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{{Short description|Political idea}}
{{Refimprove|date=January 2008}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
'''Multi-speed Europe''' or '''two-speed Europe''' (called also '''variable geometry Europe''' or '''Core Europe''' depending on the form it would take in practice) is a concept that has been debated for years in European political circles, as a way to solve some institutional issues. It is currently possible for a minimum of eight EU member states to use ], but this has not yet been used.
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Politics of the European Union}}
{{Broader|Multi-speed integration}}
'''Multi-speed Europe''' or '''two-speed Europe''' (called also "variable geometry Europe" or "Core Europe" depending on the form it would take in practice) is the idea that different parts of the ] should ] at different levels and pace depending on the political situation in each individual country. Indeed, multi-speed Europe is currently a reality, with only a subset of EU countries being members of the ] and of the ]. Like other forms of ] such as '''à la carte''' and '''variable geometry''', "multi-speed Europe" arguably aims to salvage the "widening and deepening of the European Union" in the face of ].


== The reasons and actuality of the theory == ==Reasons and actuality of the concept ==
This idea has been revived recently because of various events, such as
* the ] with 15 EU member-states and seven more in ] on track to joining. All but two states (], ]) have agreed by treaty to join but at least one of those treaty signatories (]) has made no further steps to do so.
* the ] Treaty leading to a common border for all but two EU states (] and ]) but which includes three non-EU members - ], ] and ]. Ireland only reluctantly agreed to stay out of the treaty to avoid creating a physical border between the Republic and Northern Ireland because the UK had refused to sign.{{Dubious|date=March 2008}}{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
* other initiatives limited to some states, such as the ] initiative.
* the enlargement of the ] to 27 member-states, with the prospect of accepting in the forthcoming years other candidates (], among others) and taking into account that the ] has 46 member-states
* the ] that lead to the treaty of the ] that has been signed in 2004 by the 25 Heads of State, but was not ratified by all national parliaments or assemblies and so failed.
* differences of view between EU members on some foreign diplomatic and military issues.


The concept entered political discourse when, after the end of the Cold War, an eastward enlargement of the European Union began to materialise and the question arose how "widening" could be made compatible with "deepening",<ref>Marcin Zaborowski: Germany and EU Enlargement: From Rapprochement to "Reaproachment"? In: Helene Sjursen (Ed.), , ARENA Report February 2005, p. 46.</ref> i.e., how the imminent enlargement process could be prevented from diluting the idea of an "ever closer union among the peoples of Europe", as the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community of 1957 had put it. In 1994 – still at a time of the ] – the German ] ] and ] published a document<ref>Karl Lamers / Wolfgang Schäuble: (Reflections on European Policy). See also Gilles Andréani: , Centre for European Reform Essays, September 2002, {{ISBN|1-901229-33-5}}, p. 7-8.</ref> in which they called for a '']'' (= core Europe). This idea envisaged that "core Europe" would have a "centripetal effect", a magnetic attraction for the rest of Europe. A precursor to that concept had been a proposal by two advisors to German Chancellor ], ] and Norbert J. Prill, published as early as July 1989. Mertes and Prill called for a '''concentric circles Europe''', built around a federal core consisting of the ] (EU6) and like-minded EU member states.<ref>Michael Mertes / Norbert J. Prill: Der verhängnisvolle Irrtum eines Entweder-Oder. Eine Vision für Europa, ] 19 July 1989.</ref> In 1994 they partly revoked their original idea, arguing that the post-Cold War EU would rather look like a "Europe of Olympic rings" than a "Europe of concentric circles".<ref>Michael Mertes / Norbert J. Prill: Es wächst zusammen, was zusammengehören will. "Maastricht Zwei" muss die Europäische Union flexibel machen, ] 9 December 1994, p. 11.</ref>
The argument is that, with more members and more diverse members in the Union, the more difficult it becomes to reach consensus on various topics, and the less likely it is that all would advance at the same pace in various fields (economical, social, fiscal, military, decision-making, etc.). This has led to the theory of a multi-speed Europe, both as a reflection of the state of nations entering the Union, the agreements shared, and the resulting progress. Similarly ] in a 2004 article compared the variances of Europe to a lake that has many deep parts (areas in which countries are similar) and many shallow parts (areas in which countries have major differences).<ref></ref>


