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{{Short description|City in Pskov Oblast, Russia}}
]
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
'''Pskov''' (''Псков'', ancient spelling ''Пльсковъ'', also ''Pihkva'' (Estonian), ''Pleskau'' (German) and ''Psków'' (Polish)) is an ]n ], located in the north-west of ] about 70 km east from the ]n border, on the river ]. The city of Pskov serves as the administrative centre of the ].
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'''Pskov''' ({{lang-rus|Псков|a=Ru-Псков.oga|p=psˈkof}}; see also ]) is a ] in northwestern ] and the ] of ], located about {{convert|20|km|sp=us}} east of the ]n border, on the ]. Population: {{ru-census|p2021=193,082|p2010=203,279|p2002=202,780|p1989=203,789}}
==Early history==


Pskov is one of the oldest cities in Russia. During the ], it served as the capital of the ] and was a trading post of the ] before it was incorporated into the ] and became an important border fortress in the ].
The name of the city, originally spelled Pleskov, may be loosely translated as "the town of purling waters". Its earliest mention comes in ], which records that ] married a local lady, ]. Pskovians sometimes take this year as the city's foundation date, and in ] a great jubilee took place to celebrate Pskov's 1,100th anniversary.


==History==
The first prince of Pskov was ]'s younger son Sudislav. Once imprisoned by his brother ], he wasn't released until the latter's death several decades later. In the 12th and 13th century, the town adhered politically to the ]. In ] it was taken by the ], but ] liberated it several months later during a legendary campaign dramatized in ]'s ] from ].
{{moresources|section|date=August 2022}}
]
{{See also|Timeline of Pskov}}
In order to secure their independence from the knights, the Pskovians elected a converted ]n prince, named ], as their military leader and prince in ]. Having fortified the town, Dovmont routed the knights at ] and overran much of ]. His remains and sword are preserved in the local ], and the core of the citadel, erected by him, still bears the name of ''Dovmont's town''.


==Pskovian Republic== ===Early history===
]
Pskov is one of the oldest cities in Russia. The name of the city, originally '''Pleskov''' (historic Russian spelling {{lang|ru|Плѣсковъ}}, {{Transliteration|ru|Plěskov}}), may be loosely translated as " of ] waters". It was historically known in English as '''Plescow'''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bacon|first1=George A|title=The Academy: A Journal of Secondary Education, Volume 4|date=1889|page=403}}</ref>


Its earliest mention comes in 903,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Borrero |first1=Mauricio |title=Russia: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7475-4 |page=285 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhm0cGdrTOIC |language=en}}</ref> which records that ] married a local lady, ] (later Saint Olga of Kiev).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Esmark |first1=Kim |last2=Hermanson |first2=Lars |last3=Orning |first3=Hans Jacob |title=Nordic Elites in Transformation, c. 1050–1250, Volume II: Social Networks |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781000037340 |chapter=Early Scandinavian power centers in the east}}</ref> Pskovians sometimes take this year as the city's foundation date, and in 2003 a great jubilee took place to celebrate Pskov's 1,100th anniversary.
By the 14th century, the town functioned as the capital of a de-facto sovereign republic. Its most powerful force were the merchants who brought the town into the ]. Pskov's independence was formally recognized by ] in ]. Several years later, the ] promulgated a law code (called the Pskov Charter) which was one of the principal sources of the all-Russian law code issued in ].


The first prince of Pskov was ]'s youngest son ]. Once imprisoned by his brother ], he was not released until the latter's death several decades later. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the town adhered politically to the ]. In 1241, it was taken by the ], but ] recaptured it several months later during a legendary campaign dramatized in ]'s 1938 ].
For Russia, the Pskov Republic was a bridge towards Europe. For Europe, it was a western outpost of Russia and subject of numerous attacks throughout the history. Unbelievably, the kremlin (called by Pskovians the Krom) withstood 26 sieges in the 15th century only. At one point, five stone walls ringed it, making the city practically impregnable. A local school of ]-painting flourished, and local masons were considered the best in Russia. Many peculiar features of Russian architecture were first introduced in Pskov.
] at Pskov", by ].]]
Finally, in ], the city fell to Muscovite forces. The deportation of noble families to ] is a subject of ]'s ] '']'' (1872). As the second largest city of Muscovy, Pskov still attracted enemy armies. Most famously, it withstood a prolonged siege by 50,000-strong Polish army during the final stage of the ] (1581-82). The Polish king ] undertook some 31 attacks to storm the city, which was defended mainly by civilians. Even after one of city walls was broken, the Pskovians managed to fill the gap and repel the attack.


In order to secure their independence from the knights, the Pskovians elected a ]n prince, named ], a Roman Catholic converted to Orthodox faith and known in Russia as Dovmont, as their military leader and prince in 1266. Having fortified the town, Daumantas routed the Teutonic Knights at ] and overran much of Estonia. His remains and sword are preserved in the local ], and the core of the citadel, erected by him, still bears the name of "Dovmont's town".
==Modern history==


In 1341 the city recognized overlordship of the ], in 1347 it switched allegiance to the ], and the following year it became the capital of the newly independent ].<ref name=sgk/>
Since ], Pskov has served as a capital of separate government, or ]. It was here that the last Russian ] abdicated in ]. During ] Pskov became the center of much activity behind the ]s, and after the Russo-German ] Peace Conference (] ] - ] ]), in the winter of 1917 - 1918, the ] invaded the area.
]


===Pskov Republic===
The medieval citadel provided little protection against modern artillery, and during ] Pskov suffered substantial damage during the ] occupation from ], ] until ], ]. Many ancient buildings, particularly churches, suffered destruction before the ] could occupy the city. Though a huge portion of the population died, Pskov city in ] had a population of about 204,000.
{{Main|Pskov Republic}}

By the 14th century, the town functioned as the capital of a ]. Its most powerful force was the merchants who traded with the ]. Pskov's independence was formally recognized by Novgorod in 1348.<ref name=sgk>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Słownik geograficzny Królestwa Polskiego i innych krajów słowiańskich, Tom IX|year=1888|language=pl|location=Warszawa|pages=249–250}}</ref> Several years later, the ] promulgated a law code (called the ]), which was one of the principal sources of the ] issued in 1497.

