India |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Varghese Meloottu |first=Allan |date=February 2023 |title=Amplifying the Dalit Pentecostal Historical Narrative amid the Persistent Syrian Christian 'Privileged' Narrative in Kerala |journal=Religions |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=175 |doi=10.3390/rel14020175 |doi-access=free |issn=2077-1444}}</ref> The Saint Thomas Christians claim to derive status within the caste system from the tradition that they were elites who were evangelized by ].<ref name="Fuller1976p55">Fuller (1976), pp. 55-56.</ref><ref name="Fuller, C.J 1977 pp. 528-529">Fuller, C.J. "Indian Christians: Pollution and Origins." '']''. New Series, Vol. 12, No. 3/4. (Dec. 1977), pp. 528–529.</ref><ref>Amaladass (1993), pp. 15-19.</ref> Anand Amaladass says that "The Syrian Christians had inserted themselves within the Indian caste society for centuries and were regarded by the Hindus as a caste occupying a high place within their caste hierarchy."<ref>Amaladass (1993), p. 18.</ref> Saint Thomas Christians followed the same rules of caste and pollution as that of Hindus and they were considered as pollution neutralizers.<ref name="Fuller1976p55" /><ref name="Benedict325">Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). , pp. 325–330. Media House Delhi.</ref> Rajendra Prasad, an Indian historian, said that the Syrian Christians took ritual baths after physical contact with lower castes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Prasad |first=Rajendra |title=A Historical Developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals |year=2009 |volume=12 |publisher=Concept Publishing |isbn=978-8-18069-595-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gtxVmUr1ygC&pg=PA484}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Why Christo-Racist Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric Are Gaining Ground in Kerala|url=https://thewire.in/religion/kerala-syrian-christians-caste-anti-muslim-rhetoric|access-date=2021-06-17|website=thewire.in|language=en}}</ref>
] tend to be endogamous, and tend not to ] with other ] castes<Ref>Rao Babadur L. K. Anantakrishna Ayyar, ''Anthropology of the Syrian Christians''. Cochin Government Press. 1926</ref>. Also, very rarely are there intermarriages between ] Christians and New Christians (converted in the 16th and 19th centuries) in ]. Anthropologists have noted that the caste hierarchy among Christians in ] is much more polarized than the Hindu practices in the surrounding areas, due to a lack of ]s. Also, the caste status is kept even if the ] ] is switched (i.e. from ] to ])<ref name="fuller" />.


===Goa (]) and ]===
===Tamil Nadu===
In ], ] and other ]n possessions, conversions of entire villages were carried out by Catholic missionaries from the ] from 1510 onwards. The Portuguese clergy imposed Portuguese surnames on the converts at the time of ] so that it would be difficult to know their original caste easily. The Portuguese authorities also suppressed ] among the converts and attempted to homogenize them into a single entity.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boxer|first=C. R.|year=1963|title=Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 1415-1825|publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press|page=75}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Prabhu|first=Alan Machado|year=1999|title=Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians|publisher=I.J.A. Publications|isbn=978-81-86778-25-8}}</ref>
The cohesion of ]s among low caste ]s (eg. ]) and the strength of caste leadership are noted by scholars to be much stronger than comparable predominantly ] castes in ]<ref name="kau">Kauffman, S. B.. "A Christian Caste in Hindu Society: Religious Leadership and Social Conflict among the Paravas of Southern Tamilnadu." <u>Modern Asian Studies</u>. 15, No. 2, (1981)</ref>.


However, the converted Hindus retained a variation of their caste status based on patrilineal descent from their previous caste affiliations. The new converts were lumped into new Catholic castes. All Brahmin subcastes (], ]s, ]s), goldsmiths and even some rich merchants, were lumped into the Christian caste of '']'' (Konkani: Brahmins).<ref name="Bamonn">{{Cite document|last2=Goa, Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept|last1=Gune|first1=Vithal Trimbak|year=1979|title=Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1
===Andhra Pradesh===
|page=238|publisher=Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu}}</ref> The converts from the ] and ] castes became lumped together as '']'' (Kshatriyas)<ref name="Bamonn"/> and those ] who did not become ''Chardos'' formed a new caste ''Gauddos''.<ref>{{Cite book
Among ] ]s in ], Christians prefer marrying Hindu members of their ], to marrying low caste ]s<ref>Anthropometric variation among the reddis of Southern Andhra Pradesh, India - V Mani. Reddy 1987</ref>.
|last=Gomes
|first=Olivinho
|year=1987
|title=Village Goa: a study of Goan social structure and change
|publisher=S. Chand
|page=78
}}</ref> The converts from all the lower castes, as well as the previously ] and ] groups, were grouped together as ''Sudirs'', equivalent to ]s.<ref>{{Cite book
|last3=National Folklore Support Centre (India)
|last2=University of Madras. Dept. of Anthropology
|last1=Muthukumaraswamy
|first1=M. D.
|editor3-last=National Folklore Support Centre (India)
|editor2-last=University of Madras. Dept. of Anthropology
|editor1-last=Muthukumaraswamy
|editor1-first=M. D.
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lC6FCZ9VcaAC
|title=Folklore as discourse
|publisher=National Folklore Support Centre
|year=2006
|isbn=978-81-901481-6-0
|access-date=25 February 2012
}}</ref><ref name="Bhatt">{{cite book
|title=Land and people of Indian states and union territories (Goa)
|first1=Gopal K.
|last1=Bhargava
|first2=S. C.
|last2=Bhatt
|year=2006
|publisher=Kalpaz Publications
|page=39}}</ref> The converts to Christianity were also not allowed to practice their caste-based Hindu customs because of the ].<ref name="Mendonça">{{cite book
|title=Conversions and citizenry: Goa under Portugal, 1510–1610
|author=Délio de Mendonça
|date=2002
|publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref>