The '''multi-speed Europe''' concept has been debated for years in European political circles, as a way to solve some institutional issues. The concept is that the more members there are in the Union, the more difficult it becomes to reach consensus on various topics, and the less likely it is that all would advance at the same pace in various fields.
== Main multi-speed Europe models ==
] alongside the Outer Seven from 1960 to 1972{{legend|#039|Inner Six (])}}{{legend|#393|Outer Seven (])}}]]
There are two essential models of multi-speed Europe -- core Europe, and variable geometry Europe.
Intermediate forms could be limited to some areas of close cooperation, as some historical examples are given below. It is also possible now for a minimum of nine EU member states to use ], but this new framework has been used only once. A second proposal, a unified European patent, is nearing completion with only two countries (Italy and Spain) not participating.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230090500/http://www.out-law.com/page-11672 |date=30 December 2010 }}, ''out-law.com'', 17 December 2010.</ref>
* In the '''core Europe''' model, a group of EU members interested in further integration across the board establish a new organization within the union, to engage in further integration. This model can be described as a nucleus of members, for example among the six historic ones of the ], with some others, wanting speedier integration, would create their own federal institutions, nested inside the ] that the whole union would continue to be. It can be worded as a "] inside a ]".
* The '''variable geometry Europe''' model, by contrast, does not involve a single group of countries pushing ahead across the board, but rather multiple groups being established for different policy areas. For example, one group of countries may decide to integrate further in the area of taxation, another group may decide to integrate further in the area of defence, another in the area of a public prosecutor, etc. The advantage of this model is that it is easier to create agreement, since the core Europe model requires a single group of countries which are across the board interested in further integration, while the variable geometry model recognizes that countries have differing policy interests and concerns.


The idea of a multi-speed Europe has been revived because of the following initiatives:
The core Europe model could be implemented by creating parallel institutions, for example a "European Federation" to exist alongside the "European Union", as a sort of inner core. Such an approach would not work for the variable geometry model, since not one set of parallel institutions would be needed, but rather one per a group. Rather, variable geometry would be approached through using the existing EU institutions, either via the use of the current closer co-operation provisions in the EU Treaties, or a future strengthening of those provisions (such as that proposed in the EU Constitution).
* the ], with 20 member states and two more in ] (] and ]). Every ] except Denmark has agreed by treaty to join, but ].
* the ], with 29 member states, 25 EU members and four non-EU members (], ], ], and ]). It excludes two EU members: ], which is legally obligated to join in the future, and ], which has an ] from participating.
* other initiatives limited to some states, such as the ] and ].


Furthermore, important events were:
It should be noted that the European Union has already adopted the variable geometry model in part. Both the Euro and Schengen are policy areas in which some countries participate but not others, and in both cases some non-members participate as well. The variable geometry proposal, rather than being an entirely new direction, is really only a proposal that the EU should do more of what it is already doing. The one major difference is that at the moment, variable geometry occurs as a "special case", only for certain very major Treaty-level policy issues. The closer co-operation treaty provisions (which have been enacted - TEU articles 43-45, added by the Amsterdam Treaty - but never used) are a means to normalize variable geometry and make it available to most policy areas.
* the enlargement of the ] to 28 member-states and in the forthcoming years other candidates (], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]) where new members initially don't join the Schengen area and the Eurozone for some time.
* the ] that led to the ] that was signed in 2004 by the 25 Heads of State, but was not ratified by all national parliaments or assemblies and so failed. Later most of its provisions were adopted through the ] that included additional ] for some states.
* differences of view between EU members on some foreign diplomatic and military issues. In a 2004 article '']'' compared the variances of Europe to a lake that has many deep parts (areas in which countries are similar) and many shallow parts (areas in which countries have major differences).<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206162947/http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8629365 |date=6 February 2007 }}, ''The Economist'', 1 February 2007.</ref>
{{Supranational European Bodies|size=400px|align=right}}