Already in the 13th century German merchants were present in ''Zapskovye'' area of Pskov and the ] had a trading post in the same area in the first half of 16th century which moved to ''Zavelichye'' after a fire in 1562.<ref>{{cite book |title= The German Hansa|last= Dollinger|first= Philippe|author-link= Philippe Dollinger|year= 1999 |publisher= Psychology Press|isbn= 9780415190732|page= 105}}</ref><ref name = PskovHansa>Аракчеев владимир Анатольевич, , ООО «Дизайн экспресс», 2012 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The wars with ] and Sweden interrupted the trade but it was maintained until the 17th century, with Swedish merchants gaining the upper hand eventually.<ref name = PskovHansa/>

{{Historical populations|1882|21170|1897|30388|1989|203789|2002|202780|2010|203279|2021|193082|source=<ref name=sgk/><ref name=c1897/>}}
The importance of the city made it the subject of numerous sieges throughout its history. The ] (or Kremlin) withstood twenty-six sieges in the 15th century alone. At one point, five stone walls ringed it, making the city practically impregnable. A local school of ]-painting flourished, and the local masons were considered the best in Russia. Many peculiar features of ] were first introduced in Pskov.

===Grand Duchy of Moscow===

Finally, in 1510, the city was annexed by the ].<ref name="nyt79">Maclean, Fitzroy (18 March 1979). , '']''</ref> Three hundred families were deported from Pskov to central Russia,<ref name=sgk/> and merchants and military families from Muscovy were settled in the city. At this time Pskov had at least 6,500 households and a population of more than 30,000; it was one of the three biggest cities of Muscovy, alongside Moscow and Novgorod.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Зимин |first1=А.А|title=Россия на пороге Нового времени (Очерки политической истории России первой трети XVI в.)|chapter=Глава 6. Псков |publisher=Мысль |pages=112–21|language=ru|quote= Ведь в 1510 г. в одном Среднем городе Пскова насчитывалось 6500 дворов}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Nefedov|first2= Sergey |author1-link=Peter Turchin |title=Secular cycles |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-13696-7 |pages=243–44}})</ref>

===Tsardom of Russia===
]'', by ].]]
The deportation of noble families to ] under Ivan IV in 1570 is a subject of ]'s ] '']'' (1872). Pskov still attracted enemy armies and it withstood ] by a 50,000-strong ] army during the final stage of the ] (1581–1582). The king of Poland ] undertook some thirty-one attacks to storm the city, which was defended mainly by civilians. Even after one of the city walls was broken, the Pskovians managed to fill the gap and repel the attack. "A big city, it is like Paris", wrote Báthory's secretary about Pskov.<ref>{{cite book |title= Ivan the Terrible |section = Peace Negotiations |last= de Madariaga|first= Isabel|year= 2006 |publisher= Yale University Press |isbn= 978-0-30014376-8 |page = 526}}</ref>

The estimates of the population of Pskov land in the middle of 16th century range from 150 to 300 thousand. Famines, epidemics (especially the epidemic of 1552) and the warfare led to a five-fold decrease of the population by 1582–1585 due to mortality and migration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Горская |first1= Наталья Александровна |title=Историческая демография России эпохи феодализма: итоги и проблемы изучения |date=1994 |publisher= Наука |location=Москва |isbn= 978-502009750-6 |pages=94–97|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Nefedov|first2=Sergey |author1-link=Peter Turchin |title= Secular cycles |date= 2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13696-7 |pages=244–45, 251–52}})</ref>

The city withstood a ] in 1615. The successful defence of the city led to the peace negotiations culminating in the ].

===Russian Empire===
]
]'s conquest of ] and ] during the ] in the early 18th century spelled the end of Pskov's traditional role as a vital border fortress and a key to Russia's interior. As a consequence, the city's importance and well-being declined dramatically, although it served as a seat of separate ] since 1777. In 1897, the ethnic make-up, by mother tongue, was 80.0% Russian, {{nowrap|5.7% Polish}}, 4.7% Jewish, 4.3% German, 2.4% Latvian, 2.1% Estonian.<ref name=c1897>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XXXIV|year=1904|language=ru|pages=48–51}}</ref>

During ], Pskov became the headquarters for Russia's ], commanded by ]. On 15 March 1917, aboard the ], ] abdicated here.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massie |first1=Robert |title=Nicholas and Alexandria |date=1967 |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=9780345438317 |pages=412–417}}</ref> After the Russo-German ] Peace Conference (22&nbsp;December 1917 – 3&nbsp;March 1918), the ] invaded the area.

Pskov was also occupied by the ]n army between 25 May 1919 and 28 August 1919 during the ] when the ] commander ] became the military administrator of Pskov. He personally ceded most of his responsibilities to a democratically elected municipal duma and focused on both cultural and economical recovery of the war-impoverished city. He also put an end to censorship of press and allowed for creation of several socialist associations and newspapers.

===Recent history===
Under the Soviet government, large parts of the city were rebuilt, many ancient buildings, particularly churches, were demolished to give space for new constructions. During ], in June 1940, the ] invaded Estonia and ] from the city.<ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2016|title=Eestlased vene sõjaväes 1940–1945. Raamat 12|language=et,en|location=Tallinn|publisher=Estonian Repressed Persons Records Bureau|page=33|isbn=978-9985-9914-5-9}}</ref> The medieval citadel provided little protection against modern artillery of the Wehrmacht, and Pskov suffered substantial damage during the ] occupation from 9&nbsp;July 1941 until 23&nbsp;July 1944. The Germans operated a ] camp for ] men and women.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bundesarchiv.de/zwangsarbeit/haftstaetten/index.php?action=2.2&tab=7&id=100000344|title=Zwangsarbeitslager für Juden Pleskau|website=Bundesarchiv.de|access-date=9 January 2024|language=de}}</ref> In February 1944, thousands of people were killed during Russian bombings of the city.<ref name=ee>{{cite web|url=https://ekspress.delfi.ee/artikkel/69073543/pihkva-pole-enam-kaugel|title="Pihkva pole enam kaugel!"|website=Eesti Ekspress|access-date=9 January 2024|language=et}}</ref> A huge portion of the population died during the war, and Pskov has since struggled to regain its traditional position as a major industrial and cultural center of western Russia.

