Gender of God: Difference between revisions

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			{{Short description\|none}}
			{{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2014}}
	{{God}}		{{God}}
			The '''gender of God''' can be viewed as a literal or as an ] aspect of a ].
	The '''''gender of God''''' can be viewed as either a literal or an allegorical aspect of a deity. In ] religions, the gods are more likely to have literal sexual genders (and can often interact with each other in sexual ways). In ] religions, there is no comparable being for God to relate to in a literal sexual way, and so the gender of the deity is more often an analogical statement of how humans address and relate to God, rather than an objective statement about the person of God.

			In ] religions, gods often have ]s which would enable them to ] with each other, and even with humans.
	The views of several individual religions are summarized below, and are not exhaustive.

			] worship a single ], which in most interpretations of ], ], and ], is not believed to have a physical body. Though often referred to with ], many Abrahamic denominations use "divine gender" primarily as an ] to better relate to the ], with no sexual connotation. In Christian traditions with the concept of the ], ], who is male, is believed to be the physical manifestation of the ] ].
	==Clarify terms==
	===God===
	{{main\|God}}
	<!--This section explains "God" as opposed to "god", taking that burden away from the lead -->

			== Abrahamic religions ==
	The first definition of ''god'' provided by the ] (OED) is "A superhuman person (regarded as masculine)". It goes on to note that, "when applied to the One Supreme Being, this sense becomes more or less modified", and also that, "Even when applied to the objects of polytheistic worship, the word has often a colouring derived from Christian associations. As the use of '']'' as a proper name has throughout the literary period of English been the predominant one." Thus, English language usage of ''god'' and ''God'' vary sufficiently widely for the OED to note the variation, and to use the imprecise phrases "more or less modified" for ''God'', and "often a colouring" for ''god''.
			In the ] and ], God is usually described in male terms in biblical sources,<ref name="pagels">] 1976. "." '']'' 2(2):293–303. {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704065520/http://www.womenpriests.org/body/pagels.asp\|date=4 July 2015}}.</ref> with ] in ]:26–27,<ref name=":0" group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Genesis\|1:26–27\|KJV}}</ref><ref name=coogan>{{cite book\|author-link1=Michael Coogan\|last1=Coogan\|first1=Michael\|title=God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says\|url=https://archive.org/details/godsexwhatbi00coog \|url-access=registration\|access-date=May 5, 2011\|edition=1st\|date=October 2010 \|publisher=Twelve. Hachette Book Group\|location=New York, Boston\|isbn=978-0-446-54525-9\|page=\|chapter=6. Fire in Divine Loins: God's Wives in Myth and Metaphor\|quote=humans are modeled on ''elohim'', specifically in their sexual differences.}}</ref> ]:2-3,<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Psalm\|123:2–3\|KJV}}</ref> and ]:8–10;<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Luke\|15:8–10\|KJV}}</ref> a mother in ]:18,<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Deuteronomy\|32:18\|KJV}}</ref> ]:13,<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Isaiah\|66:13\|KJV}}</ref> ]:15,<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Isaiah\|49:15\|KJV}}</ref> ]:14,<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Isaiah\|42:14\|KJV}}</ref> ]:2;<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Psalm\|131:2\|KJV}}</ref> and a mother hen in ]:37<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Matthew\|23:37\|KJV}}</ref> and ]:34,<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse\|Luke\|13:34\|KJV}}</ref> although never directly referred to as being female.
	]]]
	The etymology of the word is given by the OED as ] (PIE), from either the verbal roots for ''to invoke'' or ''to pour'' (libation or blood in sacrifice). It enters modern English not via Greek or Latin, but via ] ''guþ'' and ] (ON) ''goð'', in which "the words always follow the neuter declension, though when used in the Christian sense they are syntactically masc." ] (OHG) shows the same pattern of neuter plurals but masculine singulars, "the adoption of the masculine concord being presumably due to the Christian use of the word." The OED further suggests, "The neuter , in its original heathen use, would answer rather to ''numen'' than to ''deus''."

			=== Judaism ===
	Further disambiguation of the concepts subsumed by the modern English word in the title of this article becomes apparent as the OED notes "an approximate equivalent" to ''deus'' in ON and OHG survived into ] as ''ōs''. However, this was only applied to "higher deities of the native pantheon, never to foreign gods; and it never came into Christian use."
			{{Main\|Gender of God in Judaism}}
			Although the gender of God in Judaism is referred to in the ] with masculine imagery and grammatical forms, traditional Jewish philosophy does not attribute the concept of sex to God.<ref group="lower-alpha">"The fact that we always refer to God as 'He' is also not meant to imply that the concept of sex or gender applies to God." Kaplan, Aryeh (Rabbi). 1983. ''The Aryeh Kaplan Reader''. ]. p. 144.</ref> At times, Jewish ] and ] do treat God as gendered. The ways in which God is gendered have also changed across time, with some modern Jewish thinkers viewing God as outside of the ]. ] (16th century), {{ill\|Michelangelo Lanci\|it\|vertical-align=sup}} (19th century), and Mark Sameth (21st century) theorize that the four letters of the personal name of God, YHWH, are a cryptogram which the priests of ancient Israel would have read in reverse as ''huhi'', "heshe", signifying a dual-gendered deity.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Wilkinson\|first=Robert\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xyoBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22earlier+form+1551;+final+state+1566%22&pg=PA337\|title=Tetragrammaton: Western Christians and the Hebrew Name of God\|publisher=Brill\|year=2015\|isbn=9789004288171\|location=Boston\|pages=337}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last=Postel\|first=Guillame\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmkytAEACAAJ\|title=Le thrésor des prophéties de l'univers\|publisher=Springer\|year=1969\|isbn=9789024702039\|editor-last=Secret\|editor-first=François\|pages=211\|language=French}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last=Lanci\|first=Michelangelo\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-q4WAAAAQAAJ&dq=Paralipomeni+Alla+Illustrazione+Della+Sagra+Scrittura&pg=PR15\|title=Paralipomeni alla illustrazione della sagra Scrittura\|publisher=Dondey-Dupre\|year=1845\|isbn=978-1274016911\|edition=Facsimile of the first\|pages=100–113\|language=Italian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last=Sameth\|first=Mark\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozzpDwAAQBAJ&q=%22The+Name:+A+History+of+the+Dual-Gendered+Hebrew+Name+for+God%22\|title=The Name: A History of the Dual-Gendered Hebrew Name for God\|publisher=Wipf and Stock\|year=2020\|isbn=978-1-5326-9384-7\|pages=ix, 8, 22–26}}</ref>

	=== ~~Gender~~ ===		=== Christianity ===
	{{~~main~~\|Gender}}		{{Main\|Gender of God in Christianity}}
			], ], {{circa\|1510–1517}}]]
	] is also an idea that has been been progressively disambiguated in the field of ] by ], and in cultural anthropology by ] (see also ], '']''). A more precise term is '']'' (] of preferences in social behaviour), in particular those aspects of gender roles which are universal across cultures, like masculine generative, providing and protecting roles and their consequent authority (] 1972, 1991; Brown 1991 and others), also the feminine maternal and nurturing roles, all of which are frequently observed by scholars of comparative religion, particularly in the common fertility ] of a Sky Father and an Earth Mother.
			Most ] conceive of God as ], believing that ], ], and God the ] are distinct persons, but one being that is wholly God.<ref>Grudem, Wayne A. 1994. ''Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine.'' Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. p. 226.</ref><ref>{{CathEncy\|wstitle=Person}}</ref>

			God the Son (]), having been incarnated as a human man, is masculine. Classical western philosophy believes that God lacks a literal sex as it would be impossible for God to have a body (a prerequisite for sex).<ref>]. 2017. "." '']'' I (online ed.), translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province. article 1.</ref><ref>]. 1885. ], edited by ]. Andover: Warren F. Draper.</ref> However, Classical western philosophy states that God should be referred to (in most contexts) as masculine by analogy; the reason being God's relationship with the world as begetter of the world and revelation (i.e. analogous to an active instead of receptive role in sexual intercourse).<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Lang\|first1=David\|title=Why Matter Matters: Philosophical and Scriptural Reflections on the Sacraments\|author2=Peter Kreeft\|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor\|year=2002\|isbn=978-1931709347\|chapter=Chapter Five: Why Male Priests?\|author-link=Preface}}</ref> Others interpret God as neither male nor female.<ref>{{cite book
	== Comparative religion ==
			\| last1= Achtemeier
			\| first1= P
			\| author2= Longstaff
			\| title = Harper Collins Bible Dictionary
			\| publisher = Harper Collins
			\| year = 1996
			\| pages = 377–378
			\| isbn = 0-06-060037-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
			\| last = Wilson
			\| first = H
			\| title = Name and Gender of God
			\| date = January 2006
			\| url = http://archive.elca.org/onebody/bs1_name_and_gender_of_god.html
			\| access-date = 14 August 2009
			\| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090604214727/http://archive.elca.org/onebody/bs1_name_and_gender_of_god.html
			\| archive-date = 4 June 2009
			\| url-status = dead
			}}</ref>

			The ], Book 239, states that God is called "Father", while his love for man may also be depicted as motherhood. However, God ultimately transcends the human concept of sex, and "is neither man nor woman: He is God."<ref>]. 2002. '']''. ]. {{ISBN\|978-0-86012-324-8}}. p. 84.</ref><ref name="CCCs239">{{•}}'''Latin''': "{{Langx\|la\|Deum humanam sexuum transcendere distinctionem. Ille nec vir est nec femina, Ille est Deus\|label=none}}."
	{{Main\|Comparative religion}}

			"Pater per Filium revelatus." ''Catechismus Catholicae Ecclesiae''. ]: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 1993. 1-2-1-1-2 ¶ 239.
	What is understood by words for ''god'' varies across cultures and has sometimes changed dramatically at various times. ] challenged various ideas in ], the ] of ] challenged its ] neighbours, and in ] history, the ] officially adopted ] under ], later becoming its centre, but being challenged itself during the ].