Currently in the EU there are the following cases of non-uniform application of the ]:
==See also==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
| permanent deviations{{efn|In addition to the permanent deviations there are temporary transition periods for the application of certain EU law provisions in some member states, but these have an already set dates for lapsing.}}
| request by states to cooperate more than EU<br><small>(post-]: request to participate at EU level instead of less)</small>
| request by states to cooperate less than general EU level
|-
| allowed by the EU
| ''']'''
| ''']'''<br>Minor ] derogations or exemptions<br>]
|-
| not allowed by the EU
| ''']'''<br>''']/] suspensions'''<br><small>(post accession: benchmarks for adoption of EU level)</small>
|
|-
|}
<!--{{clear|right}}-->

== Overview of non-uniformity inside the EU ==
Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Slovenia participate in all EU provisions.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:85%; text-align:center"
! rowspan=2 | Participant
! colspan=5 | ]
! colspan=4 | ]
! rowspan=2 | ]
! ]
! colspan=3 | ]
! rowspan=2 | ]
|-
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Bulgaria}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Croatia}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c{{efn|Provisionally applied as a participating non-EEA state since 12 April 2014 pending ratification by Croatia, all EEA states, and the European Union.}}
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Cyprus}} ]
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Denmark}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Estonia}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Finland}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Greece}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Hungary}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Ireland}} ]
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Italy}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Latvia}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Lithuania}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Malta}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Netherlands}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Poland}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Portugal}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Romania}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Slovakia}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Spain}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Sweden}} ]
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#cfc" | x
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#fcc" | o
| style="background:#ffc" | c
| style="background:#fcc" | o
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan=16 | {{plainlist}}
*{{Color box|#cfc|x|border=silver}} – Member
*{{Color box|#ffc|c|border=silver}} – Candidate (or conditions to be fulfilled before joining)
*{{Color box|#fcc|o|border=silver}} – Non-member
{{endplainlist}}
|}