==Administrative and municipal status==
Pskov is the ] of the ] and, within the ], it also serves as the administrative center of ], even though it is not a part of it.<ref name="Ref414">Law #833-oz</ref> As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the '''] of Pskov'''—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the ].<ref name="Ref414" /> As a ], the City of Pskov is incorporated as '''Pskov Urban Okrug'''.<ref name="Ref863">Law #419-oz.</ref>


==Landmarks and sights== ==Landmarks and sights==
{{Onesource|section|date=August 2022}}
]]]
Pskov still preserves much of its medieval walls, built from the 13th century on. Its medieval ] is called either the Krom or the Kremlin. Within its walls rises the {{convert|256|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall}} ], founded in 1138 and rebuilt in the 1690s. The cathedral contains the tombs of saint princes ] (died in 1138) and ] (died in 1299). Other ancient cathedrals adorn the ] (completed by 1152), famous for its 12th-century ]es, St.&nbsp;John's (completed by 1243), and the Snetogorsky monastery (built in 1310 and stucco-painted in 1313).
]
Pskov is exceedingly rich in tiny, squat, picturesque churches, dating mainly from the 15th and the 16th centuries. There are many dozens of them, the most notable being St.&nbsp;Basil's on the Hill (1413), St.&nbsp;Kozma and Demian's near the Bridge (1463), St.&nbsp;George's from the Downhill (1494), Assumption from the Ferryside (1444, 1521), and St.&nbsp;Nicholas' from Usokha (1536). The 17th-century residential architecture is represented by merchant ]s, such as the Salt House, the Pogankin Palace, and the Trubinsky mansion.

Among the sights in the vicinity of Pskov are ], a seat of ]'s brother in the 9th century and one of the most formidable fortresses of medieval Russia; the ], the oldest continually functioning monastery in Russia (founded in the mid-15th century) and a magnet for pilgrims from all over the country; the 16th-century ]; ], which used to be a great cultural and literary center of medieval Russia; and ], a family home of ] where he wrote some of the best known lines in the ]. The national poet of Russia is buried in the ancient cloister at the Holy Mountains nearby. Unfortunately, the area presently{{when|date=May 2024}} has only a minimal ] ], and the historic core of Pskov requires serious investments to realize its great tourist potential.

On 7 July 2019, the ] was inscribed as a ] ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/2005/|title=Six cultural sites added to UNESCO's World Heritage List|website=UNESCO|date=7 July 2019}}</ref>

== Geography ==
] river in Pskov]]
=== Ecological situation ===
Vehicle emissions reach 83% of total emissions from stationary and mobile sources. The volume of emissions of atmospheric pollutants from stationary sources in 2007 amounted to 16.5 thousand tons, including 7.1 thousand tons (43.2%) of carbon monoxide and 2.6 thousand tons (15.8%) of solids. The largest source of air pollution in Pskov is Pskov Poultry Farm LLC (1365.92 tons of pollutants were emitted) and the Pskov Heating Networks SE (478.12 tons). All rivers flowing through the territory of the Pskov Oblast, including the city of Pskov, are characterized by increased concentrations of total ], copper ions, and hardly oxidizable organic compounds in the water.

The following indicators characterize air pollution in Pskov:
* annual average and maximum one-time concentration of sulfur dioxide – below 1 MPC
* the annual average concentration of nitrogen dioxide – 1.5 MPC; the maximum single concentration – 3.4 MPC
* annual average and maximum one-time concentration of carbon monoxide – below 1 MPC
* average annual concentration of suspended solids – below 1 MPC; the maximum single concentration – 2.2 MPC
* the degree of air pollution in general for Pskov is approximately low and is determined by the API value – 2.81<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pskov.ru/prelease/24.02.11/12123 |title=Доклад об экологической ситуации в Псковской области за 2009—2010 годы &#124; Портал государственных органов Псковской области |publisher=Pskov.ru |date=24 February 2011 |accessdate=29 August 2023}}</ref>

Since the late 1990s, the Clean Water project officially registered by ] in 2006 has been implemented.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://businesspskov.ru/rinfra/izhkh/84853.html |title=Будет ли чистой «Чистая вода»? |publisher=Businesspskov.ru |date= |accessdate=29 August 2023}}</ref> Improving the quality of drinking water is planned to be carried out by gradually abandoning surface water intake from the ] and transitioning to the extraction of water from underground sources.<ref>Savitskaya, L. (4 August 2017) . gubernia.media</ref> However, underground water intake leads to the clogging of hot water supply systems (up to complete obstruction) in those facilities where this water enters<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718034635/https://www.gtrkpskov.ru/news-feed/vesti-pskov/16150-nakip-v-trubakh-ostavlyaet-bez-goryachej-vody-zhitelej-neskolkikh-pskovskikh-novostroek.html |date=18 July 2021 }}. gtrkpskov.ru</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718034634/http://pravdapskov.ru/news/0019346.html |date=18 July 2021 }}. pravdapskov.ru</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.interfax.ru/russia/776827 |title=Путин поручил к октябрю обеспечить Псков чистой водой |publisher=Interfax.ru |date=21 March 2023 |accessdate=29 August 2023}}</ref> due to its increased hardness.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rg.ru/2021/07/07/reg-szfo/pskovskaia-prokuratura-nachala-proverku-kachestva-vody.html |title=Вода «чистая», а осадок остался |publisher=Rg.ru |date= 7 July 2021|accessdate=29 August 2023}}</ref><ref>Savitskaya, L. (22 February 2021) . severreal.org</ref>

=== Climate ===
The ] of Pskov is ] (] ''Dfb'') with maritime influences due to the city's relative proximity to the ] and ]; with relatively mild (for Russia) but still quite long winter and warm summer. Further west in Europe on the same latitude, winters are quite a bit milder and summer highs a bit cooler. Summer and fall have more precipitation than winter and spring.