===] and the ]===
==Caste Discrimination among Indian Christians==
In northern parts of ], there were waves of ] among the ] and ] in the ] and ]; they thus became known as ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frykenberg |first1=Robert Eric |title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present |date=26 June 2008 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-826377-7 |page=240 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="SinghaAriel2015">{{cite web |last1=Singha |first1=Sara |last2=Ariel |first2=Glucklich |title=Dalit Christians and Caste Consciousness in Pakistan |url=https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/761014 |accessdate=22 September 2020 |language=English |date=23 April 2015 |quote=This study explores caste discrimination in Pakistan against untouchable (Dalit) converts to Christianity. During the nineteenth century in India, many Dalits converted to Christianity to escape caste persecution. In the 1870s in Punjab, a mass movement to Protestant Christianity flourished among the Dalit Chuhra caste. The Chuhras were the largest menial caste in Punjab and engaged in degrading occupations including sweeping and sanitation work. By the 1930s, almost the entire Chuhra caste converted to Protestant Christianity.}}</ref> The Chuhra sub-castes found in Pakistan and India include the ], ], ], ], ], among other sub-castes.<ref name="Singh1995">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Kumar Suresh |title=The Scheduled Castes, Volume 10 |date=1995 |publisher=] |isbn=9780195637427 |page=108 |language=English |quote=Ibbetson (1916) records several Chuhra tribes (divisions), namely Sahotra, Gill, Bhatti, Khokhar, Mattu, Kharu, Kaliyana, Ladhar, Sindhu, Chhapriband, Untwal, Kandabari, Hansi, Khosar, Borat and Dharival.}}</ref>
Caste discrimination is strongest among Christians in ] and is weak or even nonexistent among ] ] congregations in ]. This is due to the fact that in ], whole ]s converted ''en masse'' to the religion, leaving members of different castes to compete in ways parallel to Hindus of the ]<Ref>Michael 1999:17</ref>.


There were a number of conversions from various forward castes in ]-era Bihar, the ] community are descendants of those converts.
Catholic churches in India are largely controlled by upper caste Priests and nuns<ref> Christian Century - June 19, 2002</ref>. Low-caste Dalits are discriminated against by the higher castes<ref name="web">Webster, John. 1994. ''The Christian Dalits: A History''. Delhi: Indian Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge (ISPCK).</ref>. Presently in India, more than 70% of ]s are ], but the higher ] ]s (30% by estimates) control 90% of the ] churches administrative jobs <ref> - Dalit Christians</ref>. Out of the 156 ] bishops, only 6 are from ] ]<ref> Dalitchristians.com</ref><ref name="britannica" />.


===Sindh===
There are separate seats, separate ]s, burial grounds, and churches for members of the lower castes, especially in the ].<ref>Koshy 1968</ref><ref name="web" />. In addition, Dalit boys are not allowed to be ]s or ]s and there are even separate burial grounds for Christians of different castes<ref>Manickam 1988:173</ref>. As a consequence of general societal discrimination, ] including ] Christians in the South tend to be poor and undernourished, with poverty rate estimates among poor Dalits running as high as 80 percent<ref>Henderson 2002:40</ref>. According to the ] organization the "Poor Christian Liberation Organisation", they are neglected by Christian missionary and convent schools, and they allege that these institutions solely cater to the upper castes<Ref> Times of India - November 14, 2004</ref>. Very few Dalit Christians are involved in Catholic administrative services, except for the few who reconverted back to Hinduism.<ref> ''indianhope.free.fr''</ref>
In the province of ], Christians of lower castes are often the victims of forced marriages.<ref name="Ebrahim2020">{{cite web |last1=Ebrahim |first1=Zofeen T. |title=Pakistan court orders arrests over Christian teen's forced marriage |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-women-childmarriage-trfn/pakistan-court-orders-arrests-over-christian-teens-forced-marriage-idUSKBN27P28Y |publisher=] |access-date=25 May 2021 |language=English |date=9 November 2020|quote=Campaigners say forced conversion and marriage of girls and women from minority religions, including Hindus and Christians, is a growing problem in Muslim-majority Pakistan, with those from poor families and low castes largely targeted.}}</ref>
There exists evidence to show that Christian individuals have mobility within their respective castes<ref name="fuller"><u>Kerala Christians and the Caste System</u> C. J. Fuller ''Man'', New Series, Vol. 11, No. 1. (Mar., 1976), pp. 53-70.</ref>.