== Participation of European countries in non EU-only integration initiatives ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=January 2008}}
{{For|integration activities not initiated by the EU|European integration}}
A number of countries have special relations to the European Union implementing many of its regulations. Prominently there are Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Liechtenstein which are the only remaining EFTA members while all other former EFTA members have converted into EU members. Through agreements Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein (not including Switzerland) are members of the ] since 1994. As a consequence of taking part in the EU single market they need to adopt part of the ]. Formally they would not need to fund the EU government{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} but in practice they have opted to take on their part of financing EU institutions as required by EU law (see ]) with the financial footprint of Norway being equal to that of an EU member since 2009.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} Especially Norway and Iceland are known to forfeit EU membership on the basis of ] that they want to opt out on. Both Norway and Iceland have signed and implemented the Schengen zone agreements from the start. During the turmoils of the financial crisis, Iceland was looking into membership of the Eurozone and it did apply for EU membership in 2009. Norway has joined all EU political treaties{{vague|date=August 2019}} and it has applied to EU membership multiple times but while fulfilling the requirements the membership was rejected by referendums in 1972 and 1994. This leaves Norway to be integrated into Inner Europe's institutions while not being part their governing body.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
!
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
!
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
!
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
!
!
!
!
!
!
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
! <div style="background-color:#fff;width:50px;margin:auto">]</div>
|-
! Participant
! EU
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
! ]
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Albania}} ] || c{{efn|name=EU_candidate_negotiating|EU candidate negotiating}}
|x||x|| || || || ||x||x||x|| || || || || || || || ||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Andorra}} ] ||
|x||x||s||s||x|| || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Armenia}} ] ||
|x||x|| || || || ||o||x||x|| || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Austria}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} ] ||
|x||x|| || || || || || x|| || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Belarus}} ] ||
|x|| || || || || || || x|| || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Belgium}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} ] || c
|x||x|| || || || ||x||x||x|| || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Bulgaria}} ] || x
|x||x||x||c||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x|| ||x||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Croatia}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||c||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x|| ||o||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Cyprus}} ] || x
|x||x||c||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x|| ||o||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Czech Republic}} ]|| x
|x||x||x||c||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||o||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Denmark}} ] || x
|x||x||x|| ||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||o||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Estonia}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Finland}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|France}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Georgia}} ] || c
|x||x|| || || || ||x|| x||x|| || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Germany}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Greece}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||c||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Hungary}} ] || x
|x||x||x||c||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Iceland}} ] ||
|x||x||x || || ||x|| ||x||x||x|| ||x|| x|||| || ||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Ireland}} ] || x
|x||x|| ||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||o||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Italy}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||c||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Kazakhstan}} ] ||
|x|| || || || || || || x|| || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Kosovo}} ] || c{{efn|name=EU_applicant|EU applicant}}
| || ||||x{{efn|name="deFacto"|De facto uses the euro.}} || ||||x|||| x|| || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Latvia}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x|| ||o||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Liechtenstein}} ] ||
|x||x||x|| || ||x|| ||x|| ||x|| || ||x|| || || ||x||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Lithuania}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x|| ||o||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Luxembourg}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Malta}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x|| ||o||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Moldova}} ] || c
|x||x|| || || || ||x||x||x|| || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Monaco}} ] ||
|x||x||s||s||x|| || |||| || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Montenegro}} ] || c{{efn|name=EU_candidate_negotiating}}
|x||x||||x{{efn|name="deFacto"}} || ||||x||x|| x|| || || || || || || || ||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Netherlands}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|North Macedonia}} ] || c{{efn|name=EU_candidate_negotiating}}
|x||x|| || || || ||x||x||x|| || || || || || || || ||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Norway}} ] ||
|x||x||x|| || ||x||o||x||x||x||x||x||x|||| ||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Poland}} ] || x
|x||x||x||c||x||x||x||||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||o||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Portugal}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||c||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Romania}} ] || x
|x||x||x||c||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Russia}} ] ||
|x|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|San Marino}} ] ||
|x||x||s||s||x || |||| || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Serbia}} ] || c{{efn|name=EU_candidate_negotiating}}
|x||x|| || || || ||x||||x|| || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Slovakia}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x|| ||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Slovenia}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x|| ||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Spain}} ] || x
|x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|Sweden}} ] || x
|x||x||x||c||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||x||c||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Switzerland}} ] ||
|x||x||x|| || || || ||x|| ||x|| || ||x|| || ||x||x||
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Turkey}} ] || c{{efn|name=EU_candidate_negotiations_frozen|EU candidate negotiations frozen}}
|x||x|| || ||x|| ||o||x|| ||x|| x|| || || || || || ||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Ukraine}} ] || c
|x||x|| || || || ||x||x|| x|| || || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="left" |{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} ] ||
|x||x|| || || || || ||x|| || || || || || || ||x|| ||x
|-
| align="left" | {{flagicon|Vatican City}} ] ||
| |x|||o ||s|| || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
|}
<small>x – member</small><br>
<small>c – conditions to be fulfilled before joining</small><br>
<small>s – unilateral adoption/participation through another state who is a member/some instruments signed, but not yet ratified</small><br>
<small>o – observer</small>

==Post-Brexit-vote revival of "multispeed Europe" ideas==
{{Update section|date=June 2022}}
In March 2017, ] ] ] released a five-point view of possible courses for the EC and its to-be-27 post-] members, looking forward to the year 2025. The points, among which Juncker expressed no preference, "range from standing down from policing of government financing of companies, for example, to a broader pullback that would essentially strip the EU back to being merely a single market", per one report.
The updated possibilities would entail member countries or groups of countries adopting different levels of participation with the union. The EC was approaching a March meeting of the 27 members in Rome and Juncker's paper addressed the options that "once invited scorn from convinced ]s" and seemed maybe even to have some backing "of lifelong ]" like the president.<ref>Valentine Pop, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302040209/https://www.wsj.com/articles/once-scorned-multispeed-europe-is-back-1488388260 |date=2 March 2017 }}, '']'', 1 March 2017. Retrieved 2017-03-01.</ref>

== See also ==
* ] – different examples of non-EU states participation and non-participation of some EU members
* ]
* ]
* ] (EFTA)
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ] (EFTA)
* ]
* ]
* ]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}


== References == == References ==
{{Reflist}} {{reflist}}

== External links ==
*


] {{European Union topics|state=expanded}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Multi-Speed Europe}}
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 21:04, 31 December 2024

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For broader coverage of this topic, see Multi-speed integration.