{{Weather box
|location=Pskov (1991-2020, extremes 1874–present)
|metric first=yes
|single line=yes
| Jan record high C = 9.8
| Feb record high C = 11.3
| Mar record high C = 19.3
| Apr record high C = 27.6
| May record high C = 32.0
| Jun record high C = 35.3
| Jul record high C = 35.7
| Aug record high C = 35.6
| Sep record high C = 30.3
| Oct record high C = 22.6
| Nov record high C = 14.1
| Dec record high C = 12.4
| year record high C = 35.6
| Jan high C = -2.3
| Feb high C = -1.8
| Mar high C = 3.4
| Apr high C = 11.7
| May high C = 18.1
| Jun high C = 21.7
| Jul high C = 24.1
| Aug high C = 22.5
| Sep high C = 16.7
| Oct high C = 9.2
| Nov high C = 2.9
| Dec high C = -0.6
| year high C =
| Jan mean C = -4.7
| Feb mean C = -5.0
| Mar mean C = -0.7
| Apr mean C = 6.3
| May mean C = 12.2
| Jun mean C = 16.2
| Jul mean C = 18.6
| Aug mean C = 16.9
| Sep mean C = 11.7
| Oct mean C = 5.8
| Nov mean C = 0.8
| Dec mean C = -2.6
| year mean C =
| Jan low C = -7.4
| Feb low C = -8.2
| Mar low C = -4.5
| Apr low C = 1.3
| May low C = 6.3
| Jun low C = 10.6
| Jul low C = 13.1
| Aug low C = 11.6
| Sep low C = 7.3
| Oct low C = 2.6
| Nov low C = -1.4
| Dec low C = -4.9
| year low C =
| Jan record low C = -40.6
| Feb record low C = -37.6
| Mar record low C = -29.7
| Apr record low C = -20.9
| May record low C = -5.9
| Jun record low C = -0.1
| Jul record low C = 2.7
| Aug record low C = 1.3
| Sep record low C = -4.6
| Oct record low C = -12.5
| Nov record low C = -23.8
| Dec record low C = -40.3
| year record low C = -40.6
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 48
| Feb precipitation mm = 37
| Mar precipitation mm = 36
| Apr precipitation mm = 39
| May precipitation mm = 58
| Jun precipitation mm = 85
| Jul precipitation mm = 71
| Aug precipitation mm = 85
| Sep precipitation mm = 63
| Oct precipitation mm = 65
| Nov precipitation mm = 55
| Dec precipitation mm = 45
| year precipitation mm =
| Jan rain days = 9
| Feb rain days = 7
| Mar rain days = 9
| Apr rain days = 12
| May rain days = 15
| Jun rain days = 18
| Jul rain days = 16
| Aug rain days = 16
| Sep rain days = 17
| Oct rain days = 18
| Nov rain days = 14
| Dec rain days = 10
| year rain days = 161
| Jan snow days = 22
| Feb snow days = 20
| Mar snow days = 14
| Apr snow days = 5
| May snow days = 1
| Jun snow days = 0.03
| Jul snow days = 0
| Aug snow days = 0
| Sep snow days = 0.03
| Oct snow days = 3
| Nov snow days = 13
| Dec snow days = 20
| year snow days = 98
| Jan humidity = 87
| Feb humidity = 84
| Mar humidity = 80
| Apr humidity = 70
| May humidity = 67
| Jun humidity = 72
| Jul humidity = 74
| Aug humidity = 78
| Sep humidity = 83
| Oct humidity = 86
| Nov humidity = 88
| Dec humidity = 89
|year humidity = 80
| Jan sun = 41
| Feb sun = 71
| Mar sun = 136
| Apr sun = 189
| May sun = 279
| Jun sun = 300
| Jul sun = 285
| Aug sun = 233
| Sep sun = 152
| Oct sun = 90
| Nov sun = 34
| Dec sun = 25
|year sun = 1835
|source 1 = Pogoda.ru.net<ref name="pogoda">{{cite web |url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/26258.htm |title=Pogoda.ru.net |access-date=8 December 2021 |language=ru}}</ref>
|source 2 = ] (sun 1961–1990)<ref name = NOAA>{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_VI/RE/26258.TXT
| title = Pskov Climate Normals 1961–1990
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| access-date = 5 December 2019}}</ref>
|date=August 2010
}}

==Economy==
]
]
*JSC "AVAR" (AvtoElectroArmatura). Electric equipment production for cars, lorries buses and tractors (relays, switches, fuses, electronic articles)
*Pskov is served by ] which is also used for military aviation.

==Notable people==
* ] (born 1979), professional association football player
* ] (born 1953), Head of ]
* ] (born 1953), ]
* ] (1935–2012), screenwriter
* ] (1886–1938), ] activist, killed in ]'s ], a representative of the ]
* ] (born 1977), ] 2001, ] ''(dethroned)''
* ] (1639–1687), statesman, governor of Pskov
* ] (1912–1994), Polish philosopher
* ] (1902–1989), writer
* ] (1740–1791), dramatist and playwright
* ] (1899–1935), painter
* ] (1926–2011), Soviet, Russian and Ukrainian physicist
* ] (1934–1996), journalist, dissident, human rights activist
* ] (1915–2003), German lawyer and social scientist
* ] (1922–2008), First soldier to hoist the Soviet flag atop the Reichstag building during the ]
* ] (born 1973), singer-songwriter
* ] (1605–1680), Russian statesman of the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Orduin-Nashchokin, Athanasy Lavrentevich | volume= 20 |last= Bain |first= Robert Nisbet |author-link= Robert Nisbet Bain| page = 238 |short= 1 }}</ref>
* ] (born 1984), stage and film actress
]]]
* ] (1904–1991), historian
* ] (1844–1918), admiral in the ]
* ] (born 1957), Russian businessman
* ] (1717–1779), academic administrator
* ] (1859–1924), politician, provincial commissar of Pskov
* ] (1787–1855), landscape painter
* ] (1797–1870), explorer and seaman
* ], ] ], canonized by the ] as Vsevolod-Gavriil

===Sport===
* ] (born 1946), former rower
* ] (born 1958), former rower
* ] (born 1969), hockey player
* ] (born 1972), former Olympic rower
* ] (born 1981), professional footballer
* ] (born 1990), sprint canoer
* ] (born 1958), former rower
* ] (born 1989), track and field athlete
* ] (born 1968), professional footballer
* ] (born 1955), former rower
* ] (born 1959), former rower
* ] (born 1982), professional footballer
* ] (born 1977), professional footballer
* ] (born 1982), professional footballer
* ] (born 1992), professional football player
* ] (born 1981), professional football player