	A simple view of the history of religion as an evolutionary process was proposed in the 19th century—
	from ] to ] to ], with some believing ], ] or ] to be the most advanced approach. Such views are no longer widely current either in the study of religion,<ref>
	"Before us lies a literature rich in profound insights and immense with carefully collected and tested facts: a wealth of resources beyond the imaginings of those 19th century scholars who gave attention to religious questions."
	] and ], ''A Theory of Religion'', (], 1996), p. 12.</ref>
	nor in philosophy. ] widely considers speculative ] to be outside the reach of ] and scientific scrutiny.<ref>
	"One of the first to sceptically dismantle speculative metaphysics was French philosopher Pierre Bayle (1647-1706). The turning point, however, came after German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the 1780's expressed scepticism about the speculative metaphysical approach; it was not rational science and was not even real knowledge."
	Spencer Scoular, ''First Philosophy: The Theory of Everything'', (Universal-Publishers, 2007).</ref>
	Comparative religion notes distinctive idiosyncracies across major religions that are better explained by close historical scrutiny,<ref>
	"We try to specify in a relatively complete way why and how various aspects of religion occur and to do so through a structure of formal explanation."
	] and ], work cited, p. 11.</ref>
	rather than appeal to a simplistic theory.<ref>
	"Available 'theories' of religion remain largely the product of 19th century social thought and the tradition of 'grand theory' associated with the founding fathers of social science. But, as already suggested, close scrutiny reveals that these theories are not so grand."
	] and ], work cited, p. 11.</ref>

	Nonetheless, animist religions are common among preliterate societies, many of which still exist in the 21st century. Typically, natural forces and ] spiritual guides feature in these religions, rather than fully fledged personal divinities with established personalities. It is in polytheism that such deities are found, ] being the largest current polytheistic religion. Animist religions often, but not always, attribute gender to spirits considered to permeate the world and its events. Polytheistic religions, however, almost always attribute gender to their gods, though a few notable divinities are associated with various forms of ] characteristics—gods that manifest alternatingly as male and female, gods with one male and one female "face", and gods whose most distinctive characteristic is their unknown gender.<ref>
	"We are yet more strongly reminded by the two-fold nature of Phanes of the epicene god-heads, who occur frequently in the Babylonian pantheon."
	Gauranga Nath Banerjee, ''Hellenism in Ancient India'', (Read Books, 2007), p. 304.</ref>

	In the philosophies of several polytheistic traditions, a primal, "high" God is postulated as source of the lesser gods (and ]s) of the ]. In some religions, like ], such philosophising goes further, considering ultimate reality to transcend pantheons of gods, without proposing a high God in their place. Buddhism considers ] or ] to be ultimate reality, and the desire for existence to be the wrong-headed heart of human misery.<ref>
	"All that is essential to Buddhism is found in the four propositions which the faithful call the four noble truths. The first states the existence of suffering as the accompaniment to the perpetual change of things; the second shows the desire to be the cause of suffering; ..." Durkheim, work cited, p. 30. See also Oldenberg, ''Buddha'', translated by Hoey, p. 53.</ref>
	European ] since the 19th century may owe a debt to western thinkers discovering Buddhist ideas from that time of increased trade with the East.

	Nonetheless, a hegemonic western conception of metaphysics, influenced strongly by ] and ] is identifiable in European literature from Greek and Roman authors through to the present, such that English language betrays an inherent bias towards monotheistic thought. Where animist languages may not even have words for personal deities, but rather a nuanced vocabulary of spiritualism, and polytheistic cultures have lexis suited to articulating relationships between deities in a pantheon, some modern English speakers only recognize alternatives such as ''God'', ''gods'' or ''no God'', being unfamiliar with Buddhism and animism.

	When considering the literature of the world's religions and metaphysical philosophies, the diversity of the underlying conceptions of the spiritual realm is foundational to appreciating any points of comparison. Comparison of views of the gender of spiritual entities is no exception. Each religion or philosophy needs to be understood in its historical, social, linguistic and philosophical context. Thus, matters of gender do apply to animism, but not in the foundational way they do in polytheism and monotheism. Additionally, since animism is largely associated with preliterate societies, we are dependent on the ] of ] rather than documented scriptures.<ref>
	"These pose the opportunity to borrow some extremely powerful tools, and we have responded by ransacking the treasuries of economics, learning theory and cultural anthropology."
	] and ], work cited, p. 12.</ref>
	] is a notable exception.

			{{•}}'''English''': "We ought therefore to recall that God transcends the human distinction between the sexes. He is neither man nor woman: God Has No Gender
	This article first presents the views of the five major religions—the ] Hinduism and Buddhism, and the ] Judaism, Christianity and ]—and then a range of other notable religious views.
			."

			"." Ch. 1 in '']'' I.ii. Vatican: ]. 2003. {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303003725/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P17.HTM\|date=3 March 2013}}. art. 1, para. 2, li. 239.</ref>
	== Hinduism ==

			In contrast to most Christian denominations, ] (LDS Church) teaches that God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit are physically distinct while being one in purpose.<ref>{{cite web \|url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/manual/aaronic-priesthood-manual-3/lesson-1-the-godhead?lang=eng \|title= Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3 {{ndash}} Lesson 1: The Godhead\|publisher= LDS Church \|year= 1995 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|first1= Donald Q. \|last1= Cannon \|author-link= Donald Q. Cannon \|first2= Larry \|last2= Dahl \|first3= John \|last3= Welch \|author-link3= John W. Welch \|date=January 1989 \|title=The Restoration of Major Doctrines through Joseph Smith: The Godhead, Mankind, and Creation \|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1989/01/the-restoration-of-major-doctrines-through-joseph-smith-the-godhead-mankind-and-the-creation?lang=eng \|journal= ] \|publisher= LDS Church }}</ref> LDS Church members also believe that God the Father is married to a divine woman, referred to as "]."<ref>{{cite journal \|last= Hinckley \|first= Gordon B. \|author-link= Gordon B. Hinckley \|date=November 1991 \|title=Daughters of God \|url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1991/11/daughters-of-god?lang=eng \|journal= ] \|publisher= LDS Church }}</ref> Humans are considered to be spirit children of these heavenly parents.<ref>{{cite web \|author=] and ] \|date= September 23, 1995 \|url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/topics/family-proclamation \|title= Gospel Topics {{ndash}} The Family: A Proclamation to the World \|work= churchofjesuschrist.org \|publisher= LDS Church \|access-date=11 December 2013}} See also: ]</ref>
	{{main\|Hindu views on God and gender}}

			==== The Holy Spirit ====
	The oldest of the Hindu scriptures is the ] (2nd millennium BC). The first word of the Rigveda is the name ], the god of fire, to whom many of the vedic hymns are addressed, along with ] the warrior. Agni and Indra are both male divinities.
			{{Main\|Gender of the Holy Spirit}}

	The Rigveda refers to a creator (] or ]), distinct from Agni and Indra. This creator is identified with ], first of the gods, in later scriptures. Hiranyagarbha and Prajapati are male divinities, as is Brahma (who has a female consort, ]).
	]
	There are many other gods in the Rigveda.<ref name="Witzel">
	Michael Witzel, ' The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts', '']'' '''7''' (2001): 1–118.</ref>
	They are "not simple forces of nature" and possess "complex character and their own mythology".<ref name=Witzel />
	They include goddesses of water (Āpaḥ) and dawn (Uṣas), and the complementary pairing of Father Heaven and Mother Earth.<ref name=Witzel />
	However, they are all "subservient to the abstract, but active positive 'force of truth'" (]),
	"which pervades the universe and all actions of the gods and humans."<ref name=Witzel />
	This force is sometimes mediated or represented by moral gods (] such as ]) or even Indra.<ref name=Witzel />
	The Āditya are male and Rta is personified as masculine in later scriptures (see also ]).