Multi-speed Europe or two-speed Europe (called also "variable geometry Europe" or "Core Europe" depending on the form it would take in practice) is the idea that different parts of the European Union should integrate at different levels and pace depending on the political situation in each individual country. Indeed, multi-speed Europe is currently a reality, with only a subset of EU countries being members of the eurozone and of the Schengen area. Like other forms of differentiated integration such as à la carte and variable geometry, "multi-speed Europe" arguably aims to salvage the "widening and deepening of the European Union" in the face of political opposition.

Reasons and actuality of the concept

The concept entered political discourse when, after the end of the Cold War, an eastward enlargement of the European Union began to materialise and the question arose how "widening" could be made compatible with "deepening", i.e., how the imminent enlargement process could be prevented from diluting the idea of an "ever closer union among the peoples of Europe", as the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community of 1957 had put it. In 1994 – still at a time of the EU12 – the German Christian Democrats Wolfgang Schäuble and Karl Lamers published a document in which they called for a Kerneuropa (= core Europe). This idea envisaged that "core Europe" would have a "centripetal effect", a magnetic attraction for the rest of Europe. A precursor to that concept had been a proposal by two advisors to German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, Michael Mertes and Norbert J. Prill, published as early as July 1989. Mertes and Prill called for a concentric circles Europe, built around a federal core consisting of the Inner Six (EU6) and like-minded EU member states. In 1994 they partly revoked their original idea, arguing that the post-Cold War EU would rather look like a "Europe of Olympic rings" than a "Europe of concentric circles".

The multi-speed Europe concept has been debated for years in European political circles, as a way to solve some institutional issues. The concept is that the more members there are in the Union, the more difficult it becomes to reach consensus on various topics, and the less likely it is that all would advance at the same pace in various fields.

The Inner Six alongside the Outer Seven from 1960 to 1972  Inner Six (EEC)  Outer Seven (EFTA)

Intermediate forms could be limited to some areas of close cooperation, as some historical examples are given below. It is also possible now for a minimum of nine EU member states to use enhanced co-operation, but this new framework has been used only once. A second proposal, a unified European patent, is nearing completion with only two countries (Italy and Spain) not participating.

The idea of a multi-speed Europe has been revived because of the following initiatives:

Furthermore, important events were:

European Political CommunitySchengen AreaCouncil of EuropeEuropean UnionEuropean Economic AreaEurozoneEuropean Union Customs UnionEuropean Free Trade AssociationNordic CouncilVisegrád GroupBaltic AssemblyBeneluxGUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic DevelopmentCentral European Free Trade AgreementOpen BalkanOrganization of the Black Sea Economic CooperationUnion StateCommon Travel AreaInternational status and usage of the euro#Sovereign statesSwitzerlandLiechtensteinIcelandNorwaySwedenDenmarkFinlandPolandCzech RepublicHungarySlovakiaBulgariaRomaniaGreeceEstoniaLatviaLithuaniaBelgiumNetherlandsLuxembourgItalyFranceSpainAustriaGermanyPortugalSloveniaMaltaCroatiaCyprusRepublic of IrelandUnited KingdomTurkeyMonacoAndorraSan MarinoVatican CityGeorgia (country)UkraineAzerbaijanMoldovaBosnia and HerzegovinaArmeniaMontenegroNorth MacedoniaAlbaniaSerbiaKosovoRussiaBelarus
An Euler diagram showing the relationships between various multinational European organisations and agreements

Currently in the EU there are the following cases of non-uniform application of the European Union law:

permanent deviations request by states to cooperate more than EU
(post-accession: request to participate at EU level instead of less) 		request by states to cooperate less than general EU level
allowed by the EU Enhanced co-operation Opt-outs in the European Union
Minor EU law derogations or exemptions
special territories status
not allowed by the EU Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification
Eurozone/Schengen suspensions
(post accession: benchmarks for adoption of EU level)

Overview of non-uniformity inside the EU

Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Slovenia participate in all EU provisions.