==Criticism== ===Tamil Nadu===
Majority of Christians in the state hail from the ], ], ], and ]r. The mass conversion of ]s date back to the Portuguese era and the conflict over the ] between the Paravars and arabs in the 15th century AD. The Paravars converted 'en masse' to Christianity and became the subjects of the Portuguese king. The ] conversion to Christianity dates back to the British Colonial Era in the 18th century. The first to initiate the conversion was at ] village by German missionary Rev. ]. and he builts many churches and Schools in ]. Later in the 19th century, the ]s, the Udaiyars and ] embraced Christianity. The cohesion of '']s'' among caste Christians (e.g. Paravas) and the strength of caste leadership are noted by scholars to be much stronger than comparable predominantly Hindu castes in ].<ref name="kau">Kauffman, S. B. "A Christian Caste in Hindu Society: Religious Leadership and Social Conflict among the Paravas of Southern Tamilnadu." ''Modern Asian Studies''. 15, No. 2, (1981)</ref> The Christians of Tamil Nadu denote themselves as RC (Roman Catholic) ], RC Nadar, CSI Nadar etc., i.e., they use a combination of the Church and their Hindu caste name. Robert L. Hardgrave, a Professor of Humanities, notes in his work ''The Nadars of TamilNadu..'' that a Christian Nadar would enter into a marital alliance with a Hindu Nadar but never with a Christian of another caste and that they would dine with their Hindu brethren but never with a person of their own faith who was beneath them in the social scale. As per a native pastor, "Caste sticks to the people as closely as their skins. The blood of caste was thicker than the spirit of religion."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/nadarsoftamilnad0000hard|url-access=registration|quote=tamil rc vellalar csi nadar.|title=The Nadars of Tamilnad|year=1969|author=Robert L. Hardgrave|publisher=University of California Press|page=}}</ref>
Many Dalit Catholics have spoken out against discrimination against them by the Catholic Church. A famous Dalit activist with a nom-de-plume of Bama Faustina has written books that are critical of the discrimination by the nuns and priests in Churches in South India.<ref> ] - September 16, 2001</ref>. ] also criticized the caste discrimination in the ] when addressing the bishops of: ], ], ], ], and ] in late 2003. He went on to say "''It is the Church's obligation to work unceasingly to change hearts, helping all people to see every human being as a child of God, a brother or sister of Christ, and therefore a member of our own family''"<ref> ZENIT - November 17, 2003</ref>.


===Nepal===
Caste distinctions among Indian Christians are breaking down at about the same rate as those among Indians belonging to other religions. In some cases, social inertia cause old traditions and biases against other castes to remain, causing caste segregation among Indian Christians.<ref name="britannica2">, ]</ref>
In ], Christians often enter into canonically ]s with members of the same caste.<ref name="Khadka2016">{{cite web |last1=Khadka |first1=Prakash |title=Marriage: Making sense of Nepal's complex culture |url=https://www.ucanews.com/news/marriage-making-sense-of-nepals-complex-culture/76429 |publisher=] |access-date=25 May 2021 |language=English |date=29 June 2016|quote=Even though the caste system is understood as a Hindu system, this practice is hidden and embedded within the Nepalese Christian community, especially when it comes to marriage. ... Therefore, inter-faith and inter-caste marriages are two different realities of the Nepalese Christian community. It is not possible for us to avoid mixed marriages in our small community. When young people look around for their life partner, they can't find someone suitable from their community and this leads them to search for someone outside of their community. Mixed marriages happen in the end.}}</ref>


==Under the law== ==Under the law==
Indian law does not provide benefits for "Dalit Christians", however Christians have been agitating for the same rights given to ], ], and ] ]. Despite the activists point of discrimination due to social tag or status, which doesn't go away, Justice K. G. Balakrishnan asked: Indian law does not provide benefits for Scheduled Caste Christians. Christians have been advocating for the same rights given to Hindu, ], and ] Scheduled castes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/21/by-2050-india-to-have-worlds-largest-populations-of-hindus-and-muslims/|title=By 2050, India to have world's largest populations of Hindus and Muslims}}</ref> Despite the activists' point that Christians are a casteless society, discrimination does not go away easily and Dalits seek equal rights irrespective of the religion they profess.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Do_Christians_also_practise_caste_system_asks_SC/articleshow/2218560.cms |title=Do Christians also practise caste system, asks SC |newspaper=Times of India |date=July 20, 2007}}</ref>
{{cquote|Could the Christians admit that they practise caste system and that Dalits (among them) face social discrimination requiring reservation to uplift their cause? This is not all that easy}}<ref> ] - July 20, 2007</ref>