==Twin towns – sister cities==
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Russia}}
Pskov is ] with:<ref>{{cite web |title=Общая информация|url=http://www.pskovgorod.ru/cats.html?id=383|website=pskovgorod.ru|publisher=Pskov|language=ru|access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{flagicon|FRA}} ], France
*{{flagicon|POL}} ], Poland
*{{flagicon|LVA}} ], Latvia
*{{flagicon|GER}} ], Germany
*{{flagicon|FIN}} ], Finland
*{{flagicon|GER}} ], Germany
*{{flagicon|NED}} ], Netherlands
*{{flagicon|SWE}} ], Sweden
*{{flagicon|SCO}} ], Scotland, United Kingdom
*{{flagicon|LVA}} ], Latvia
*{{flagicon|USA}} ], United States
*{{flagicon|EST}} ], Estonia
*{{flagicon|LVA}} ], Latvia
*{{flagicon|BLR}} ], Belarus
<!--rest - not twinning-->
{{div col end}}
In February 2023, it was announced that ], United States was officially pausing its sister city affiliation with Pskov due to the continuing ].<ref>Hunter, Molly. "Sister City ties on hold Roanoke's relationship with Russian city paused, flag to be removed." ''Roanoke Times, The (VA)'', February 22, 2023: 1A.</ref>

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
*{{RussiaAdmMunRef|psk|adm|law}}
*{{RussiaAdmMunRef|psk|mun|list0}}


==Bibliography==
Pskov still preserves much of its medieval walls, built from the 13th century on. The Krom, or medieval ], looks as impressive as ever. Within its walls rises the 256-foot-tall Trinity Cathedral, founded in 1138 and rebuilt in the 1690s. The ] contains the tombs of saint princes Vsevolod (died in 1138) and Dovmont (died in 1299). Other ancient cathedrals adorn the Mirozhsky abbey (completed by ]), St John's (completed by ]) and the Snetogorsky monastery (built in ] and painted in ]).
{{See also|Timeline of Pskov#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Pskov}}


==External links==
Pskov is exceedingly rich in tiny, squat, picturesque churches, dating mainly from the 15th and the 16th centuries. There are many dozens of them, the most notable being St Basil's on the Hill (1413), St Kozma and Demian's near the Bridge (1463), St George's from the Downhill (1494), Assumption from the Ferryside (1444, 1521) and St Nicholas' from Usokha (1536). The 17th-century residential architecture is represented by merchant ]s: e.g., the Salt House, the Pogankin chambers, and the Trubinsky mansion. Unfortunately, the area presently has only a very minimal ] ], and much of the city needs serious ].
{{Wikivoyage|Pskov}}
]
* {{Official website|pskovgorod.ru}} {{in lang|ru}}
== Copyrighted photos ==
* * Nortfort.ru.
* *
* {{Cite book |publisher = Hurst and Blackett |location = London |author= Annette M. B. Meakin |title = Russia, Travels and Studies |date = 1906 |oclc = 3664651 |chapter-url = https://archive.org/stream/cu31924028397929#page/n195/mode/2up |chapter = Pskoff |ol = 24181315M }}
*
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle= Pskov (town) |volume= 22 | pages = 542–543 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch|author-link=Peter Kropotkin |last2=Bealby |first2= John Thomas }}
*
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle= Pskov (government) |volume= 22 | page = 542 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch|author-link=Peter Kropotkin |last2=Bealby |first2= John Thomas }}
*
* during ], at ] website
*
* {{cite book|last=Savignac |first=David (trans) |title=The Pskov 3rd Chronicle|url=https://www.academia.edu/28622167}}
* {{JewishGen-LocalityPage|2989168|Pskov, Russia}}


{{Pskov Oblast}}
== External link ==
{{Major fortresses of Western Russia}}
*
{{Hanseatic League}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Russia}}
{{Authority control}}


] ]
] ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
{{Template:Russian Fortifications}}

Latest revision as of 11:39, 2 December 2024

City in Pskov Oblast, Russia

City in Pskov Oblast, Russia
Pskov Псков
City
From the top to bottom-right, Pskov Kremlin, Golden Quay, Church of Saint Basil of Caesarea, Pskov Academic Drama Theatre
Flag of PskovFlagCoat of arms of PskovCoat of arms
Location of Pskov
Pskov is located in Pskov OblastPskovPskovLocation of PskovShow map of Pskov OblastPskov is located in European RussiaPskovPskovPskov (European Russia)Show map of European RussiaPskov is located in EuropePskovPskovPskov (Europe)Show map of Europe
Coordinates: 57°49′N 28°20′E / 57.817°N 28.333°E / 57.817; 28.333
CountryRussia
Federal subjectPskov Oblast
First mentioned903
Government
 • BodyCity Duma
 • HeadBoris Yolkin
Elevation45 m (148 ft)
Population
 • Total203,279
 • Estimate 210,501 (+3.6%)
 • Rank91st in 2010
Administrative status
 • Subordinated toCity of Pskov
 • Capital ofPskov Oblast, Pskovsky District
Municipal status
 • Urban okrugPskov Urban Okrug
 • Capital ofPskov Urban Okrug, Pskovsky Municipal District
Time zoneUTC+3 (MSK Edit this on Wikidata)
Postal code(s)180xxx
Dialing code(s)+7 8112
OKTMO ID58701000001
City DayJuly 23
Websitewww.pskovgorod.ru

Pskov (Russian: Псков, IPA: [psˈkof] ; see also names in other languages) is a city in northwestern Russia and the administrative center of Pskov Oblast, located about 20 kilometers (12 mi) east of the Estonian border, on the Velikaya River. Population: 193,082 (2021 Census); 203,279 (2010 Census); 202,780 (2002 Census); 203,789 (1989 Soviet census).

Pskov is one of the oldest cities in Russia. During the Middle Ages, it served as the capital of the Pskov Republic and was a trading post of the Hanseatic League before it was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow and became an important border fortress in the Tsardom of Russia.