			The New Testament refers to the ] as masculine in a number of places, where the masculine Greek word "Paraclete" occurs, for "Comforter", most clearly in the ], chapters ] to ].<ref>Nestle, et al. 1993. '']'' (27th ed.). Stuttgart: ].</ref> These texts were particularly significant when Christians were debating whether the New Testament teaches that the Holy Spirit is a fully divine person, or some kind of "force." All major English Bible translations have retained the masculine pronoun for the Spirit, as in John 16:13. Although it has been noted that in the original Greek, in some parts of John's Gospel, the neuter Greek word ''pneuma'' is also used for the Spirit.<ref name="cathex">{{cite web \|date=24 June 2006 \|title=Catholic Exchange \|url=http://catholicexchange.com/2006/06/24/83561/ \|accessdate=2009-05-13}}</ref>
	In some Hindu philosophical traditions, ] is depersonalized (and demasculinized) as ], the fundamental life force of the universe. However, theism itself is central to Hinduism.<ref>
	"Religious theism which is central to Hinduism." Robert Lawson Slater, of Philip H. Ashby ''History and Future of Religious Thought: Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam''. ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'' '''4''' (1964): 117–118.</ref>

			==== Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints ====
	More then often worship of a pair rather then one person consitutes worship of ], such as worship of ] in traditions worshiping ], who is male, include preference and veneration to his ], who is worshiped as ].{{Fact\|date=July 2008}} Its an accepted view that union of Radha and Krishna may indicate the union of Shakti with the Saktiman, and this view is existing well outside of orthodox ] or ].<ref>Kakoli Basak, (1991) Rabindranath Tagore, a Humanist - p. 11 </ref>
			The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS) doctrine teaches that God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit are three distinct and separate beings. LDS God has a physical body, and thus is not only identified as being a man, but has a physical sex, that being male.<ref name=":032">{{Cite web \|last=Smith \|first=Joseph \|date=April 2, 1843 \|title=Doctrine and Covenants 130 \|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/130?lang=eng \|access-date=March 25, 2024 \|website=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints}}</ref> The same is for Jesus, God's son, but not for the Holy Spirit, which has a spiritual form.<ref name=":032" /> God is also married to the Heavenly Mother. It is unknown if she has a physical body or defined sex like God. However, she is identified as the "mother" and uses she/her pronouns, so it can be assumed that she is viewed as a woman or womanly figure in opposition to God's male figure. LDS believers do not pray to the Heavenly Mother,<ref name=":02">{{Cite web \|date=April 16, 2024 \|title=Mother in Heaven \|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics-essays/mother-in-heaven?lang=eng \|access-date=April 16, 2024 \|website=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints}}</ref> as God is the one who hears and answers prayers.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Hinckley \|first=Gordon B. \|title=Chapter 5: Daughters of God \|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/teachings-of-presidents-of-the-church-gordon-b-hinckley/chapter-5-daughters-of-god?lang=eng \|access-date=March 25, 2024 \|website=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints}}</ref> However, those who view the Heavenly Mother as part of the Godhead risk excommunication,<ref name=":132">{{Cite web \|last=Fletcher Stack \|first=Peggy \|date=May 16, 2013 \|title=A Mormon mystery returns: Who is Heavenly Mother? \|url=https://archive.sltrib.com/article.php?id=56282764&itype=CMSID \|archive-url= \|archive-date= \|access-date=March 25, 2024 \|website=The Salt Lake Tribune}}</ref> even though the LDS website claims that they honor her Godhood.<ref name=":02" /> It should also be noted that the Heavenly Mother's exact role is unknown. For example, it is unknown if she is an equal partner to God, also partaking in creation, or if she reflect a human woman's role to a human man's, that of submission.<ref name=":132" /> The LDS believe that redeemed humans can ascend to godhood, which is what Jesus did.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Carter \|first=K. Codell \|date=1992 \|title=Encyclopedia of Mormonism \|url=https://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/digital/collection/EoM/id/3734 \|access-date=March 25, 2024 \|website=Digital Collections: BYU Library}}</ref>

			=== Islam ===
	There are some Hindu sects, such as ] and ], that have a well-developed philosophy of a mother goddess, ], and literature that harmonizes this to greater or lesser extents with vedic and other traditions. In these traditions, ] is often conceived of as the consort of Shakti, rather than '']''. The common separation of ] and ], i.e. Female and Male principle in god arrives at the conclusion Shakti and saktiman are the same.<ref>Surendranath Dasgupta,A History of Indian Philosophy (1991) p. 31</ref> Each and every god has its partner, 'betterhalf' or Shakti and without this Shakti he is sometimes viewed being without essential power.<ref> Santilata Dei, Del Santilata, Vaisnavism in Orissa (1988) p. 167</ref>
			{{Main\|God in Islam}}
			{{further\|Heavenly Quran}}
			Islam teaches that God (''Allah'') is beyond any comparison, ], and thus God is beyond any gender attributes.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Who is Allah?\|author=Bruce B. Lawrence\|publisher=]\|page=3}}</ref> Arabic only possesses gendered pronouns ("he" and "she") but does not have gender neutral pronouns ("it"), and "he" is typically used in cases where the subject's gender is indeterminate. Thus, Allah is typically referred to as "he", despite not having any gender attributes.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Reference to Allah as masculine\|url=https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/83232/reference-to-allah-as-masculine\|publisher=Islamweb}}</ref>

			=== The Baháʼí Faith ===
	== Judaism ==

			In the ], ] uses the Mother as an attribute of God: "He Who is well-grounded in all knowledge, He Who is the Mother, the Soul, the Secret, and the Essence".<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.bahai.org/r/968354379\|title = The Kitáb-i-Íqán \| Baháʼí Reference Library}}</ref> Baha'u'llah further writes that "Every single letter proceeding out of the mouth of God is indeed a Mother Letter, and every word uttered by Him Who is the Well Spring of Divine Revelation is a Mother Word, and His Tablet a Mother Tablet."<ref>Drewek, Paula. "Feminine Forms of the Divine in Baháʼí Scriptures." Journal of Baháʼí Studies 5 (1992): 13–23.</ref> The Primal Will of God is personified as ] in the Baháʼí writings.
	The first words of the ] (] or ]) are
	''B'reshit bara Elohim'' — "In the beginning God created."<ref>
	], (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1990), p. 1.</ref>
	The verb ''bara'' (he created) suggests a masculine subject.
	''Elohim'' is also masculine in form.
	The most common phrases in the Tanakh are ''vayomer Elohim''
	and ''vayomer Y<small=2>HWH</small>'' — "and God said" (hundreds of occurrences).
	Again, the verb ''vayomer'' (he said) is masculine;
	it is never ''vatomer'', the feminine of the same verb form.
	The personal name of God, ''Y<small=2>HWH</small>'',
	is presented in ] as if the ''Y'' (Hebrew ''yod'')
	is the masculine subjective prefix to the verb ''to be''
	{{main\|I am that I am}}

			== Indian religions ==
	In ] 62:5, God is compared to the bridegroom, and his people to the bride.
			{{See also\|Indian religions}}
	*"For as a young man marrieth a virgin, so shall thy sons marry thee: and as the bridegroom rejoiceth over the bride, so shall thy ] rejoice over thee."

			=== Hinduism ===
	Benjamin Blech writes in ''Understanding Judaism'':
			{{Main\|God and gender in Hinduism}}
			In ], there are diverse approaches to conceptualizing God and gender. Many Hindus focus upon impersonal ] (]) which is genderless. Other Hindu traditions conceive God as ] (both female and male), alternatively as either male or female, while cherishing gender ], that is without denying the existence of other Gods in either gender.<ref>Renard, John. 1999. ''Responses to 101 Questions on Hinduism''. Paulist. {{ISBN\|978-0809138456}}. pp. 74–76.</ref><ref>{{Google books\|9XC9bwMMPcwC\|What is Hinduism?\|page=PR17}}, Hinduism Today, Hawaii</ref>

			The ] tradition conceives of God as a female. Other ] traditions of Hinduism have both male and female gods. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine ] of the Hindu pantheon is partnered with a feminine who is often a ].<ref name="adishakti.org">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.adishakti.org/forum/concept_of_shakti_hinduism_as_a_liberating_force_for_women_1-18-2005.htm\|title=The Concept of Shakti: Hinduism as a Liberating Force for Women\|website=www.adishakti.org}}</ref>
	{{cquote\|Yet … Judaism long ago acknowledged the validity of feminine dimenstion of the Deity. The two names of God differ grammatically with regard to sexual connotation… The Tetragrammaton (YHVH)…is…feminine; it refers to God as if “He” were in fact “She.” Yet, as we have frequently noted, the Lord is also called ELoHiYM. That name ends with…masculine plural… If human beings are created in God’s image, and the single most important thing we know about God is that He is One – why did God create two kinds of people, male and female, after His likeness? …God chose to create two different kinds of people on this earth, not in spite of the fact that He is One, but precisely because God in the deepest sense of the word is really two. Of course we do not suggest any kind of dualism implying separate identities. Rather, as the very names of God imply, there are two distinct aspects to the Deity. God is both masculine and feminine. This gender difference is not one of physical attributes but one of emotion and typology.<ref>Benjamin Blech, Understanding Judaism, page 273.</ref>}}

			The oldest of the Hindu scriptures is the '']'' (2nd millennium BC). The first word of the Rigveda is the name ], the god of fire, to whom many of the vedic hymns are addressed, along with ] the warrior. Agni and Indra are both male divinities.
	] and many ]
	hold that it is wrong to use ] female pronouns for God, viewing such usage as an intrusion of modern feminist ideology into Jewish tradition.