Some Christians also oppose the proposed labeling of "] ]s" because they feel their identity may be assimilated. Pastor Salim Sharif of the ] notes "We are becoming another class and caste"<ref>Sharif interview 17 November 1996</ref> Some Christians also oppose the proposed labeling of "Christian ]s" because they feel their identity may be assimilated. Pastor Salim Sharif of the ] notes "We are becoming another class and caste."<ref>Sharif interview 17 November 1996</ref>

==Caste discrimination among Christians==

===Criticism===
Many Catholics have spoken out against discrimination against them by members of the Catholic Church. A Dalit activist with a ''nom-de-plume'' of ] has written books that are critical of the discrimination by the nuns and priests in Churches in South India (CSI).<ref>{{usurped|}} ] – September 16, 2001</ref> During 2003 ] visits of the bishops of India, ] criticized the caste discrimination in the ] when addressing bishops of the ecclesiastical provinces of ], ] and ], the three archbishops of Tamil Nadu. He went on to say: "It is the Church's obligation to work unceasingly to change hearts, helping all people to see every human being as a child of God, a brother or sister of Christ, and therefore a member of our own family".<ref>{{cite web|title=Address to the Bishops of India on their ad Limina visit|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/2003/november/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20031117_ad-limina-india_en.html|accessdate=17 November 2003}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922115639/http://zenit.org/article-8716?l=english |date=2008-09-22 }} ZENIT – November 17, 2003</ref><ref> Dalitchristians.com</ref>

===Dalit Christians===
Mass conversions of lower caste Hindus to Christianity and Islam took place in order to escape the discrimination. The main Dalit groups that participated in these conversions were the Chuhras of Punjab, Chamars of North India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh), Vankars of Gujarat, Adi Dravida (Paraiyan, Pulaiyar, Valluvar, Koliyar, Pallan) of Tamil Nadu and Pulayas of Kerala.<ref name="Dalit Christians In India"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105094620/http://www.dalitstudies.org.in/uploads/publication/1473146694.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }} Sobin George 2012</ref> They believed that “Christianity is a true religion; a desire for protection from oppressors and, if possible, material aid; the desire for education for their children; and the knowledge that those who have become Christians had improved”.<ref>South Indian Missionary Congress. 1908. ‘The Report of Conference Held at Madras’</ref> Christianity was thought to be egalitarian and could provide mobility away from the caste. Even after conversion, in some cases, Dalits were discriminated against due to the “residual leftover” practice of caste discrimination from their previous traditions.<ref> Dumont, Louis. 1980.</ref> This is attributed to the predominant Hindu society they lived in. Sometimes the only change seen was their personal religious identity. In many cases they were still referred to by their Hindu caste names. Examples include Pulayans in Kerala, Adi Dravida Paraiyan in Tamil Nadu and Madigas in Andhra Pradesh, who are discriminated by members of all religious backgrounds.<ref> Louis, Prakash. 2007.</ref>

The first people converted by ] of the Madura Mission to Christianity were members of Nadars, Maravars and Pallar.<ref> David Mosse.</ref> Caste based occupations held by Dalits also show a clear segregation which perpetuated even after becoming Christian. Occupational patterns (including manual scavenging) that are prevalent among Dalit Christians in north-west India are said to be quite similar to that of Dalit Hindus.<ref> Dogar, Vidya Sagar. 2000.</ref> Occupational discrimination for Dalit Christians goes so far as to restrict not only employment but in some cases for clean sanitation and water.<ref>Jose, Kananaikil. 1990. </ref> Inter-caste marriage among Christians is also not commonly practiced. For example, Syrian Christians in Kerala do not marry Dalit Christians. Even intermarriage between Bamons and Shudras in Goa is quite uncommon. Sometimes marriage to a higher class Hindu is preferred to marriage to a Dalit Christian. Discrimination against Dalit Christians also remained in interactions and mannerisms between castes. For example, during the earlier days the 'lower caste Christians' had to close their mouth when talking to a Syrian Christian.<ref name="Dalit Christians In India"/> Even after conversion segregation, restriction, hierarchy and graded ritual purity remained to some extent. Data shows that there is more discrimination and less class mobility among the people living in the rural areas, where the incidence of caste discrimination is higher among people from all religious backgrounds .<ref name="Dalit Christians In India"/>

In many cases, the churches referred to the Dalits as 'New Christians'. It is alleged to be a derogatory term which classifies the Dalit Christians to be looked down upon by other Christians. During the earlier days of Christianity, in some churches in south India the Dalits had either separate seating or had to attend the mass from outside.<ref>Louis, Prakash. 2007.</ref> Dalit Christians are also said to be grossly underrepresented amongst the clergy in some places.<ref> BBC, sept 14 2010</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
*] *]
*] *]
*] *]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Azariah M. <u>The Un-Christian Side of the Indian Church</u>. Alit Sahitya Academy, 1985.