Participant European Union Agreements Enhanced cooperation PESCO Open method of coordination Related Intergovernmental treaties Symbols
Schengen AFSJ CFR Euro EEA Patent Divorce Int. couples' property EPPO Euro+ SRM ESM Prüm
Bulgaria Bulgaria x x x c x x x x x x x x o x x
Croatia Croatia x x x x c o o x x x o x x o o
Cyprus Cyprus c x x x x x o x x x x x x o x
Czech Republic Czech Republic x x x c x x o x x x o x o o o
Denmark Denmark x o x o x x o o o x x c o o o
Estonia Estonia x x x x x x x o x x x x x x o
Finland Finland x x x x x x o x x x x x x x o
Greece Greece x x x x x x x x x x x x x c x
Hungary Hungary x x x c x x x o o x o x o x x
Republic of Ireland Ireland o o x x x x o o o x x x x o o
Italy Italy x x x x x x x x x x x x x c x
Latvia Latvia x x x x x x x o x x x x x o o
Lithuania Lithuania x x x x x x x o x x x x x o x
Malta Malta x x x x x x x x x o x x x o x
Netherlands Netherlands x x x x x x o x x x x x x x o
Poland Poland x x o c x x o o x x x c o o o
Portugal Portugal x x x x x x x x x x x x x c x
Romania Romania x x x c x x x o x x x x o x x
Slovakia Slovakia x x x x x x o o x x x x x x x
Spain Spain x x x x x o x x x x x x x x x
Sweden Sweden x x x c x x o x x x o o o c o
  •  x  – Member
  •  c  – Candidate (or conditions to be fulfilled before joining)
  •  o  – Non-member

Participation of European countries in non EU-only integration initiatives

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Multi-speed Europe" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
For integration activities not initiated by the EU, see European integration.

A number of countries have special relations to the European Union implementing many of its regulations. Prominently there are Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Liechtenstein which are the only remaining EFTA members while all other former EFTA members have converted into EU members. Through agreements Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein (not including Switzerland) are members of the European Economic Area since 1994. As a consequence of taking part in the EU single market they need to adopt part of the Law of the European Union. Formally they would not need to fund the EU government but in practice they have opted to take on their part of financing EU institutions as required by EU law (see EEA and Norway Grants) with the financial footprint of Norway being equal to that of an EU member since 2009. Especially Norway and Iceland are known to forfeit EU membership on the basis of EU fishery regulations that they want to opt out on. Both Norway and Iceland have signed and implemented the Schengen zone agreements from the start. During the turmoils of the financial crisis, Iceland was looking into membership of the Eurozone and it did apply for EU membership in 2009. Norway has joined all EU political treaties and it has applied to EU membership multiple times but while fulfilling the requirements the membership was rejected by referendums in 1972 and 1994. This leaves Norway to be integrated into Inner Europe's institutions while not being part their governing body.