			The ''Rigveda'' refers to a creator (] or ]), distinct from Agni and Indra. This creator is identified with ] (not to be confused with ], the first cause), born of Vishnu's navel, in later scriptures. Hiranyagarbha and Prajapati are male divinities, as is Brahma (who has a female consort, ]).
	However, feminine characterisation of God is found in a feminist ] (Jewish prayerbook).
			]
	] ] ] (''Reform Judaism'', Winter 1991) comments:
			There are many other gods in the ''Rigveda''.<ref name="Witzel">
	{{cquote\|The experience of praying with ''Siddur Nashim'' ... transformed my relationship with God. For the first time, I understood what it meant to be made in God's image. To think of God as a woman like myself, to see Her as both powerful and nurturing, to see Her imaged with a woman's body, with womb, with breasts - this was an experience of ultimate significance. Was this the relationship that men have had with God for all these millennia? How wonderful to gain access to those feelings and perceptions.}}
			]. 2001. "." ''Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies'' 7(3):1–115. {{ISSN\|1084-7561}}.</ref>
			They are "not simple forces of nature," and possess "complex character and their own mythology."<ref name=Witzel />
			They include goddesses of water (Āpaḥ) and dawn (]), and the complementary pairing of Father Heaven and Mother Earth.<ref name=Witzel />
			However, they are all "subservient to the abstract, but active positive 'force of truth' ]]...which pervades the universe and all actions of the gods and humans."<ref name=Witzel />
			This force is sometimes mediated or represented by moral gods (the ], e.g. ]) or even Indra.<ref name=Witzel />
			The Āditya are male and Ṛta is personified as masculine in later scriptures (see also ]).

			In some Hindu philosophical traditions, God is depersonalized as the quality-less ], the fundamental life force of the universe. However, theism itself is central to Hinduism.<ref>
	Rabbi Paula Reimers ("Feminism, Judaism, and God the Mother", ''Conservative Judaism'' '''46''' (1993)) comments:
			Slater, Robert Lawson. 1964. "" (book review). '']'' 4(1):117–18. {{doi\|10.2307/1385227}}. {{JSTOR\|1385227}}.
	{{cquote\|Those who want to use God/She language want to affirm womanhood and the feminine aspect of the deity. They do this by emphasizing that which most clearly distinguishes the female experience from the male. A male or female deity can create through speech or through action, but the metaphor for creation which is uniquely feminine is birth. Once God is called female, then, the metaphor of birth and the identification of the deity with nature and its processes become inevitable}}

			'''Reviewed book''': Ashby, Philip H. ''History and Future of Religious Thought: Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam''.</ref>
	Within Judaism, these statements are controversial.

			While many Hindus focus upon God in the neutral form,{{Citation needed\|date=August 2008}} ] being of neuter gender grammatically, there are prominent Hindu traditions that conceive God as female, even as the source of the male form of God, such as the ] denomination. Hinduism, especially of the ] school, views the creation of the cosmos as the result of the play of two radically distinct principles: the feminine matter (]) and the masculine spirit (]). Prakṛti is the primordial matter which is present before the cosmos becomes manifest. Prakṛti is seen as being "the power of nature, both animate and inanimate. As such, nature is seen as dynamic energy" (Rae, 1994). Prakriti is originally passive, immobile and pure potentiality by nature . Only through her contact with the kinetic Purusha she unfolds into the diverse forms before us. The idea of Prakṛti/Purusha leads to the concept of the Divine Consort. Almost every ] of the Hindu pantheon has a feminine consort (]).<ref name="adishakti.org"/>
	Many traditional rabbinic commentators, such as ], view any such beliefs as '']'' - idolatry. Secondary male sexual characteristics are attributed to God in some ''piyuttim'' (religious poems). These include a description of the beard of God ''Shir Hakavod'', "The Hymn of Glory", and similar poetic imagery in the ] ''Song of the Seas Rabbah''. Traditional '']'' (rabbinic commentators) hold that these descriptions, like all physical descriptions of God, are metaphorical or symbolic.

			=== Sikhism ===
	Literary approaches to the Hebrew Bible have argued that parallels between Biblical stories and earlier ], ], and ] creation myths show a matriarchal substratum that has been overlayed by a patriarchal approach.<ref>Neumann, ''The Origins and History of Consciousness'' pages 177-178</ref> "In the Bible, the earth is the feminine complement of God: the two combined to form man, who articulates their relationship, for example, in sacrifice."<ref>Francis Landy, The Song of Songs chapter of ''The Literary Guide to the Bible'', page 314.</ref>
			{{Main\|Gender of God in Sikhism}}The scripture of ] is the ]. Printed as a heading for the Guru Granth, and for each of its major divisions, is the ], a short summary description of ], in Punjabi. Sikh tradition has it that this was originally composed by ] (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism.

			: {{langx\|pa\|ੴ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਨਿਰਭਉ ਨਿਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ ॥}}
	Jewfaq.org sees God as entirely without form or division, and therefore sees God as having neither sex or gender.<ref>
			: ]: ''{{IAST\|Ika ōaṅkāra sati nāmu karatā purakhu nirabha'u niravairu akāla mūrati ajūnī saibhaṃ gura prasādi.}}''
	"G-d has no body, no genitalia, therefore the very idea that G-d is male or female is patently absurd. We refer to G-d using masculine terms simply for convenience's sake, because Hebrew has no neutral gender; G-d is no more male than a table is." </ref> While God is referred to in the Hebrew Bible with masculine grammatical forms, and with male imagery, Aryeh Kaplan believes this is due to the fact that Hebrew lacks a neuter grammatical form.<ref>"The fact that we always refer to God as 'He' is also not meant to imply that the concept of sex or gender applies to God." Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan, ''The Aryeh Kaplan Reader'', Mesorah Publications (1983), p. 144</ref>
			: English: One Universal God, The Name Is Truth, The Creator, Fearless, Without Hatred, Image Of The Timeless One, Beyond Birth, Self-Existent, By Guru's Grace.
			:
			: According to Sikhi, God has "No" Gender. Mool Mantar describes God as being "Ajuni" (lit. not in any incarnations) which implies that God is not bound to any physical forms. This concludes: the All-pervading Lord is Gender-less.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=IS GOD MALE OR FEMALE? \|url=https://www.gurbani.org/articles/webart270.htm \|access-date=2017-12-08 \|website=www.gurbani.org \|language=en}}</ref>

			{{Blockquote\|text=ਸੁੰਨ ਮੰਡਲ ਇਕੁ ਜੋਗੀ ਬੈਸੇ ॥ ਨਾਰਿ ਨ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਕਹਹੁ ਕੋਊ ਕੈਸੇ ॥ ਤ੍ਰਿਭਵਣ ਜੋਤਿ ਰਹੇ ਲਿਵ ਲਾਈ ॥ ਸੁਰਿ ਨਰ ਨਾਥ ਸਚੇ ਸਰਣਾਈ ॥
	== Christianity, and other New Testament related beliefs ==
			Sunn mandal ik Yogi baiseh. Naar nuh purakhu kahahu kou kaiseh. Tribhavan joth raheh liv laaee. Suri nar naath sacheh saranaaee

			The Yogi, the Primal Lord, sits in the Realm of Absolute Stillness (state free of mind's wanderings or Phurne). (Since God) is neither male nor female; how can anyone describe Him? The three worlds center their attention on His Light. The godly beings and the Yogic masters seek the Sanctuary of this True Lord.\|sign=SGGS. Ang 685}}However, the Guru Granth Sahib consistently refers to God as "He" and "Father" (with some exceptions), typically because the Guru Granth Sahib was written in north Indian ]s (] of ] and ], ] with influences of ]) which have no neutral gender. English translations of the teachings may eliminate any gender specifications. From further insights into the Sikh philosophy, it can be deduced that God is, sometimes, referred to as the Husband to the Soul-brides, in order to make a patriarchal society understand what the relationship with God is like. Also, God is considered to be the Father, Mother, and Companion.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web \|title=God's Gender \|url=http://www.sikhwomen.com/equality/GodsGender.htm \|access-date=2017-12-08 \|website=www.sikhwomen.com}}</ref>
	=== Majority usage ===

			== Other ==
	], ].]]
	In Christianity, the ] is the primary source of beliefs about God.
	Perhaps the two most significant debates in Christian history
	sought to understand what the New Testament implied regarding:{{Fact\|date=June 2008}}
	* Jesus as both God and man (]); and
	* God as three persons in unity — the ].<ref>
	This debate was most active as the ], and was addressed by the ].</ref>