* {{cite book
===Sources===
*Azariah M. ''The Un-Christian Side of the Indian Church''. Alit Sahitya Academy, 1985.
* {{Cite book
| last = Kenneth | last = Kenneth
| first = Ballhatchet | first = Ballhatchet
| title = Caste, Class and Catholicism in India, 1789-1914 | title = Caste, Class and Catholicism in India, 1789–1914
| url = http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0700710957&printsec=frontcover | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN0700710957
| accessdate = 2007-04-24 | accessdate = 2007-04-24
| year = 1998 | year = 1998
| publisher = Routledge | publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0700710957 | isbn = 0-7007-1095-7
}} }}
*Fuller, C.J.''Indian Christians: Pollution and Origins.'' ''Man'', New Series, Vol. 12, No. 3/4. (Dec., 1977)
*Henderson, Carol. <u>Culture and Customs of India</u>. Greenwood Press, 2002.
*Henderson, Carol. ''Culture and Customs of India''. Greenwood Press, 2002.
*Koshy, Ninan. ''Caste in the Kerala Churches''. Bangalore: Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1968. *Koshy, Ninan. ''Caste in the Kerala Churches''. Bangalore: Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1968.
*Manickam, Sundararaj. <u>Studies in Missionary History: Reflections on a Culture-contact</u>. Christian Literature Society, 1988. *Manickam, Sundararaj. ''Studies in Missionary History: Reflections on a Culture-contact''. Christian Literature Society, 1988.
*Radhakrishnan, P. ''Perfidies of Power: India in the New Millennium''. TR Publications, 2005.
*Michael, S.M.<u>Untouchable: Dalits in Modern India</u>. Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999. ISBN 1555876978
*Michael, S.M.''Untouchable: Dalits in Modern India''. Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999. {{ISBN|1-55587-697-8}}
*Webster, John. ''The Christian Dalits: A History''. Delhi: Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (ISPCK), 1994. *Webster, John. ''The Christian Dalits: A History''. Delhi: Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (ISPCK), 1994.


==External links== ==External links==
* *
*
]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Caste System Among Indian Christians}}
]
] ]
]

Latest revision as of 09:34, 21 October 2024

The caste system among South Asian Christians often reflects stratification by sect, location, and the caste of their predecessors. There exists evidence to show that Christian individuals have mobility within their respective castes. But, in some cases, social inertia caused by their old traditions and biases against other castes remain, causing caste system to persist among South Asian Christians, to some extent. Christian priests, nuns, Dalits and similar groups are found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal.

Regions

Main articles: Caste system in India and Caste-related violence in India

Kerala (Malabar region)

Saint Thomas Christians and Knanaya in Kerala belong to different denominations. Intermarriage between different ethnic groups is rare. Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala, composed of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, CSI Syrian Christians, Mar Thoma Syrian Church, Pentecostal Syrian Christians, St Thomas Evangelical Church of India, Malabar Independent Syrian Church, Syro-Malabar Church, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, Chaldean Syrian Church, and the endogamous subcaste of Knanaya form ~4% of the Christians in the state. Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians are the ethnic Saint Thomas Christians (Nasranis) affiliated to various Pentecostal and independent Neo-Charismatic churches.

The Dalit and Nadar Christians of the state combined form 2.6% of the Christian community.

In the colonial period, many lower castes were converted to Christians by the European Missionaries but the new converts were not allowed to join the Saint Thomas Christian community and they continued to be considered as untouchables even by the Syrian Christians. However, due to evangelical missions of Syrian Christian Churches starting from late 19th century, a considerable population of lower-castes (in some cases even outside Kerala) are part of some Syrian Christian Churches such as the Mar Thoma and CSI churches. The Saint Thomas Christians claim to derive status within the caste system from the tradition that they were elites who were evangelized by Thomas the Apostle. Anand Amaladass says that "The Syrian Christians had inserted themselves within the Indian caste society for centuries and were regarded by the Hindus as a caste occupying a high place within their caste hierarchy." Saint Thomas Christians followed the same rules of caste and pollution as that of Hindus and they were considered as pollution neutralizers. Rajendra Prasad, an Indian historian, said that the Syrian Christians took ritual baths after physical contact with lower castes.

Goa (Konkan) and Canara

In Portuguese Bombay and Bassein, Portuguese Goa and Damaon and other Portuguese Indian possessions, conversions of entire villages were carried out by Catholic missionaries from the Portuguese conquest of Goa from 1510 onwards. The Portuguese clergy imposed Portuguese surnames on the converts at the time of Baptism so that it would be difficult to know their original caste easily. The Portuguese authorities also suppressed untouchability among the converts and attempted to homogenize them into a single entity.

However, the converted Hindus retained a variation of their caste status based on patrilineal descent from their previous caste affiliations. The new converts were lumped into new Catholic castes. All Brahmin subcastes (Goud Saraswat Brahmins, Padyes, Daivadnyas), goldsmiths and even some rich merchants, were lumped into the Christian caste of Bamonns (Konkani: Brahmins). The converts from the Kshatriya and Vaishya Vani castes became lumped together as Chardos (Kshatriyas) and those Vaishyas who did not become Chardos formed a new caste Gauddos. The converts from all the lower castes, as well as the previously Dalit and adivasi groups, were grouped together as Sudirs, equivalent to Shudras. The converts to Christianity were also not allowed to practice their caste-based Hindu customs because of the Goa Inquisition.