History

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See also: Timeline of Pskov

Early history

View of the Pskov Kremlin from the Velikaya River in 2014

Pskov is one of the oldest cities in Russia. The name of the city, originally Pleskov (historic Russian spelling Плѣсковъ, Plěskov), may be loosely translated as " of purling waters". It was historically known in English as Plescow.

Its earliest mention comes in 903, which records that Igor of Kiev married a local lady, Olga (later Saint Olga of Kiev). Pskovians sometimes take this year as the city's foundation date, and in 2003 a great jubilee took place to celebrate Pskov's 1,100th anniversary.

The first prince of Pskov was Vladimir the Great's youngest son Sudislav. Once imprisoned by his brother Yaroslav, he was not released until the latter's death several decades later. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the town adhered politically to the Novgorod Republic. In 1241, it was taken by the Teutonic Knights, but Alexander Nevsky recaptured it several months later during a legendary campaign dramatized in Sergei Eisenstein's 1938 movie Alexander Nevsky.

In order to secure their independence from the knights, the Pskovians elected a Lithuanian prince, named Daumantas, a Roman Catholic converted to Orthodox faith and known in Russia as Dovmont, as their military leader and prince in 1266. Having fortified the town, Daumantas routed the Teutonic Knights at Rakvere and overran much of Estonia. His remains and sword are preserved in the local kremlin, and the core of the citadel, erected by him, still bears the name of "Dovmont's town".

In 1341 the city recognized overlordship of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in 1347 it switched allegiance to the Novgorod Republic, and the following year it became the capital of the newly independent Pskov Republic.

Pskov Republic

Main article: Pskov Republic

By the 14th century, the town functioned as the capital of a de facto sovereign republic. Its most powerful force was the merchants who traded with the Hanseatic League. Pskov's independence was formally recognized by Novgorod in 1348. Several years later, the veche promulgated a law code (called the Pskov Charter), which was one of the principal sources of the all-Russian law code issued in 1497.

Already in the 13th century German merchants were present in Zapskovye area of Pskov and the Hanseatic League had a trading post in the same area in the first half of 16th century which moved to Zavelichye after a fire in 1562. The wars with Livonian Order, Poland-Lithuania and Sweden interrupted the trade but it was maintained until the 17th century, with Swedish merchants gaining the upper hand eventually.

Historical population
YearPop.±%
188221,170—    
189730,388+43.5%
1989203,789+570.6%
2002202,780−0.5%
2010203,279+0.2%
2021193,082−5.0%
Source:

The importance of the city made it the subject of numerous sieges throughout its history. The Pskov Krom (or Kremlin) withstood twenty-six sieges in the 15th century alone. At one point, five stone walls ringed it, making the city practically impregnable. A local school of icon-painting flourished, and the local masons were considered the best in Russia. Many peculiar features of Russian architecture were first introduced in Pskov.

Grand Duchy of Moscow

Finally, in 1510, the city was annexed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Three hundred families were deported from Pskov to central Russia, and merchants and military families from Muscovy were settled in the city. At this time Pskov had at least 6,500 households and a population of more than 30,000; it was one of the three biggest cities of Muscovy, alongside Moscow and Novgorod.

Tsardom of Russia

Siege of Pskov by Stephen Báthory, by Karl Bryullov.

The deportation of noble families to Moscow under Ivan IV in 1570 is a subject of Rimsky-Korsakov's opera Pskovityanka (1872). Pskov still attracted enemy armies and it withstood a prolonged siege by a 50,000-strong Polish-Lithuanian army during the final stage of the Livonian War (1581–1582). The king of Poland Stephen Báthory undertook some thirty-one attacks to storm the city, which was defended mainly by civilians. Even after one of the city walls was broken, the Pskovians managed to fill the gap and repel the attack. "A big city, it is like Paris", wrote Báthory's secretary about Pskov.

The estimates of the population of Pskov land in the middle of 16th century range from 150 to 300 thousand. Famines, epidemics (especially the epidemic of 1552) and the warfare led to a five-fold decrease of the population by 1582–1585 due to mortality and migration.

The city withstood a siege by the Swedish in 1615. The successful defence of the city led to the peace negotiations culminating in the Treaty of Stolbovo.

Russian Empire

Pskov in 1911

Peter the Great's conquest of Estonia and Livonia during the Great Northern War in the early 18th century spelled the end of Pskov's traditional role as a vital border fortress and a key to Russia's interior. As a consequence, the city's importance and well-being declined dramatically, although it served as a seat of separate Pskov Governorate since 1777. In 1897, the ethnic make-up, by mother tongue, was 80.0% Russian, 5.7% Polish, 4.7% Jewish, 4.3% German, 2.4% Latvian, 2.1% Estonian.

During World War I, Pskov became the headquarters for Russia's Northern Front, commanded by Nikolai Ruzsky. On 15 March 1917, aboard the Imperial train, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated here. After the Russo-German Brest-Litovsk Peace Conference (22 December 1917 – 3 March 1918), the Imperial German Army invaded the area.

Pskov was also occupied by the Estonian army between 25 May 1919 and 28 August 1919 during the Estonian War of Independence when the White Russian commander Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz became the military administrator of Pskov. He personally ceded most of his responsibilities to a democratically elected municipal duma and focused on both cultural and economical recovery of the war-impoverished city. He also put an end to censorship of press and allowed for creation of several socialist associations and newspapers.

Recent history

Under the Soviet government, large parts of the city were rebuilt, many ancient buildings, particularly churches, were demolished to give space for new constructions. During World War II, in June 1940, the Soviet 8th Army invaded Estonia and Latvia from the city. The medieval citadel provided little protection against modern artillery of the Wehrmacht, and Pskov suffered substantial damage during the German occupation from 9 July 1941 until 23 July 1944. The Germans operated a forced labour camp for Jewish men and women. In February 1944, thousands of people were killed during Russian bombings of the city. A huge portion of the population died during the war, and Pskov has since struggled to regain its traditional position as a major industrial and cultural center of western Russia.

Administrative and municipal status

Pskov is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Pskovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the City of Pskov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Pskov is incorporated as Pskov Urban Okrug.