			=== Unificationism ===
	The three persons of the Trinity are ], ], and God the ].
			] views God, the Creator, as having dual characteristics of masculinity and femininity. Since an artist, like God, can only express that which is within the boundaries of their own nature, and according to Genesis 1:27, "So God created mankind in his own image, male and female he created them", indicating that God's image includes both male and female attributes.
	The names "God the Father" and "God the Son", derived from the New Testament, clearly imply masculinity.
	In the case of the Son, masculinity is reinforced by the belief in his ] as the man, Jesus of Nazareth.
	The New Testament also refers to the Holy Spirit as masculine in number of places, most clearly in the ] 14-16.<ref>
	Nestle and others, '']'', 27th ed.,
	(Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgeselschaft, 1993).</ref>
	John reports Jesus referring to the Holy Spirit as ''Comforter'' (masculine in Greek),
	and uses grammatically necessary masculine forms of the Greek pronoun ''autos''.<ref name="Mounce">
	William D Mounce, ''The Morphology of Biblical Greek'',
	(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), pp. 241-242</ref>
	], on its own, says nothing about ].
	However, when John reports Jesus speaking of the Holy Spirit as ''Spirit'',
	grammatically neuter in Greek,<ref>John 14:26; 15:26; 16:13-14.</ref>
	he uses the masculine form of the demonstrative pronoun ''ekeinos'' ("that male one").<ref name="Mounce"/>
	This breaking of the grammatical agreement, expected by native language readers,
	is an indication of the authorial intention
	to convey the personhood of the Holy Spirit,
	and also the Spirit's masculinity.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Grudem\|first=Wayne\|title=Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine\|origyear=1995\|publisher=Zondervan\|location=Grand Rapids\|pages=232\|isbn=0310286700}}</ref>

			Due to the more active role of masculinity, mankind typically portrays God as male, but the more receptive or supportive and nurturing role within God's characteristics is less emphasized or even neglected or ignored in writings and in art.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Moon \|first=Sun Myung \|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34446768 \|title=Sermons of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon. \|date=1994 \|publisher=Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity \|isbn=0-910621-73-X \|location=New York \|oclc=34446768}}</ref>
	These texts were particularly significant when Christians were debating
	whether the New Testament teaches that the Holy Spirit is a fully divine person, or some kind of "force".
	All major English Bible translations have retained the masculine pronoun for the Spirit, as in John 16:13:
	{\| class="wikitable collapsible" align="center"
	\|-
	!Version!!Text
	\|-
	\|\|] (17th century)
	\|\|Howbeit when he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth:<br>
	for he shall not speak of himself; but whatsoever he shall hear, that shall he speak:<br>
	and he will shew you things to come.
	\|-
	\|\|] (1963)
	\|\|But when He, the Spirit of truth, comes, He will guide you into all the truth;<br>
	for He will not speak on His own initiative, but whatever He hears, He will speak;<br>
	and He will disclose to you what is to come.
	\|-
	\|\|] (1970)<br>Roman Catholic
	\|\|But when he comes, the Spirit of truth, he will guide you to all truth.<br>
	He will not speak on his own, but he will speak what he hears,<br>
	and will declare to you the things that are coming.
	\|-
	\|\|] (1989)<br>Gender neutral<ref>One of the NRSV's Principles of Revision is the use of ] to refer to human beings.
	"Many in the churches have become sensitive to the danger of linguistic sexism arising form the inherent bias of the English language towards the masculine gender, a bias that in the case of the Bible has often restricted or obscured the meaning of the original text. ... The mandates from the Division specified that, in references to men and women, masculine-oriented language should be eliminated as far as this can be done without altering passages that reflect the historical situation of ancient patriarchal culture." 'To the Reader', NRSV.</ref>
	\|\|When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth;<br>
	for he will not speak on his own, but will speak whatever he hears,<br>
	and he will disclose to you the things that are to come.
	\|-
	\|}

			=== Animist religions ===
	The ] (CCC) states, in reference to the Father as revealed by the Son that: "God transcends the human distinction between the sexes. He is neither man nor woman: he is God."<ref name="CCCs239">"Deum humanam sexuum transcendere distinctionem. Ille nec vir est nec femina, Ille est Deus." From "Pater per Filium revelatus", ''Catechismus Catholicae Ecclesiae''. (Citta del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1993): 1-2-1-1-2 ¶ 239. ()</ref>
			] are common among oral societies, many of which still exist in the 21st century. Typically, natural forces and ] spiritual guides feature in these religions, rather than fully-fledged personal divinities with established personalities. It is in ] that such deities are found. Animist religions often, but not always, attribute gender to spirits considered to permeate the world and its events. Polytheistic religions, however, almost always attribute gender to their gods, though a few notable divinities are associated with various forms of ] characteristics—gods that manifest alternatingly as male and female, gods with one male and one female "face", and gods whose most distinctive characteristic is their unknown gender.<ref>
	This makes it clear that God has masculine '']'', rather than male biological '']'';
			"We are yet more strongly reminded by the two-fold nature of Phanes of the epicene god-heads, who occur frequently in the Babylonian pantheon."
	as indicated by the pronoun ''He'' in the official English translation of ''Ille'' in the Latin original.<ref>
	Regarding the masculine sense of ''ille'' in Latin, the following classic reference can be consulted.
	Aureliano Buendía, , '']'' '''148''' (1998).</ref>
	The specific masculine role the CCC discusses is fatherhood.<ref name=CCCs239 /> It notes, however, that God is not limited to this role alone—maternal ]s are also used in the Bible.<ref name=CCCs239 /> It also notes that human fatherhood only imperfectly reflects God's archetypal fatherhood.<ref name=CCCs239 />
	God is referred to as masculine in Catholic teaching and practice.<ref>
	''''</ref>

			Banerjee, Gauranga Nath. 2007. ''Hellenism in Ancient India''. Read Books. p. 304.</ref>
	On the other hand, use of "feminine" imagery (like the personification of divine wisdom in Proverbs) has been expanded upon by some Christian writers. In Syrian Christianity, the ] uses the grammatically feminine word ''ruah'' for the Spirit. This and the occasionally associated "hovering" and "dove" imagery of the Bible, led some ] theologians, such as ] and ], to use explicitly maternal language for the Spirit.<ref>Susan Ashbrook Harvey, "Feminine Imagery for the Divine: The Holy Spirit, the Odes of Solomon, and Early Syriac Tradition," ''St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly'' 37, nos. 2-3 (1993): 111-120.</ref>
	Eastern Orthodox theologian Susan Ashbrook Harvey
	considers grammatical gender itself to be significant in early Syrian Christianity: "It seems clear that for the Syrians, the cue from grammar — ''ruah'' as a feminine noun — was not entirely gratuitous. There was real meaning in calling the Spirit 'She.'"<ref>Harvey, "Feminine Imagery," 136.</ref>
	Some documentation of the ] heresy known as ] has survived, also in Syriac, where the '']'' use feminine imagery for the Spirit.

	=== ~~Recent~~ ~~Inclusive Language Usage~~ ===		=== Feminist spirituality ===
			In her essay "Why Women Need the Goddess", ] argues the notion of there having been an ancient religion of a supreme goddess.<ref>] 1978. "." ] (The Great Goddess Issue):8–13. .

			— Pp. 273–87 in Womanspirit Rising: A Feminist Reader on Religion, edited by C. P. Christ and ]. San Francisco: ]. 1979.
	{{Cleanup-section\|date=July 2008}}

			— Pp. 117–32 in ''Laughter of Aphrodite: Reflections on a Journey to the Goddess''. San Francisco: Harper & Row. 1987.</ref> The essay was first presented in the spring of 1978 as a ] for the "Great Goddess Re-emerging" conference at the ]. Christ also co-edited the classic ] anthologies ''Weaving the Visions: New Patterns in Feminist Spirituality'' (1989) and ''Womanspirit Rising'' (1979/1989), the latter of which include her 1978 essay.
	A few recent theologians, while retaining masculine reference to Father and Son, have explored feminine alternatives for the Holy Spirit. Some have related this to perceived maternal functions in Scripture or Christian tradition. These include: ],<ref>Clark H. Pinnock, "The Role of the Spirit in Creation," ''Asbury Theological Journal'' 52 (Spring 1997), 47-54.</ref>
	Thomas N. Finger,<ref>Thomas N. Finger, ''Christian Theology:An Eschatological Approach'' vol. 2 (Scottdale, Penn.:Herald, 1987), 483-490.</ref>
	],<ref>Jurgen Moltmann, ''The Spirit of Life: A Universal Affirmation'' (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 157-158.</ref>
	Yves M.J. Congar,<ref>Yves M.J. Congar, ''I Believe in the Holy Spirit,'' vol. 3 (New York: Seabury, 1983), 155-164.</ref>
	John J. O'Donnell,<ref>John J. O'Donnell, ''The Mystery of the Triune God'' (London:Sheed & Ward, 1988), 97-99.</ref>
	Donald L. Gelpi,<ref>Donald L. Gelpi, ''The Divine Mother: A Trinitarian Theology of the Holy Spirit'' (New York:University Press of America, 1984).</ref>
	R.P. Nettlehorst,<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref>
	and Evan Randolph.<ref></ref><ref></ref>

	Recently, a few ] denominations have adopted or encouraged the use of inclusive language (such as both feminine and masculine language, or non-gendered language) when referring to God; these include the ], the ]<ref> (2003), Section on "Terms for God: Inclusive langage"</ref> and the ]. ], the hymnal of the United Church of Christ (UCC), uses inclusive language; one of its concerns while being authored was reducing the solely-masculine use of language for God, and/or balancing masculine images with feminine and non-gendered images, while retaining masculine imagery for Jesus regarding his earthly life. At least two UCC conferences (Massachusetts<ref>{{cite web\|title = Inclusive Language Guidelines\|url=http://www.macucc.org/leadership/inclusive_language.htm\| accessdate = 2008-07-09\|publisher=Massachusetts Conference, United Church of Christ}}</ref> and Ohio<ref>{{cite web\|title = Inclusive Language Guidelines\|url=http://www.ocucc.org/Resources/InclusiveGuide.htm\| accessdate = 2008-07-09 \|publisher=Ohio Conference - United Church of Chris }}</ref>) have adopted guidelines for using inclusive language, and the majority of clergy and laity in the UCC report using inclusive language when referring to God during worship<ref>, United Church of Christ.</ref>. The ] encourages inclusive language<ref>{{cite web\|author=Rev. Dr. Jeffrey Pulling\|title=Study Guide To Inclusive Language\|url=http://www.mccchurch.org/AM/Template.cfm?template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=2587\|accessdate=2008-07-09\|publisher\|UFMCC}}</ref> and uses "God - our Parent-Creator", "Jesus Christ the only begotten son of God", and "the Holy Spirit" in its Statement of Faith to refer to the three persons of the ]<ref>{{cite web\|title=Metropolitan Community Church Statement of Faith\|url=http://www.mccchurch.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=About_Us&Template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=695\|accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>.