Punjab region and the Hindi belt

In northern parts of colonial India, there were waves of conversions to Christianity among the Chuhra and Chamar in the Punjab Province and United Provinces of Agra and Oudh; they thus became known as Dalit Christians. The Chuhra sub-castes found in Pakistan and India include the Sahotra, Gill, Khokhar, Mattoo, Bhatti, among other sub-castes.

There were a number of conversions from various forward castes in Moghul-era Bihar, the Bettiah Christian community are descendants of those converts.

Sindh

In the province of Sindh, Christians of lower castes are often the victims of forced marriages.

Tamil Nadu

Majority of Christians in the state hail from the Nadar, Mukkuvar, Udayar (caste), and Adi Dravidar. The mass conversion of Paravars date back to the Portuguese era and the conflict over the Pearl Fishery Coast between the Paravars and arabs in the 15th century AD. The Paravars converted 'en masse' to Christianity and became the subjects of the Portuguese king. The Nadar conversion to Christianity dates back to the British Colonial Era in the 18th century. The first to initiate the conversion was at Mylaudy village by German missionary Rev. Ringeltaube. and he builts many churches and Schools in Kanyakumari district. Later in the 19th century, the Vellalars, the Udaiyars and Schedule castes embraced Christianity. The cohesion of jatis among caste Christians (e.g. Paravas) and the strength of caste leadership are noted by scholars to be much stronger than comparable predominantly Hindu castes in Tamil Nadu. The Christians of Tamil Nadu denote themselves as RC (Roman Catholic) Paravar, RC Nadar, CSI Nadar etc., i.e., they use a combination of the Church and their Hindu caste name. Robert L. Hardgrave, a Professor of Humanities, notes in his work The Nadars of TamilNadu.. that a Christian Nadar would enter into a marital alliance with a Hindu Nadar but never with a Christian of another caste and that they would dine with their Hindu brethren but never with a person of their own faith who was beneath them in the social scale. As per a native pastor, "Caste sticks to the people as closely as their skins. The blood of caste was thicker than the spirit of religion."

Nepal

In Nepal, Christians often enter into canonically interfaith marriages with members of the same caste.

Under the law

Indian law does not provide benefits for Scheduled Caste Christians. Christians have been advocating for the same rights given to Hindu, Buddhist, and Sikh Scheduled castes. Despite the activists' point that Christians are a casteless society, discrimination does not go away easily and Dalits seek equal rights irrespective of the religion they profess.

Some Christians also oppose the proposed labeling of "Christian Scheduled castes" because they feel their identity may be assimilated. Pastor Salim Sharif of the Church of North India notes "We are becoming another class and caste."

Caste discrimination among Christians

Criticism

Many Catholics have spoken out against discrimination against them by members of the Catholic Church. A Dalit activist with a nom-de-plume of Bama Faustina has written books that are critical of the discrimination by the nuns and priests in Churches in South India (CSI). During 2003 ad limina visits of the bishops of India, Pope John Paul II criticized the caste discrimination in the Catholic Church in India when addressing bishops of the ecclesiastical provinces of Madras-Mylapore, Madurai and Pondicherry-Cuddalore, the three archbishops of Tamil Nadu. He went on to say: "It is the Church's obligation to work unceasingly to change hearts, helping all people to see every human being as a child of God, a brother or sister of Christ, and therefore a member of our own family".

Dalit Christians

Mass conversions of lower caste Hindus to Christianity and Islam took place in order to escape the discrimination. The main Dalit groups that participated in these conversions were the Chuhras of Punjab, Chamars of North India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh), Vankars of Gujarat, Adi Dravida (Paraiyan, Pulaiyar, Valluvar, Koliyar, Pallan) of Tamil Nadu and Pulayas of Kerala. They believed that “Christianity is a true religion; a desire for protection from oppressors and, if possible, material aid; the desire for education for their children; and the knowledge that those who have become Christians had improved”. Christianity was thought to be egalitarian and could provide mobility away from the caste. Even after conversion, in some cases, Dalits were discriminated against due to the “residual leftover” practice of caste discrimination from their previous traditions. This is attributed to the predominant Hindu society they lived in. Sometimes the only change seen was their personal religious identity. In many cases they were still referred to by their Hindu caste names. Examples include Pulayans in Kerala, Adi Dravida Paraiyan in Tamil Nadu and Madigas in Andhra Pradesh, who are discriminated by members of all religious backgrounds.