Landmarks and sights

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Pskov Krom, view from the Velikaya River

Pskov still preserves much of its medieval walls, built from the 13th century on. Its medieval citadel is called either the Krom or the Kremlin. Within its walls rises the 256-foot-tall (78 m) Trinity Cathedral, founded in 1138 and rebuilt in the 1690s. The cathedral contains the tombs of saint princes Vsevolod (died in 1138) and Dovmont (died in 1299). Other ancient cathedrals adorn the Mirozhsky Monastery (completed by 1152), famous for its 12th-century frescoes, St. John's (completed by 1243), and the Snetogorsky monastery (built in 1310 and stucco-painted in 1313).

Church of Saint Basil of Caesarea on the Hill

Pskov is exceedingly rich in tiny, squat, picturesque churches, dating mainly from the 15th and the 16th centuries. There are many dozens of them, the most notable being St. Basil's on the Hill (1413), St. Kozma and Demian's near the Bridge (1463), St. George's from the Downhill (1494), Assumption from the Ferryside (1444, 1521), and St. Nicholas' from Usokha (1536). The 17th-century residential architecture is represented by merchant mansions, such as the Salt House, the Pogankin Palace, and the Trubinsky mansion.

Among the sights in the vicinity of Pskov are Izborsk, a seat of Rurik's brother in the 9th century and one of the most formidable fortresses of medieval Russia; the Pskov Monastery of the Caves, the oldest continually functioning monastery in Russia (founded in the mid-15th century) and a magnet for pilgrims from all over the country; the 16th-century Krypetsky Monastery; Yelizarov Convent, which used to be a great cultural and literary center of medieval Russia; and Mikhaylovskoye, a family home of Alexander Pushkin where he wrote some of the best known lines in the Russian language. The national poet of Russia is buried in the ancient cloister at the Holy Mountains nearby. Unfortunately, the area presently has only a minimal tourist infrastructure, and the historic core of Pskov requires serious investments to realize its great tourist potential.

On 7 July 2019, the Churches of the Pskov School of Architecture was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Geography

Pskova river in Pskov

Ecological situation

Vehicle emissions reach 83% of total emissions from stationary and mobile sources. The volume of emissions of atmospheric pollutants from stationary sources in 2007 amounted to 16.5 thousand tons, including 7.1 thousand tons (43.2%) of carbon monoxide and 2.6 thousand tons (15.8%) of solids. The largest source of air pollution in Pskov is Pskov Poultry Farm LLC (1365.92 tons of pollutants were emitted) and the Pskov Heating Networks SE (478.12 tons). All rivers flowing through the territory of the Pskov Oblast, including the city of Pskov, are characterized by increased concentrations of total iron, copper ions, and hardly oxidizable organic compounds in the water.

The following indicators characterize air pollution in Pskov:

  • annual average and maximum one-time concentration of sulfur dioxide – below 1 MPC
  • the annual average concentration of nitrogen dioxide – 1.5 MPC; the maximum single concentration – 3.4 MPC
  • annual average and maximum one-time concentration of carbon monoxide – below 1 MPC
  • average annual concentration of suspended solids – below 1 MPC; the maximum single concentration – 2.2 MPC
  • the degree of air pollution in general for Pskov is approximately low and is determined by the API value – 2.81

Since the late 1990s, the Clean Water project officially registered by United Russia in 2006 has been implemented. Improving the quality of drinking water is planned to be carried out by gradually abandoning surface water intake from the Velikaya River and transitioning to the extraction of water from underground sources. However, underground water intake leads to the clogging of hot water supply systems (up to complete obstruction) in those facilities where this water enters due to its increased hardness.

Climate

The climate of Pskov is humid continental (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with maritime influences due to the city's relative proximity to the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland; with relatively mild (for Russia) but still quite long winter and warm summer. Further west in Europe on the same latitude, winters are quite a bit milder and summer highs a bit cooler. Summer and fall have more precipitation than winter and spring.

Climate data for Pskov (1991-2020, extremes 1874–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 9.8
(49.6) 		11.3
(52.3) 		19.3
(66.7) 		27.6
(81.7) 		32.0
(89.6) 		35.3
(95.5) 		35.7
(96.3) 		35.6
(96.1) 		30.3
(86.5) 		22.6
(72.7) 		14.1
(57.4) 		12.4
(54.3) 		35.6
(96.1)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −2.3
(27.9) 		−1.8
(28.8) 		3.4
(38.1) 		11.7
(53.1) 		18.1
(64.6) 		21.7
(71.1) 		24.1
(75.4) 		22.5
(72.5) 		16.7
(62.1) 		9.2
(48.6) 		2.9
(37.2) 		−0.6
(30.9) 		10.5
(50.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) −4.7
(23.5) 		−5.0
(23.0) 		−0.7
(30.7) 		6.3
(43.3) 		12.2
(54.0) 		16.2
(61.2) 		18.6
(65.5) 		16.9
(62.4) 		11.7
(53.1) 		5.8
(42.4) 		0.8
(33.4) 		−2.6
(27.3) 		6.3
(43.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −7.4
(18.7) 		−8.2
(17.2) 		−4.5
(23.9) 		1.3
(34.3) 		6.3
(43.3) 		10.6
(51.1) 		13.1
(55.6) 		11.6
(52.9) 		7.3
(45.1) 		2.6
(36.7) 		−1.4
(29.5) 		−4.9
(23.2) 		2.2
(36.0)
Record low °C (°F) −40.6
(−41.1) 		−37.6
(−35.7) 		−29.7
(−21.5) 		−20.9
(−5.6) 		−5.9
(21.4) 		−0.1
(31.8) 		2.7
(36.9) 		1.3
(34.3) 		−4.6
(23.7) 		−12.5
(9.5) 		−23.8
(−10.8) 		−40.3
(−40.5) 		−40.6
(−41.1)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 48
(1.9) 		37
(1.5) 		36
(1.4) 		39
(1.5) 		58
(2.3) 		85
(3.3) 		71
(2.8) 		85
(3.3) 		63
(2.5) 		65
(2.6) 		55
(2.2) 		45
(1.8) 		687
(27.1)
Average rainy days 9 7 9 12 15 18 16 16 17 18 14 10 161
Average snowy days 22 20 14 5 1 0.03 0 0 0.03 3 13 20 98
Average relative humidity (%) 87 84 80 70 67 72 74 78 83 86 88 89 80
Mean monthly sunshine hours 41 71 136 189 279 300 285 233 152 90 34 25 1,835
Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net
Source 2: NOAA (sun 1961–1990)

Economy

A Russian coin commemorating Pskov's 1,100th anniversary
City bus in Pskov
  • JSC "AVAR" (AvtoElectroArmatura). Electric equipment production for cars, lorries buses and tractors (relays, switches, fuses, electronic articles)
  • Pskov is served by Pskov Airport which is also used for military aviation.