	The Inclusive Language Lectionary, published by the ], states in its introduction "The God worshiped by the biblical authors and worshiped in the church today cannot be regarded as having gender, race, or color."<ref>{{cite book\|title=An inclusive-language lectionary: Readings for Year B\|edition=Revised edition\|publisher=National Council of Churches\|pages=12\|isbn=978-0664240592}}</ref>

	=== Mormonism ===

	{{Main\|Godhead (Latter Day Saints)}}
	],
	teaches that both ] and ] have distinct, perfect, immortal, physical male bodies.
	Mormons consider the empty tomb proof that God the Son has a body,
	transformed by the resurrection to power, glory and immortality.
	They teach that the Son, though glorified, was able to show his body to humans,
	eat with them, drink with them, and allow them to touch him as a witness that he had taken his body up,
	a body with which he later ascended to heaven, a body that he has never again laid aside.
	The ] has a spirit body, not a physical body, and is also considered to be male.
	One Mormon hymn refers to a ], partnered to the Father.<ref>
	Eliza R Snow, ''Hymns of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints'' #292, 1985.</ref>
	The official doctrine of the Church is that prayers should be directed to the Father
	in the name of the Son by the power of the Spirit.
	The Heavenly Mother is not worshipped.
	*See also ].

	=== Messianic Judaism ===

	The B'nai Yashua Synagogues Worldwide<ref></ref>, a ] group headed by Rabbi Moshe Koniuchowsky, holds to the feminine view of the Holy Spirit. <ref></ref><ref></ref>

	There are also some other independent Messianic groups with similar teachings. Some examples include Joy In the World<ref></ref><ref></ref>; The Torah and Testimony Revealed<ref></ref>; Messianic Judaism - The Torah and the Testimony Revealed<ref></ref>; and he Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues<ref></ref> <ref></ref>, who also count as canonical the ] which has the unique feature of referring to the Holy Spirit as Jesus' Mother <ref></ref>.

	=== Other variations ===

	While being small in number (and not "]" in the modern sense), there are some Christian groups whose thinking in regards to the gender of the Holy Spirit is, in part, based on the understanding that the Hebrew word for Spirit, ''ruach'', is feminine, and that is then based upon skepticism toward ] for the New Testament. They are skeptical of the neuter Greek word for "spirit" (Greek ''pneuma''), and the masculine Latin word, because the ''logos'' ("oracles" or "words") of God were are said to be given unto the Jews ({{bibleverse\|\|Romans\|3:1-2\|}}).

	Foremost among these groups, and the most vocal on the subject are the ], ]. In 1977, one of their leaders, ], began to formally teach that a feminine Holy Spirit is the heavenly pattern of women. In her many studies and talks she cited numerous scholars and researchers from Jewish, Christian, and other sources.

	They see in the creation of Adam and Eve a literal image and likeness of the invisible Godhead, male and female, who is "clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" ({{bibleverse\|\|Romans\|1:20\|}}). They take the Oneness of God to mean the "familial" unity which exists between them, which unity is not seen in any other depiction of the Godhead by the various non-Hebrew peoples.

	Thus, having a Father and Mother in heaven, they see that the Bible shows that those Parents had a Son born unto them before the creation of the world, by Whom all things were created.<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref>.

	These concepts are also taught among other groups, to one degree or another.

	== Islam ==

	{{Main\|God in Islam}}

	The oneness of God is of primary importance in the ] and Islam. In Qur'an, Allah is most often referred to with the pronouns ''Hu'' or ''Huwa'', and although these are commonly translated as ''him'' they can also be translated gender-neutrally, as ''it''. This is also true of the feminine equivalent, ''Hiya''. Allah is neither male nor female, and is said to transcend gender. It is considered blasphemy for Allah to be placed in a human or animal sexual gender category. "''...Hu births not nor is Hu born, there is none like unto Hu''" Surah 112 Qur'an.
	Other references include the first person pronoun, and the ] ''ma'' (''that which''), as in the phrase "the heavens and that which created them" (surah Shams (91), verse 5).

	== Sikhism ==

	{{Main\|God in Sikhism}}

	The scripture of ] is the ] (GG). Printed as a heading for the Guru Granth, and for each of its major divisions, is the ], a short summary description of God, in Punjabi. Sikh tradition has it that this was originally composed by ] (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism.
	:{{lang-pa\|ੴ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਨਿਰਭਉ ਨਿਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ ॥}}
	:]: ''{{IAST\|Ika ōaṅkāra sati nāmu karatā purakhu nirabha'u niravairu akāla mūrati ajūnī saibhaṃ gura prasādi.}}''
	:English: One Universal Creator God, The Name Is Truth, Creative Being Personified, No Fear, No Hatred, Image Of The Timeless One, Beyond Birth, Self-Existent, By Guru's Grace.
	The sixth word of the mantra, ''purakhu'', is the Punjabi form of ] ''{{IAST\|puruṣa}}'' (पुरुष), meaning man (personal and male). Verse 5 of a 16 verse hymn in the 10th '']'' (or cycle) of the Sanskrit ] (RV) called '']'', speaks of a primal man, Puruṣa, from whom Viraj (woman) was born, being himself then reborn of her.
	*From him Viraj was born; again Purusa from Viraj was born. (RV 10:90:5)
	The masculine gender sense of ''purakhu'' in the Mantra is found in a verse like the following.
	*That house, in which the soulbride has married her Husband Lord—in that house, O my companions, sing the songs of rejoicing. (GG 4:3:10, p. 97.)
	*You are the Husband Lord, and I am the soul-bride. (GG ::, p. 484.)

	Irrespective of the native language meaning of the Mantra, the standard English translation neutralises the implied gender role. Nonetheless, the Guru Granth consistently refers to God as ''He'', even in English. He is also almost uniformly referred to as ''Father''.
	*In attachment to ], they have forgotten the Father, the Cherisher of the World. (GG 4:9:42)
	*You are our Self-sufficient Father. \|\| 2 \|\| O Father, I do not know—how can I know Your Way? (GG 4:26:96, p. 51.)
	*You are the Universal Father of all, O my Lord and Master. (GG ::)
	Some of these references are inclusive, where God is both Mother and Father.
	*The One is my Brother, the One is my Friend. The One is my Mother and Father. The One is the Support of the mind; He has given us body and soul. May I never forget God from my mind; He holds all in the Power of His Hands. (GG 4:8:78)
	*Relying on Your Mercy, Dear Lord, I have indulged in sensual pleasures. Like a foolish child, I have made mistakes. O Lord, You are my Father and Mother. (GG 4:26:96)
	There is at least one reference to God as Mother, without reference to his fatherhood.
	*"O my wandering mind, you are like a camel - how will you meet the Lord, your Mother?" page 234

	== See also ==		== See also ==
			* ]

	* ]
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ], ]
			* ]
	* ]		* ]
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	* ]		* ]
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			* '']''
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			== References ==

			=== Notes ===
			{{Reflist\|group=lower-alpha}}

	== ~~Notes and references~~ ==		=== Verses ===
			{{Reflist\|group=lower-roman\|colwidth=20em}}

			=== Citations ===
	{{Reflist}}		{{Reflist}}

	== Further reading ==		== Further reading ==
			* Berke, Matthew. 1996. "." '']'' 64:33–38.