Participant EU OSCE CoE Schengen Euro EUCU EEA Energy Community ECT ECAA EEA EMCDDA EMSA EASA ERA EDA ESA Prüm NATO
Albania Albania c x x x x x x
Andorra Andorra x x s s x
Armenia Armenia x x o x x
Austria Austria x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Azerbaijan Azerbaijan x x x
Belarus Belarus x x
Belgium Belgium x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina c x x x x x
Bulgaria Bulgaria x x x x c x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Croatia Croatia x x x x x x c x x x x x x x x x o x
Cyprus Cyprus x x x c x x x x x x x x x x x x o
Czech Republic Czech Republic x x x x c x x x x x x x x x x x x o x
Denmark Denmark x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x o x
Estonia Estonia x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Finland Finland x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
France France x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Georgia (country) Georgia c x x x x x
Germany Germany x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Greece Greece x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x c x
Hungary Hungary x x x x c x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Iceland Iceland x x x x x x x x x x x
Republic of Ireland Ireland x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x o
Italy Italy x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x c x
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan x x
Kosovo Kosovo c x x x
Latvia Latvia x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x o x
Liechtenstein Liechtenstein x x x x x x x x
Lithuania Lithuania x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x o x
Luxembourg Luxembourg x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Malta Malta x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x o
Moldova Moldova c x x x x x
Monaco Monaco x x s s x
Montenegro Montenegro c x x x x x x x
Netherlands Netherlands x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
North Macedonia North Macedonia c x x x x x x
Norway Norway x x x x o x x x x x x x x x
Poland Poland x x x x c x x x x x x x x x x x o x
Portugal Portugal x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x c x
Romania Romania x x x x c x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Russia Russia x
San Marino San Marino x x s s x
Serbia Serbia c x x x x
Slovakia Slovakia x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Slovenia Slovenia x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Spain Spain x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Sweden Sweden x x x x c x x x x x x x x x x x x c x
Switzerland Switzerland x x x x x x x x
Turkey Turkey c x x x o x x x x
Ukraine Ukraine c x x x x x
United Kingdom United Kingdom x x x x x
Vatican City Vatican City x o s

x – member
c – conditions to be fulfilled before joining
s – unilateral adoption/participation through another state who is a member/some instruments signed, but not yet ratified
o – observer

Post-Brexit-vote revival of "multispeed Europe" ideas

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2022)

In March 2017, European Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker released a five-point view of possible courses for the EC and its to-be-27 post-Brexit members, looking forward to the year 2025. The points, among which Juncker expressed no preference, "range from standing down from policing of government financing of companies, for example, to a broader pullback that would essentially strip the EU back to being merely a single market", per one report. The updated possibilities would entail member countries or groups of countries adopting different levels of participation with the union. The EC was approaching a March meeting of the 27 members in Rome and Juncker's paper addressed the options that "once invited scorn from convinced Europhiles" and seemed maybe even to have some backing "of lifelong federalists" like the president.

See also

Notes

  1. In addition to the permanent deviations there are temporary transition periods for the application of certain EU law provisions in some member states, but these have an already set dates for lapsing.
  2. Provisionally applied as a participating non-EEA state since 12 April 2014 pending ratification by Croatia, all EEA states, and the European Union.
  3. ^ EU candidate negotiating
  4. EU applicant
  5. ^ De facto uses the euro.
  6. EU candidate negotiations frozen

References

  1. Marcin Zaborowski: Germany and EU Enlargement: From Rapprochement to "Reaproachment"? In: Helene Sjursen (Ed.), Enlargement in perspective, ARENA Report February 2005, p. 46.
  2. Karl Lamers / Wolfgang Schäuble: Überlegungen zur europäischen Politik (Reflections on European Policy). See also Gilles Andréani: What future for federalism?, Centre for European Reform Essays, September 2002, ISBN 1-901229-33-5, p. 7-8.
  3. Michael Mertes / Norbert J. Prill: Der verhängnisvolle Irrtum eines Entweder-Oder. Eine Vision für Europa, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 19 July 1989.
  4. Michael Mertes / Norbert J. Prill: Es wächst zusammen, was zusammengehören will. "Maastricht Zwei" muss die Europäische Union flexibel machen, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 9 December 1994, p. 11.
  5. "Countries press ahead with limited single EU patent plan" Archived 30 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine, out-law.com, 17 December 2010.
  6. 'Coalitions for the willing' Archived 6 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine, The Economist, 1 February 2007.
  7. Valentine Pop, "Once Scorned, ‘Multispeed Europe’ Is Back" (subscription) Archived 2 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Wall Street Journal, 1 March 2017. Retrieved 2017-03-01.

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