Notable people

Russian actress Yulia Peresild

Sport

Twin towns – sister cities

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Russia

Pskov is twinned with:

In February 2023, it was announced that Roanoke, United States was officially pausing its sister city affiliation with Pskov due to the continuing Russian invasion of Ukraine.

References

Notes

  1. ^ Law #833-oz
  2. ^ Russian Federal State Statistics Service (2011). Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том 1 [2010 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1]. Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service.
  3. "26. Численность постоянного населения Российской Федерации по муниципальным образованиям на 1 января 2018 года". Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
  4. ^ Law #419-oz.
  5. "Об исчислении времени". Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации (in Russian). 3 June 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
  6. Почта России. Информационно-вычислительный центр ОАСУ РПО. (Russian Post). Поиск объектов почтовой связи (Postal Objects Search) (in Russian)
  7. Russian Federal State Statistics Service. Всероссийская перепись населения 2020 года. Том 1 [2020 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1] (XLS) (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service.
  8. Federal State Statistics Service (21 May 2004). Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек [Population of Russia, Its Federal Districts, Federal Subjects, Districts, Urban Localities, Rural Localities—Administrative Centers, and Rural Localities with Population of Over 3,000] (XLS). Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года (in Russian).
  9. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров [All Union Population Census of 1989: Present Population of Union and Autonomous Republics, Autonomous Oblasts and Okrugs, Krais, Oblasts, Districts, Urban Settlements, and Villages Serving as District Administrative Centers]. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года (in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики . 1989 – via Demoscope Weekly.
  10. Bacon, George A (1889). The Academy: A Journal of Secondary Education, Volume 4. p. 403.
  11. Borrero, Mauricio (2009). Russia: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present. Infobase Publishing. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-8160-7475-4.
  12. Esmark, Kim; Hermanson, Lars; Orning, Hans Jacob (2020). "Early Scandinavian power centers in the east". Nordic Elites in Transformation, c. 1050–1250, Volume II: Social Networks. Routledge. ISBN 9781000037340.
  13. ^ Słownik geograficzny Królestwa Polskiego i innych krajów słowiańskich, Tom IX (in Polish). Warszawa. 1888. pp. 249–250.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. Dollinger, Philippe (1999). The German Hansa. Psychology Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780415190732.
  15. ^ Аракчеев владимир Анатольевич, Псков и Ганза в эпоху средневековья, ООО «Дизайн экспресс», 2012 (in Russian)
  16. ^ Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г. (in Russian). Vol. XXXIV. 1904. pp. 48–51.
  17. Maclean, Fitzroy (18 March 1979). Pskov: A Journey Into Russia's Past, The New York Times
  18. Зимин, А.А. "Глава 6. Псков". Россия на пороге Нового времени (Очерки политической истории России первой трети XVI в.) (in Russian). Мысль. pp. 112–21. Ведь в 1510 г. в одном Среднем городе Пскова насчитывалось 6500 дворов
  19. Turchin, Peter; Nefedov, Sergey (2009). Secular cycles. Princeton University Press. pp. 243–44. ISBN 978-0-691-13696-7.)
  20. de Madariaga, Isabel (2006). "Peace Negotiations". Ivan the Terrible. Yale University Press. p. 526. ISBN 978-0-30014376-8.
  21. Горская, Наталья Александровна (1994). Историческая демография России эпохи феодализма: итоги и проблемы изучения (in Russian). Москва: Наука. pp. 94–97. ISBN 978-502009750-6.
  22. Turchin, Peter; Nefedov, Sergey (2009). Secular cycles. Princeton University Press. pp. 244–45, 251–52. ISBN 978-0-691-13696-7.)
  23. Massie, Robert (1967). Nicholas and Alexandria. New York: Ballantine Books. pp. 412–417. ISBN 9780345438317.
  24. Eestlased vene sõjaväes 1940–1945. Raamat 12 (in Estonian and English). Tallinn: Estonian Repressed Persons Records Bureau. 2016. p. 33. ISBN 978-9985-9914-5-9.
  25. "Zwangsarbeitslager für Juden Pleskau". Bundesarchiv.de (in German). Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  26. ""Pihkva pole enam kaugel!"". Eesti Ekspress (in Estonian). Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  27. "Six cultural sites added to UNESCO's World Heritage List". UNESCO. 7 July 2019.
  28. "Доклад об экологической ситуации в Псковской области за 2009—2010 годы | Портал государственных органов Псковской области". Pskov.ru. 24 February 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  29. "Будет ли чистой «Чистая вода»?". Businesspskov.ru. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  30. Savitskaya, L. (4 August 2017) Жажда патриотизма. gubernia.media
  31. Накипь в трубах оставляет без горячей воды жителей нескольких псковских новостроек Archived 18 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine. gtrkpskov.ru
  32. В Псковских теплосетях объяснили, почему чистая вода засоряет трубы Archived 18 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine. pravdapskov.ru
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Sources

  • Псковское областное Собрание депутатов. Закон №833-оз от 5 февраля 2009 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Псковской области». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Псковская правда", №20, 10 февраля 2009 г. (Pskov Oblast Council of Deputies. Law #833-oz of February 5, 2009 On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Pskov Oblast. Effective as of the official publication date.).
  • Псковское областное Собрание депутатов. Закон №419-оз от 28 февраля 2005 г. «О границах и статусе действующих на территории области муниципальных образований». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Псковская правда", №41–43, 4 марта 2005 г. (Pskov Oblast Council of Deputies. Law #419-ы. of February 28, 2005 On the Borders and Status of the Municipal Formations Existing on the Oblast Territory. Effective as of the official publication date.).

Bibliography

See also: Bibliography of the history of Pskov

External links

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