The first people converted by Jesuits of the Madura Mission to Christianity were members of Nadars, Maravars and Pallar. Caste based occupations held by Dalits also show a clear segregation which perpetuated even after becoming Christian. Occupational patterns (including manual scavenging) that are prevalent among Dalit Christians in north-west India are said to be quite similar to that of Dalit Hindus. Occupational discrimination for Dalit Christians goes so far as to restrict not only employment but in some cases for clean sanitation and water. Inter-caste marriage among Christians is also not commonly practiced. For example, Syrian Christians in Kerala do not marry Dalit Christians. Even intermarriage between Bamons and Shudras in Goa is quite uncommon. Sometimes marriage to a higher class Hindu is preferred to marriage to a Dalit Christian. Discrimination against Dalit Christians also remained in interactions and mannerisms between castes. For example, during the earlier days the 'lower caste Christians' had to close their mouth when talking to a Syrian Christian. Even after conversion segregation, restriction, hierarchy and graded ritual purity remained to some extent. Data shows that there is more discrimination and less class mobility among the people living in the rural areas, where the incidence of caste discrimination is higher among people from all religious backgrounds .

In many cases, the churches referred to the Dalits as 'New Christians'. It is alleged to be a derogatory term which classifies the Dalit Christians to be looked down upon by other Christians. During the earlier days of Christianity, in some churches in south India the Dalits had either separate seating or had to attend the mass from outside. Dalit Christians are also said to be grossly underrepresented amongst the clergy in some places.