			* ] 1984. ''Male and Female God Created Them: Equality with Distinction''. University Papers. Los Angeles: ]. pp. 13–23.
	* Berke, Matthew. 'God and Gender in Judaism'. In ''First Things'', 1996.
			* ]. 1982. Grand Rapids, MI: ].
	* ] ''Male and Female God Created Them: Equality with Distinction''. University Papers. Los Angeles: University of Judaism, 1984, pp. 13-23.
			* Harlow, Jules. 1997. "Feminist Linguistics and Jewish Liturgy." '']'' 49:3–25.
	* Eller, Vernard. Grand Rapids, Michigan: ], 1982.
			* Johnson, Elizabeth. 1984. "." '']'' 45:441–65.
	* Harlow, Jules. 'Feminist Linguistics and Jewish Liturgy'. ''Conservative Judaism'' '''49''' (1997): 3-25.
			* ]. 2000. "God, Arguments for the Existence of." '']''. London: ].
	* Johnson, Elizabeth. ''Theological Studies'' '''45''' (1984): 441-465.
			* Sameth, Mark. 2020.
	* ]. "God, Arguments for the Existence of". ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. ], 2000.
	* ] "God". In ~~] (ed.).~~ ''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy''. ]~~, 1995~~.		* ] 1995. "God." In '']'', edited by ]. Oxford: ].

	== External links ==		== External links ==
			{{wikiquote\|God\|God}}
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			* Mouser, William E. " {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026064444/http://www.fiveaspects.org/articles/masculine.html \|date=26 October 2016 }}". , 2007.

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Latest revision as of 18:56, 14 December 2024

Part of a series on

Theism

Types of faith

Specific conceptions

In particular religions

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Attributes

Experiences
Practices

Abrahamic religions

In the Hebrew and Christian Bible, God is usually described in male terms in biblical sources, with female analogy in Genesis 1:26–27, Psalm 123:2-3, and Luke 15:8–10; a mother in Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2; and a mother hen in Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34, although never directly referred to as being female.

Judaism

Main article: Gender of God in Judaism

Although the gender of God in Judaism is referred to in the Tanakh with masculine imagery and grammatical forms, traditional Jewish philosophy does not attribute the concept of sex to God. At times, Jewish aggadic literature and Jewish mysticism do treat God as gendered. The ways in which God is gendered have also changed across time, with some modern Jewish thinkers viewing God as outside of the gender binary. Guillaume Postel (16th century), Michelangelo Lanci (19th century), and Mark Sameth (21st century) theorize that the four letters of the personal name of God, YHWH, are a cryptogram which the priests of ancient Israel would have read in reverse as huhi, "heshe", signifying a dual-gendered deity.

Christianity

Main article: Gender of God in Christianity

Most Christian groups conceive of God as Triune, believing that God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit are distinct persons, but one being that is wholly God.

God the Son (Jesus Christ), having been incarnated as a human man, is masculine. Classical western philosophy believes that God lacks a literal sex as it would be impossible for God to have a body (a prerequisite for sex). However, Classical western philosophy states that God should be referred to (in most contexts) as masculine by analogy; the reason being God's relationship with the world as begetter of the world and revelation (i.e. analogous to an active instead of receptive role in sexual intercourse). Others interpret God as neither male nor female.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church, Book 239, states that God is called "Father", while his love for man may also be depicted as motherhood. However, God ultimately transcends the human concept of sex, and "is neither man nor woman: He is God."

In contrast to most Christian denominations, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teaches that God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit are physically distinct while being one in purpose. LDS Church members also believe that God the Father is married to a divine woman, referred to as "Heavenly Mother." Humans are considered to be spirit children of these heavenly parents.

The Holy Spirit

Main article: Gender of the Holy Spirit

The New Testament refers to the Holy Spirit as masculine in a number of places, where the masculine Greek word "Paraclete" occurs, for "Comforter", most clearly in the Gospel of John, chapters 14 to 16. These texts were particularly significant when Christians were debating whether the New Testament teaches that the Holy Spirit is a fully divine person, or some kind of "force." All major English Bible translations have retained the masculine pronoun for the Spirit, as in John 16:13. Although it has been noted that in the original Greek, in some parts of John's Gospel, the neuter Greek word pneuma is also used for the Spirit.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS) doctrine teaches that God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit are three distinct and separate beings. LDS God has a physical body, and thus is not only identified as being a man, but has a physical sex, that being male. The same is for Jesus, God's son, but not for the Holy Spirit, which has a spiritual form. God is also married to the Heavenly Mother. It is unknown if she has a physical body or defined sex like God. However, she is identified as the "mother" and uses she/her pronouns, so it can be assumed that she is viewed as a woman or womanly figure in opposition to God's male figure. LDS believers do not pray to the Heavenly Mother, as God is the one who hears and answers prayers. However, those who view the Heavenly Mother as part of the Godhead risk excommunication, even though the LDS website claims that they honor her Godhood. It should also be noted that the Heavenly Mother's exact role is unknown. For example, it is unknown if she is an equal partner to God, also partaking in creation, or if she reflect a human woman's role to a human man's, that of submission. The LDS believe that redeemed humans can ascend to godhood, which is what Jesus did.

Islam

Main article: God in Islam Further information: Heavenly Quran

Islam teaches that God (Allah) is beyond any comparison, transcendent, and thus God is beyond any gender attributes. Arabic only possesses gendered pronouns ("he" and "she") but does not have gender neutral pronouns ("it"), and "he" is typically used in cases where the subject's gender is indeterminate. Thus, Allah is typically referred to as "he", despite not having any gender attributes.

The Baháʼí Faith

In the Baháʼí Faith, Baha'u'llah uses the Mother as an attribute of God: "He Who is well-grounded in all knowledge, He Who is the Mother, the Soul, the Secret, and the Essence". Baha'u'llah further writes that "Every single letter proceeding out of the mouth of God is indeed a Mother Letter, and every word uttered by Him Who is the Well Spring of Divine Revelation is a Mother Word, and His Tablet a Mother Tablet." The Primal Will of God is personified as the maid of heaven in the Baháʼí writings.

Indian religions

Hinduism

Main article: God and gender in Hinduism

In Hinduism, there are diverse approaches to conceptualizing God and gender. Many Hindus focus upon impersonal Absolute (Brahman) which is genderless. Other Hindu traditions conceive God as androgynous (both female and male), alternatively as either male or female, while cherishing gender henotheism, that is without denying the existence of other Gods in either gender.

The Shakti tradition conceives of God as a female. Other Bhakti traditions of Hinduism have both male and female gods. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine deva of the Hindu pantheon is partnered with a feminine who is often a devi.

The oldest of the Hindu scriptures is the Rigveda (2nd millennium BC). The first word of the Rigveda is the name Agni, the god of fire, to whom many of the vedic hymns are addressed, along with Indra the warrior. Agni and Indra are both male divinities.

The Rigveda refers to a creator (Hiranyagarbha or Prajapati), distinct from Agni and Indra. This creator is identified with Brahma (not to be confused with Brahman, the first cause), born of Vishnu's navel, in later scriptures. Hiranyagarbha and Prajapati are male divinities, as is Brahma (who has a female consort, Saraswati).

There are many other gods in the Rigveda. They are "not simple forces of nature," and possess "complex character and their own mythology." They include goddesses of water (Āpaḥ) and dawn (Uṣas), and the complementary pairing of Father Heaven and Mother Earth. However, they are all "subservient to the abstract, but active positive 'force of truth' ...which pervades the universe and all actions of the gods and humans." This force is sometimes mediated or represented by moral gods (the Āditya, e.g. Varuṇa) or even Indra. The Āditya are male and Ṛta is personified as masculine in later scriptures (see also Dharma).

In some Hindu philosophical traditions, God is depersonalized as the quality-less Nirguna Brahman, the fundamental life force of the universe. However, theism itself is central to Hinduism.

While many Hindus focus upon God in the neutral form, Brahman being of neuter gender grammatically, there are prominent Hindu traditions that conceive God as female, even as the source of the male form of God, such as the Shakta denomination. Hinduism, especially of the Samkhya school, views the creation of the cosmos as the result of the play of two radically distinct principles: the feminine matter (Prakṛti) and the masculine spirit (Purusha). Prakṛti is the primordial matter which is present before the cosmos becomes manifest. Prakṛti is seen as being "the power of nature, both animate and inanimate. As such, nature is seen as dynamic energy" (Rae, 1994). Prakriti is originally passive, immobile and pure potentiality by nature . Only through her contact with the kinetic Purusha she unfolds into the diverse forms before us. The idea of Prakṛti/Purusha leads to the concept of the Divine Consort. Almost every deva of the Hindu pantheon has a feminine consort (devi).

Sikhism

Main article: Gender of God in Sikhism

The scripture of Sikhism is the Guru Granth Sahib. Printed as a heading for the Guru Granth, and for each of its major divisions, is the Mul Mantra, a short summary description of God, in Punjabi. Sikh tradition has it that this was originally composed by Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism.

Punjabi: ੴ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਨਿਰਭਉ ਨਿਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ ॥

ISO 15919: Ika ōaṅkāra sati nāmu karatā purakhu nirabha'u niravairu akāla mūrati ajūnī saibhaṃ gura prasādi.

English: One Universal God, The Name Is Truth, The Creator, Fearless, Without Hatred, Image Of The Timeless One, Beyond Birth, Self-Existent, By Guru's Grace.

According to Sikhi, God has "No" Gender. Mool Mantar describes God as being "Ajuni" (lit. not in any incarnations) which implies that God is not bound to any physical forms. This concludes: the All-pervading Lord is Gender-less.

ਸੁੰਨ ਮੰਡਲ ਇਕੁ ਜੋਗੀ ਬੈਸੇ ॥ ਨਾਰਿ ਨ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਕਹਹੁ ਕੋਊ ਕੈਸੇ ॥ ਤ੍ਰਿਭਵਣ ਜੋਤਿ ਰਹੇ ਲਿਵ ਲਾਈ ॥ ਸੁਰਿ ਨਰ ਨਾਥ ਸਚੇ ਸਰਣਾਈ ॥
Sunn mandal ik Yogi baiseh. Naar nuh purakhu kahahu kou kaiseh. Tribhavan joth raheh liv laaee. Suri nar naath sacheh saranaaee
The Yogi, the Primal Lord, sits in the Realm of Absolute Stillness (state free of mind's wanderings or Phurne). (Since God) is neither male nor female; how can anyone describe Him? The three worlds center their attention on His Light. The godly beings and the Yogic masters seek the Sanctuary of this True Lord.
— SGGS. Ang 685

However, the Guru Granth Sahib consistently refers to God as "He" and "Father" (with some exceptions), typically because the Guru Granth Sahib was written in north Indian Indo-Aryan languages (mixture of Punjabi and Sant Bhasha, Sanskrit with influences of Persian) which have no neutral gender. English translations of the teachings may eliminate any gender specifications. From further insights into the Sikh philosophy, it can be deduced that God is, sometimes, referred to as the Husband to the Soul-brides, in order to make a patriarchal society understand what the relationship with God is like. Also, God is considered to be the Father, Mother, and Companion.

Other

Unificationism

Unificationism views God, the Creator, as having dual characteristics of masculinity and femininity. Since an artist, like God, can only express that which is within the boundaries of their own nature, and according to Genesis 1:27, "So God created mankind in his own image, male and female he created them", indicating that God's image includes both male and female attributes.

Due to the more active role of masculinity, mankind typically portrays God as male, but the more receptive or supportive and nurturing role within God's characteristics is less emphasized or even neglected or ignored in writings and in art.

Animist religions

Animist religions are common among oral societies, many of which still exist in the 21st century. Typically, natural forces and shaman spiritual guides feature in these religions, rather than fully-fledged personal divinities with established personalities. It is in polytheism that such deities are found. Animist religions often, but not always, attribute gender to spirits considered to permeate the world and its events. Polytheistic religions, however, almost always attribute gender to their gods, though a few notable divinities are associated with various forms of epicene characteristics—gods that manifest alternatingly as male and female, gods with one male and one female "face", and gods whose most distinctive characteristic is their unknown gender.

Feminist spirituality

In her essay "Why Women Need the Goddess", Carol P. Christ argues the notion of there having been an ancient religion of a supreme goddess. The essay was first presented in the spring of 1978 as a keynote address for the "Great Goddess Re-emerging" conference at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Christ also co-edited the classic feminist religion anthologies Weaving the Visions: New Patterns in Feminist Spirituality (1989) and Womanspirit Rising (1979/1989), the latter of which include her 1978 essay.

References

Notes

"The fact that we always refer to God as 'He' is also not meant to imply that the concept of sex or gender applies to God." Kaplan, Aryeh (Rabbi). 1983. The Aryeh Kaplan Reader. Mesorah Publications. p. 144.

Verses

Citations

Pagels, Elaine H. 1976. "What Became of God the Mother? Conflicting Images of God in Early Christianity." Signs 2(2):293–303. Archived 4 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Coogan, Michael (October 2010). "6. Fire in Divine Loins: God's Wives in Myth and Metaphor". God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says (1st ed.). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-446-54525-9. Retrieved 5 May 2011. humans are modeled on elohim, specifically in their sexual differences.
Wilkinson, Robert (2015). Tetragrammaton: Western Christians and the Hebrew Name of God. Boston: Brill. p. 337. ISBN 9789004288171.
Postel, Guillame (1969). Secret, François (ed.). Le thrésor des prophéties de l'univers (in French). Springer. p. 211. ISBN 9789024702039.
Lanci, Michelangelo (1845). Paralipomeni alla illustrazione della sagra Scrittura (in Italian) (Facsimile of the first ed.). Dondey-Dupre. pp. 100–113. ISBN 978-1274016911.
Sameth, Mark (2020). The Name: A History of the Dual-Gendered Hebrew Name for God. Wipf and Stock. pp. ix, 8, 22–26. ISBN 978-1-5326-9384-7.
Grudem, Wayne A. 1994. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. p. 226.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Person" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Aquinas, Thomas. 2017. "Question 3: The simplicity of God." The Summa Theologiæ of St. Thomas Aquinas I (online ed.), translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province. article 1.
Saint Augustine of Hippo. 1885. The Confessions of Augustine VII, edited by W. G. T. Shedd. Andover: Warren F. Draper.
Lang, David; Peter Kreeft (2002). "Chapter Five: Why Male Priests?". Why Matter Matters: Philosophical and Scriptural Reflections on the Sacraments. Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 978-1931709347.
Achtemeier, P; Longstaff (1996). Harper Collins Bible Dictionary. Harper Collins. pp. 377–378. ISBN 0-06-060037-3.
Wilson, H (January 2006). "Name and Gender of God". Archived from the original on 4 June 2009. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
Bordwell, David. 2002. Catechism of the Catholic Church. Continuum International Publishing. ISBN 978-0-86012-324-8. p. 84.
• Latin: "Deum humanam sexuum transcendere distinctionem. Ille nec vir est nec femina, Ille est Deus." "Pater per Filium revelatus." Catechismus Catholicae Ecclesiae. Citta del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 1993. 1-2-1-1-2 ¶ 239. • English: "We ought therefore to recall that God transcends the human distinction between the sexes. He is neither man nor woman: God Has No Gender ." "I Believe in God the Father." Ch. 1 in Catechism of the Catholic Church I.ii. Vatican: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2003. Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine. art. 1, para. 2, li. 239.
"Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3 – Lesson 1: The Godhead". LDS Church. 1995.
Cannon, Donald Q.; Dahl, Larry; Welch, John (January 1989). "The Restoration of Major Doctrines through Joseph Smith: The Godhead, Mankind, and Creation". Ensign. LDS Church.
Hinckley, Gordon B. (November 1991). "Daughters of God". Ensign. LDS Church.
First Presidency and Council of the Twelve Apostles (23 September 1995). "Gospel Topics – The Family: A Proclamation to the World". churchofjesuschrist.org. LDS Church. Retrieved 11 December 2013. See also: The Family: A Proclamation to the World
Nestle, et al. 1993. Novum Testamentum Graece (27th ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgeselschaft.
"Catholic Exchange". 24 June 2006. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
^ Smith, Joseph (2 April 1843). "Doctrine and Covenants 130". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
^ "Mother in Heaven". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. 16 April 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
Hinckley, Gordon B. "Chapter 5: Daughters of God". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
^ Fletcher Stack, Peggy (16 May 2013). "A Mormon mystery returns: Who is Heavenly Mother?". The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
Carter, K. Codell (1992). "Encyclopedia of Mormonism". Digital Collections: BYU Library. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
Bruce B. Lawrence. Who is Allah?. University of Edinburgh Press. p. 3.
"Reference to Allah as masculine". Islamweb.
"The Kitáb-i-Íqán | Baháʼí Reference Library".
Drewek, Paula. "Feminine Forms of the Divine in Baháʼí Scriptures." Journal of Baháʼí Studies 5 (1992): 13–23.
Renard, John. 1999. Responses to 101 Questions on Hinduism. Paulist. ISBN 978-0809138456. pp. 74–76.
What is Hinduism?, p. PR17, at Google Books, Hinduism Today, Hawaii
^ "The Concept of Shakti: Hinduism as a Liberating Force for Women". www.adishakti.org.
^ Witzel, Michael. 2001. "Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts." Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7(3):1–115. ISSN 1084-7561.
Slater, Robert Lawson. 1964. "Religious theism which is central to Hinduism" (book review). Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 4(1):117–18. doi:10.2307/1385227. JSTOR 1385227. Reviewed book: Ashby, Philip H. History and Future of Religious Thought: Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam.
"IS GOD MALE OR FEMALE?". www.gurbani.org. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
"God's Gender". www.sikhwomen.com. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
Moon, Sun Myung (1994). Sermons of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon. New York: Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity. ISBN 0-910621-73-X. OCLC 34446768.
"We are yet more strongly reminded by the two-fold nature of Phanes of the epicene god-heads, who occur frequently in the Babylonian pantheon." Banerjee, Gauranga Nath. 2007. Hellenism in Ancient India. Read Books. p. 304.
Christ, Carol P. 1978. "Why Women Need the Goddess." Heresies (The Great Goddess Issue):8–13. e-text. — Pp. 273–87 in Womanspirit Rising: A Feminist Reader on Religion, edited by C. P. Christ and J. Plaskow. San Francisco: Harper & Row. 1979. — Pp. 117–32 in Laughter of Aphrodite: Reflections on a Journey to the Goddess. San Francisco: Harper & Row. 1987.

External links

God as Mother (A Christian view)
The Spirit and the Bride
God and Gender in Judaism
Mouser, William E. "Is God Masculine? Archived 26 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine". International Council for Gender Studies, 2007.

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