See also

References

  1. Christian Castes Archived 2006-11-29 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopædia Britannica
  2. Fuller, C. J. (March 1976). "Kerala Christians and the Caste System". Man. New series. 11 (1): 53–70. doi:10.2307/2800388. JSTOR 2800388.
  3. Aqeel, Asif; Faruqi, Sama (26 February 2018). "Caste away: The ongoing struggle of Punjabi Christians". Herald Magazine. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  4. ^ Khadka, Prakash (29 June 2016). "Marriage: Making sense of Nepal's complex culture". UCA News. Retrieved 25 May 2021. Even though the caste system is understood as a Hindu system, this practice is hidden and embedded within the Nepalese Christian community, especially when it comes to marriage. ... Therefore, inter-faith and inter-caste marriages are two different realities of the Nepalese Christian community. It is not possible for us to avoid mixed marriages in our small community. When young people look around for their life partner, they can't find someone suitable from their community and this leads them to search for someone outside of their community. Mixed marriages happen in the end.
  5. "Christian caste". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
  6. Struggle for justice to Untouchable Christians Brojendra Nath Banerjee, Uiliyāma Kerī Sṭāḍi eyāṇḍ Risārca Seṇṭāra. Page 42: "At stake is the fate of 16 million Christians of SC origin, who form 70–80 percent of the Christians in the country"
  7. Carol Henderson Garcia, Carol E. Henderson 2002:40 "Today about 70 percent of Christians are Dalits"
  8. Radhakrishnan 2005:23
  9. Azariah 1985:5
  10. Panchanan Mohanty; Ramesh C. Malik; Eswarappa Kasi (2009). Ethnographic discourse of the other: conceptual and methodological issues. Cambridge Scholars. pp. 39–116.
  11. Bergunder, Michael (6 June 2008). The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Century. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 15–16, 30, 36, 49, 55–56. ISBN 978-0-8028-2734-0.
  12. Hefner, Robert W. (2 October 2013). Global Pentecostalism in the 21st Century. Indiana University Press. pp. 197–199, 201–202. ISBN 978-0-253-01094-0.
  13. Fortescue, A. (1913). The lesser eastern churches. London: Catholic Truth Society. pp. 374–375. ISBN 978-1-177-70798-5.
  14. Frykenberg, R.E. (March 2024). "Thomas Christians:History & Tradition-Britannica". www.britannica.com.
  15. Fahlbusch, Erwin; Lochman, Jan Milic; Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Mbiti, John S.; Pelikan, Jaroslav; Barrett, David B.; Vischer, Lukas (1999). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 686–687. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5.
  16. Lamport, Mark A. (1 June 2018). Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 893–894. ISBN 978-1-4422-7157-9.
  17. "KCBC". www.kcbcsite.com.
  18. rti_admin (2018-03-12). "Caste, Family, Self: Savarna Christian Perspectives". Round Table India. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  19. Varghese Meloottu, Allan (February 2023). "Amplifying the Dalit Pentecostal Historical Narrative amid the Persistent Syrian Christian 'Privileged' Narrative in Kerala". Religions. 14 (2): 175. doi:10.3390/rel14020175. ISSN 2077-1444.
  20. ^ Fuller (1976), pp. 55-56.
  21. Fuller, C.J. "Indian Christians: Pollution and Origins." Man. New Series, Vol. 12, No. 3/4. (Dec. 1977), pp. 528–529.
  22. Amaladass (1993), pp. 15-19.
  23. Amaladass (1993), p. 18.
  24. Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). Origin of Christianity in India: a Historiographical Critique, pp. 325–330. Media House Delhi.
  25. Prasad, Rajendra (2009). A Historical Developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals. Vol. 12. Concept Publishing. ISBN 978-8-18069-595-7.
  26. "Why Christo-Racist Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric Are Gaining Ground in Kerala". thewire.in. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
  27. Boxer, C. R. (1963). Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 1415-1825. Oxford Clarendon Press. p. 75.
  28. Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8.
  29. ^ Gune, Vithal Trimbak; Goa, Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept (1979). "Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1" (Document). Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. p. 238.
  30. Gomes, Olivinho (1987). Village Goa: a study of Goan social structure and change. S. Chand. p. 78.
  31. Muthukumaraswamy, M. D.; University of Madras. Dept. of Anthropology; National Folklore Support Centre (India) (2006). Muthukumaraswamy, M. D.; University of Madras. Dept. of Anthropology; National Folklore Support Centre (India) (eds.). Folklore as discourse. National Folklore Support Centre. ISBN 978-81-901481-6-0. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
  32. Bhargava, Gopal K.; Bhatt, S. C. (2006). Land and people of Indian states and union territories (Goa). Kalpaz Publications. p. 39.
  33. Délio de Mendonça (2002). Conversions and citizenry: Goa under Portugal, 1510–1610. Concept Publishing Company.
  34. Frykenberg, Robert Eric (26 June 2008). Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present. Oxford University Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-19-826377-7.
  35. Singha, Sara; Ariel, Glucklich (23 April 2015). "Dalit Christians and Caste Consciousness in Pakistan". Retrieved 22 September 2020. This study explores caste discrimination in Pakistan against untouchable (Dalit) converts to Christianity. During the nineteenth century in India, many Dalits converted to Christianity to escape caste persecution. In the 1870s in Punjab, a mass movement to Protestant Christianity flourished among the Dalit Chuhra caste. The Chuhras were the largest menial caste in Punjab and engaged in degrading occupations including sweeping and sanitation work. By the 1930s, almost the entire Chuhra caste converted to Protestant Christianity.
  36. Singh, Kumar Suresh (1995). The Scheduled Castes, Volume 10. Oxford University Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780195637427. Ibbetson (1916) records several Chuhra tribes (divisions), namely Sahotra, Gill, Bhatti, Khokhar, Mattu, Kharu, Kaliyana, Ladhar, Sindhu, Chhapriband, Untwal, Kandabari, Hansi, Khosar, Borat and Dharival.
  37. Ebrahim, Zofeen T. (9 November 2020). "Pakistan court orders arrests over Christian teen's forced marriage". Reuters. Retrieved 25 May 2021. Campaigners say forced conversion and marriage of girls and women from minority religions, including Hindus and Christians, is a growing problem in Muslim-majority Pakistan, with those from poor families and low castes largely targeted.
  38. Kauffman, S. B. "A Christian Caste in Hindu Society: Religious Leadership and Social Conflict among the Paravas of Southern Tamilnadu." Modern Asian Studies. 15, No. 2, (1981)
  39. Robert L. Hardgrave (1969). The Nadars of Tamilnad. University of California Press. p. 91. tamil rc vellalar csi nadar.
  40. "By 2050, India to have world's largest populations of Hindus and Muslims".
  41. "Do Christians also practise caste system, asks SC". Times of India. July 20, 2007.
  42. Sharif interview 17 November 1996
  43. A palmyra leaf that sears us The Hindu – September 16, 2001
  44. "Address to the Bishops of India on their ad Limina visit". Retrieved 17 November 2003.
  45. Papal Address to Bishops of Madras-Mylapore, Madurai and Pondicherry-Cuddalore Archived 2008-09-22 at the Wayback Machine ZENIT – November 17, 2003
  46. Problems and Struggles Dalitchristians.com
  47. ^ Dalit Christians In India Archived 2016-11-05 at the Wayback Machine Sobin George 2012
  48. South Indian Missionary Congress. 1908. ‘The Report of Conference Held at Madras’
  49. Dumont, Louis. 1980.
  50. Louis, Prakash. 2007.
  51. David Mosse.
  52. Dogar, Vidya Sagar. 2000.
  53. Jose, Kananaikil. 1990.
  54. Louis, Prakash. 2007.
  55. BBC, sept 14 2010

Sources

  • Azariah M. The Un-Christian Side of the Indian Church. Alit Sahitya Academy, 1985.
  • Kenneth, Ballhatchet (1998). Caste, Class and Catholicism in India, 1789–1914. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1095-7. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
  • Fuller, C.J.Indian Christians: Pollution and Origins. Man, New Series, Vol. 12, No. 3/4. (Dec., 1977)
  • Henderson, Carol. Culture and Customs of India. Greenwood Press, 2002.
  • Koshy, Ninan. Caste in the Kerala Churches. Bangalore: Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1968.
  • Manickam, Sundararaj. Studies in Missionary History: Reflections on a Culture-contact. Christian Literature Society, 1988.
  • Radhakrishnan, P. Perfidies of Power: India in the New Millennium. TR Publications, 2005.
  • Michael, S.M.Untouchable: Dalits in Modern India. Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999. ISBN 1-55587-697-8
  • Webster, John. The Christian Dalits: A History. Delhi: Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (ISPCK), 1994.

External links

Categories: