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{{Short description|Poland before the 10th century AD}}
{{History of Poland}} {{History of Poland}}
⚫ {{Prehistory of Poland}}


The '''prehistory and protohistory of Poland''' can be traced from the first appearance of ] species on the territory of modern-day ], to the establishment of the Polish ] in the 10th century AD, a span of roughly 500,000 years.
The '''prehistory of Poland''', or the history of ] until 966 AD, covers the period from the appearance of humans on the lands of today's Poland to the establishment of the Polish state. Although it spans at least half a million years, there is only a very limited amount of information accessible. Scientific investigations rely on the methods of ] throughout the period, and on the not very numerous written ancient and medieval sources, once they become available. The use of ] in Poland came only with the advent of ], after 966.

The area of present-day Poland went through the stages of socio-technical development known as the ], ] and ]s after experiencing the ] shifts of the ]s. The best known ] discovery from the prehistoric period is the ] ] ]. As ] civilizations began to appear in southern and western ], the ] of the area of present-day Poland were influenced by them to various degrees.

Among the peoples that inhabited various parts of Poland up to the Iron Age stage of development were ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] ]s. In the ], the area came to be dominated by ] tribes and finally became home to a number of ] ] that formed small states in the region beginning in the 8th century.

== Historiography ==
As with other early periods areas of ], knowledge of these times is limited, since few written ancient and medieval sources are available; research therefore relies primarily on ]. ] came to the Poles only after 966 AD, when the ruler of the Polish lands, Duke ], converted to ] and educated foreign clerics arrived.<ref>''Archeologia Żywa'' (Living Archeology), special English issue 2005; a publication commissioned by the ] in ]</ref>


== Stone Age == == Stone Age ==
{{main|Stone Age Poland}} {{main|Stone-Age Poland}}


Poland's ] is divided into the ], ] and ] eras.
⚫ The Stone Age era in Poland lasted five hundred thousand years and involved three different ]. The ] cultures ranged from early human groups with primitive tools to advanced ] societies using sophisticated ]s, building fortified settlements and developing ] ].


The Paleolithic era extended from c. 500,000 BC to 8,000 BC and is subdivided into four periods: the ], c. 500,000 to 350,000 BC; the ], c. 350,000 to 40,000 BC; the ], c. 40,000 to 10,000 BC; and the Final Paleolithic, c. 10,000 to 8000 BC.
⚫ == Bronze and Iron Age ==
⚫ {{main|Bronze and Iron Age Poland}}


The Mesolithic era lasted from c. 8000 to 5500 BC and the Neolithic from c. 5500 to 2300 BC.
⚫ The Bronze and Iron Age cultures in Poland are known mainly from ] research. Early ] cultures in Poland begin around 2400/2300 BC<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', p. 55, ]</ref>. The ] commences ca. 750/700 BC<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', p. 68, ]</ref>. The Iron Age archeological cultures described in the main article no longer existed by the start of the ]. The subject of the ] and linguistic affiliation of the groups living in central and eastern Europe at that time is, giving the absence of written records, speculative, and accordingly there is considerable disagreement. In Poland the most famous archeological finding from that period is the ] fortified settlement (]), representing the ] of the early Iron Age.

The Neolithic is subdivided into the Neolithic proper, c. 5500 – 2900 BC, and the ], c. 2900 – 2300 BC.<ref name="Chronology 8"/>

⚫ Poland's Stone Age lasted approximately 500,000 years and saw the appearance of three distinct ]: '']'', '']'' and ''] (])''. The Stone Age cultures ranged from early human groups with primitive tools to advanced ] and stratified societies that used sophisticated ]s, built fortified settlements and developed ] ].

As elsewhere in ], the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic stages of Poland's Stone Age were each characterized by refinements in stone-tool-making techniques. Paleolithic human activities (whose earliest sites are 500,000 years old) were intermittent because of recurring ]s. A general ] warming and a resulting increase in ] diversity were characteristic of the Mesolithic era (9000–8000 BC).

The Neolithic era ushered in the first settled agricultural communities, whose founders had migrated from the ] area beginning about 5500 BC. Later, the native post-Mesolithic populations would also adopt and further develop the agricultural way of life (between 4400 and about 2000 BC).<ref>Various authors, ed. ] and ], ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), ], Wrocław 2002, {{ISBN|83-7023-954-4}}, pp. 8-53.</ref>

⚫ == Bronze and Iron Ages ==
⚫ {{main|Bronze- and Iron-Age Poland}}

Poland's ] comprised Period I, c. 2300–1600 BC; Period II, c. 1600–1350 BC; Period III, c. 1350–1100 BC; Period IV, c. 1100–900 BC; and Period V, c. 900–700 BC. The Early ] included ] Period C, c. 700–600 BC, and Hallstatt Period D, c. 600–450 BC.<ref name="Chronology 8"/>

]]]
⚫ Poland's Bronze- and Iron-Age cultures are known mainly from ] research. Poland's Early Bronze Age cultures began around 2300-2400 BC,<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', p. 55, ]</ref> whereas the ] commenced c. 700-750 BC.<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', p. 68, ].</ref> By the beginning of the ], the Iron Age archeological cultures described in the main article no longer existed. Given the absence of written records, the ] and linguistic affiliations of the groups living in ] and ] at that time are speculative; there is considerable disagreement about their identities. In Poland, the ], which spanned the Bronze and Iron Ages, became particularly prominent. The most famous archeological discovery from that period is the ] fortified settlement ('']'') that represented early-Iron-Age Lusatian culture.<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', pp. 54-85.</ref>

Bronze objects were brought to Poland around 2300 BC from the ]. The native Early Bronze Age that followed was dominated by the innovative ] in western Poland and the conservative ] in eastern Poland. These were replaced in their respective territories for the duration of the subsequent Older Bronze Period by the (pre-Lusatian) ] and the ].

Characteristic of the remaining bronze periods were the ]s, in which skeletal burials were replaced by cremation throughout much of ]. In Poland, the ] settlements dominated the landscape for nearly a thousand years, continuing into the Early Iron Age. A series of ] invasions beginning in the 6th century BC, precipitated their demise. The Hallstatt Period D was a time of expansion for the ], while the Western Baltic ] dominated Poland's ]-] region.<ref>''Kalendarium dziejów Polski'' (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, pp. 10-11, Jacek Poleski.</ref><ref>''U źródeł Polski'', pp. 54-83, Sławomir Kadrow, Bogusław Gediga.</ref>


== Antiquity == == Antiquity ==
{{main|Poland in Antiquity}} {{main|Poland in antiquity}}


The period of the ] is subdivided into ''La Tène A'', c. 450–400 BC; ''La Tène B'', c. 400–250 BC; ''La Tène C'', c. 250–150 BC; and ''La Tène D'', c. 150–0 BC. The period from 200 to 0 BC may also be considered a younger pre-] period. It was followed by a period of Roman influence whose early stage lasted from c. 0 to 150 AD and its later stage from c. 150 to 375 AD. The period from 375 to 500 AD constitutes the (pre-]) ].<ref name="Chronology 8"/>
Peoples belonging to numerous ] identified with ], ] and ] tribes lived in various parts of Poland from about 400 BC. Other groups were no doubt also present, as ethnic composition of archeological cultures is often poorly recognized. Short of using written language, many of them developed advanced material culture and social organization. Characteristic of the period was the relatively high geographical mobility of large groups of people, even equivalents of today's nations. ] lived in today's Poland for several centuries, while many of their tribes also migrated out in the southern and eastern directions (see ]). With the expansion of the ] came also the first written remarks by Roman authors that are relevant to the developments on Polish lands. They provide additional insight when compared with the archeological record. In the end, as the Roman Empire was nearing its collapse and the nomadic peoples invading from the east destroyed, damaged or destabilized the various Germanic cultures and societies, the Germanic people left eastern and central Europe for the safer and wealthier southern and western parts of the continent. The northeast corner of modern Poland's territory was and remained populated by Baltic tribes.


Peoples belonging to numerous ] identified with ], ], ], and in some regions ]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brather | first1 = Sebastian | year = 2004 | title = The Archaeology of the Northwestern Slavs (Seventh To Ninth Centuries) | journal = East Central Europe | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 78–81 | doi = 10.1163/187633004x00116}}</ref><ref>Trubačev, O. N. 1985. ''Linguistics and Ethnogenesis of the Slavs: The Ancient Slavs as Evidenced by Etymology and Onomastics''. , 13: 203–256.</ref><ref name=Kobyliński>{{cite book |last=Kobyliński |first=Zbigniew |chapter=The Slavs |editor=Fouracre, Paul |title=The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 1: c.500–c.700 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |pages=525–526 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JcmwuoTsKO0C |isbn=978-0-521-36291-7}}</ref> tribes inhabited parts of Poland during the era of ], from about 400 BC to 450-500 AD. Other groups, difficult to identify, were most likely also present, as the ] composition of archeological cultures is often poorly recognized. Short of using a written language to any appreciable degree, many of them developed a relatively advanced material ] and ], as evidenced by the archeological record, for example by richly furnished, dynastic "princely" graves. Characteristic of this period were high rates of ], often involving large groups of people.<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', pp. 86-121.</ref>
== Early Middle Ages ==
{{main|Poland in the Early Middle Ages}}


Celtic peoples established settlements beginning in the early 4th century BC, mostly in southern Poland, the outer limit of their expansion, as representatives of the ]. With their developed economy and crafts, they exerted a lasting cultural influence disproportionate to their small numbers in the region.<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', pp. 86-93.</ref>
]
According to the currently predominant opinion, the Slavic tribes were not indigenous to the lands that were to become Poland<ref>This is the so-called ]; according to the ] the opposite is true</ref>, but their first waves settled the area of the upper ] River and elsewhere in southeastern Poland and southern ], coming from the upper and middle regions of the ] River (the ] would have come primarily from the more western early Slavic branch called the "]" by ] in '']'', the eastern branch being the "]"<ref>"Though their names are now dispersed amid various clans and places, yet they are chiefly called Sclaveni and Antes"; transl. by ], ] 1908, from the ] web site </ref>), beginning in the second half of the ]<ref name="KK-337">Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 337</ref>, some half century after these territories were vacated by ] tribes<ref name="KK-327-330, 346">Kaczanowski, Kozłowski, p. 327-330 and specifically 346</ref>. This discontinuity (a period during which human settlements on most Polish lands were absent or rare) makes the moment of appearance of the Slavs in Poland at the outset of the ] distinct and clear.


Germanic peoples lived in what is now Poland for several centuries, during which many of their tribes also migrated southward and eastward (see ]). With the expansion of the ], the Germanic tribes came under Roman cultural influence. Some written remarks by Roman authors that are relevant to developments on Polish lands have been preserved; they provide additional insights in conjunction with the archeological record. In the end, as the ] was nearing its collapse and the nomadic peoples invading from the east destroyed, damaged or destabilized the various Germanic cultures and societies, the Germanic peoples left ] and ] for the safer and wealthier southern and western parts of the ].<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', pp. 94-115.</ref> According to ] and ], the ] left the lower ] region in the mid-2nd century AD.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lampe |first1=G. W. |title=The Cambridge History of the Bible: Volume 2, The West from the Fathers to the Reformation |date=1975 |publisher=] |page=338 |chapter=The vernacular scriptures. The Gothic Bible.}}</ref>
From there the new population dispersed north and west over the course of the ]. They lived from cultivation of crops and were generally farmers, but also engaged in hunting and gathering. Their migration was probably caused by the pursuit of fertile soils and persistent attacks on eastern and central ] by waves of people and armies from the east, such as the ], ] and ].


The northeast corner of what is now Poland remained populated by ]. They were at the outer limits of any substantial cultural influence from the Roman Empire.<ref>''U źródeł Polski'', pp. 116-119.</ref>
A number of such ] formed small states beginning in the ], some of which coalesced later into larger ones. Among those were the ] (''Wiślanie'') in southern Poland with ] and ] as their main centers (major building of fortified centers and other developments in their country took place in the ]), but later the tribe or tribes referred to as the ] (''Polanie'', lit. "people of the fields") turned out to be of momentous historic importance. The tribal states built many ]s &ndash; fortified structures with earth and wood walls and embankments &ndash; from the ] onwards. Some of them were developed and inhabited, others had a very large empty area and may have served primarily as refuges in times of trouble. The Polans settled in the flatlands around ], ] and ] that eventually became the foundation and early center of Poland, lending their name to the country. They went through a period of accelerated building of fortified settlements and territorial expansion beginning in the first half of the ], and the Polish state developed from their tribal entity in the second half of that century.

] may have lived in the southern and southeastern regions, some perhaps associated with the ancient ] and ] cultures of the 3rd century BC<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brather | first1 = Sebastian | year = 2004 | title = The Archaeology of the Northwestern Slavs (Seventh To Ninth Centuries) | journal = East Central Europe | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 78–81 | doi = 10.1163/187633004x00116}}</ref><ref>Trubačev, O. N. 1985. ''Linguistics and Ethnogenesis of the Slavs: The Ancient Slavs as Evidenced by Etymology and Onomastics''. , 13: 203–256.</ref> (with the Przeworsk culture being considered likely of Slavic or of mixed Slavic and Germanic origin<ref>J. P. Mallory: Przeworsk culture. W: J. P. Mallory, D. Adams: Encyclopedia Of Indo-European Culture. Routledge, 1997, s. 470. {{ISBN|1-884964-98-2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/Sample_chapter/1405117141/Todd_sample%20chapter_The%20early%20germans.pdf |title=Land and People, p.25 |accessdate=July 30, 2005 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926222716/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/Sample_chapter/1405117141/Todd_sample%20chapter_The%20early%20germans.pdf |archivedate=September 26, 2007 }}</ref><ref>Pronk-Tiethoff, Saskia. New York 2013. . "The Przeworsk Culture has most often been considered to be Germanic or of mixed Slavic and Germanic nature." Page 64.</ref>). It has been suggested that the early Slavic peoples and languages may have originated in the region of ], which includes the area around the Belarus–Ukraine border, parts of Western Russia, and parts of far Eastern Poland.<ref name=Kobyliński /> More of Poland would be settled by Slavic tribes in later periods, in the early centuries of the common era.

==See also==
{{Portal|Poland}}
*]
*]


==References== ==References==
{{reflist|refs=<ref name="Chronology 8">], ed., ''Kalendarium dziejów Polski'' (Chronology of Polish History), ], p. 8, ], ], 1999, {{ISBN|83-08-02855-1}}.</ref>}}
'''Inline'''

<div class="references-small">
==Further reading==
<references/>
{{Main|Bibliography of the history of Poland}}
</div>

⚫ *{{in lang|pl}} Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), ], Wrocław 2002, {{ISBN|83-7023-954-4}}
⚫ *{{in lang|pl}} Piotr Kaczanowski, Janusz Krzysztof Kozłowski - ''Najdawniejsze dzieje ziem polskich (do VII w.)'' (Oldest history of Polish lands, up to the 7th century CE.), Fogra, Kraków 1998, {{ISBN|83-85719-34-2}}


==External links==
'''General'''
{{commonscat|Prehistoric Poland}}
⚫ * Various authors, ed. ] i ], ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), ], Wrocław 2002, ISBN 83-7023-954-4
⚫ * ], ] - ''Najdawniejsze dzieje ziem polskich (do VII w.)'' (Oldest history of Polish lands (till 7th century)), ], Kraków 1998, ISBN 83-85719-34-2
* ] - ''Dzieje Polski piastowskiej'' (VIII w. - 1370) (History of Piast Poland (8th century - 1370)), ], Kraków 1999, ISBN 83-85719-38-5


{{Poland topics}}
⚫ ]
{{Prehistoric Europe}}
⚫ {{Europe topic |Prehistory of}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Prehistory And Protohistory Of Poland}}
]
]
]
]
⚫ ]

Latest revision as of 15:22, 7 September 2024

Poland before the 10th century AD
Part of a series on the
History of Poland
Topics
Prehistory and protohistory
Middle Ages
Piast period10th century–1385
Jagiellonian period1385–1572
Early Modern
Early elective monarchy1572–1648
Deluge and decline1648–1764
Three partitions1764–1795
Modern
Partitioned Poland1795–1918
World War I1914–1918
Second Republic1918–1939
World War II1939–1945
Communist Poland1945–1989
Contemporary
Third Republic1989–present

Timeline of Polish history

The prehistory and protohistory of Poland can be traced from the first appearance of Homo species on the territory of modern-day Poland, to the establishment of the Polish state in the 10th century AD, a span of roughly 500,000 years.

The area of present-day Poland went through the stages of socio-technical development known as the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages after experiencing the climatic shifts of the glacial periods. The best known archeological discovery from the prehistoric period is the Lusatian-culture Biskupin fortified settlement. As ancient civilizations began to appear in southern and western Europe, the cultures of the area of present-day Poland were influenced by them to various degrees.

Among the peoples that inhabited various parts of Poland up to the Iron Age stage of development were Scythian, Celtic, Germanic, Sarmatian, Roman, Avar, Vlach and Baltic tribes. In the Early Middle Ages, the area came to be dominated by West Slavic tribes and finally became home to a number of Lechitic Polish tribes that formed small states in the region beginning in the 8th century.

Historiography

As with other early periods areas of human history, knowledge of these times is limited, since few written ancient and medieval sources are available; research therefore relies primarily on archeology. Written language came to the Poles only after 966 AD, when the ruler of the Polish lands, Duke Mieszko I, converted to Christianity and educated foreign clerics arrived.

Stone Age

Main article: Stone-Age Poland

Poland's Stone Age is divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic eras.

The Paleolithic era extended from c. 500,000 BC to 8,000 BC and is subdivided into four periods: the Lower Paleolithic, c. 500,000 to 350,000 BC; the Middle Paleolithic, c. 350,000 to 40,000 BC; the Upper Paleolithic, c. 40,000 to 10,000 BC; and the Final Paleolithic, c. 10,000 to 8000 BC.

The Mesolithic era lasted from c. 8000 to 5500 BC and the Neolithic from c. 5500 to 2300 BC.

The Neolithic is subdivided into the Neolithic proper, c. 5500 – 2900 BC, and the Copper Age, c. 2900 – 2300 BC.

Poland's Stone Age lasted approximately 500,000 years and saw the appearance of three distinct Homo species: Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens (humans). The Stone Age cultures ranged from early human groups with primitive tools to advanced agricultural and stratified societies that used sophisticated stone tools, built fortified settlements and developed copper metallurgy.

As elsewhere in Central Europe, the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic stages of Poland's Stone Age were each characterized by refinements in stone-tool-making techniques. Paleolithic human activities (whose earliest sites are 500,000 years old) were intermittent because of recurring glaciations. A general climate warming and a resulting increase in ecologic diversity were characteristic of the Mesolithic era (9000–8000 BC).

The Neolithic era ushered in the first settled agricultural communities, whose founders had migrated from the Danube River area beginning about 5500 BC. Later, the native post-Mesolithic populations would also adopt and further develop the agricultural way of life (between 4400 and about 2000 BC).

Bronze and Iron Ages

Main article: Bronze- and Iron-Age Poland

Poland's Bronze Age comprised Period I, c. 2300–1600 BC; Period II, c. 1600–1350 BC; Period III, c. 1350–1100 BC; Period IV, c. 1100–900 BC; and Period V, c. 900–700 BC. The Early Iron Age included Hallstatt Period C, c. 700–600 BC, and Hallstatt Period D, c. 600–450 BC.

Reconstructed Biskupin

Poland's Bronze- and Iron-Age cultures are known mainly from archeological research. Poland's Early Bronze Age cultures began around 2300-2400 BC, whereas the Iron Age commenced c. 700-750 BC. By the beginning of the Common Era, the Iron Age archeological cultures described in the main article no longer existed. Given the absence of written records, the ethnicities and linguistic affiliations of the groups living in Central and Eastern Europe at that time are speculative; there is considerable disagreement about their identities. In Poland, the Lusatian culture, which spanned the Bronze and Iron Ages, became particularly prominent. The most famous archeological discovery from that period is the Biskupin fortified settlement (gród) that represented early-Iron-Age Lusatian culture.

Bronze objects were brought to Poland around 2300 BC from the Carpathian Basin. The native Early Bronze Age that followed was dominated by the innovative Unetice culture in western Poland and the conservative Mierzanowice culture in eastern Poland. These were replaced in their respective territories for the duration of the subsequent Older Bronze Period by the (pre-Lusatian) Tumulus culture and the Trzciniec culture.

Characteristic of the remaining bronze periods were the Urnfield cultures, in which skeletal burials were replaced by cremation throughout much of Europe. In Poland, the Lusatian culture settlements dominated the landscape for nearly a thousand years, continuing into the Early Iron Age. A series of Scythian invasions beginning in the 6th century BC, precipitated their demise. The Hallstatt Period D was a time of expansion for the Pomeranian culture, while the Western Baltic Kurgan culture dominated Poland's Masuria-Warmia region.

Antiquity

Main article: Poland in antiquity

The period of the La Tène culture is subdivided into La Tène A, c. 450–400 BC; La Tène B, c. 400–250 BC; La Tène C, c. 250–150 BC; and La Tène D, c. 150–0 BC. The period from 200 to 0 BC may also be considered a younger pre-Roman period. It was followed by a period of Roman influence whose early stage lasted from c. 0 to 150 AD and its later stage from c. 150 to 375 AD. The period from 375 to 500 AD constitutes the (pre-Slavic) Migration Period.

Peoples belonging to numerous archeological cultures identified with Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and in some regions Slavic tribes inhabited parts of Poland during the era of classical antiquity, from about 400 BC to 450-500 AD. Other groups, difficult to identify, were most likely also present, as the ethnic composition of archeological cultures is often poorly recognized. Short of using a written language to any appreciable degree, many of them developed a relatively advanced material culture and social organization, as evidenced by the archeological record, for example by richly furnished, dynastic "princely" graves. Characteristic of this period were high rates of migration, often involving large groups of people.

Celtic peoples established settlements beginning in the early 4th century BC, mostly in southern Poland, the outer limit of their expansion, as representatives of the La Tène culture. With their developed economy and crafts, they exerted a lasting cultural influence disproportionate to their small numbers in the region.

Germanic peoples lived in what is now Poland for several centuries, during which many of their tribes also migrated southward and eastward (see Wielbark culture). With the expansion of the Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes came under Roman cultural influence. Some written remarks by Roman authors that are relevant to developments on Polish lands have been preserved; they provide additional insights in conjunction with the archeological record. In the end, as the Roman Empire was nearing its collapse and the nomadic peoples invading from the east destroyed, damaged or destabilized the various Germanic cultures and societies, the Germanic peoples left Eastern and Central Europe for the safer and wealthier southern and western parts of the European continent. According to Tacitus and Ptolemy, the Goths left the lower Vistula region in the mid-2nd century AD.

The northeast corner of what is now Poland remained populated by Baltic tribes. They were at the outer limits of any substantial cultural influence from the Roman Empire.

Slavic peoples may have lived in the southern and southeastern regions, some perhaps associated with the ancient Przeworsk and Zarubintsy cultures of the 3rd century BC (with the Przeworsk culture being considered likely of Slavic or of mixed Slavic and Germanic origin). It has been suggested that the early Slavic peoples and languages may have originated in the region of Polesia, which includes the area around the Belarus–Ukraine border, parts of Western Russia, and parts of far Eastern Poland. More of Poland would be settled by Slavic tribes in later periods, in the early centuries of the common era.

See also

References

  1. Archeologia Żywa (Living Archeology), special English issue 2005; a publication commissioned by the Centre for the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage in Warsaw
  2. ^ Andrzej Chwalba, ed., Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), Jacek Poleski, p. 8, Kraków, Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1999, ISBN 83-08-02855-1.
  3. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, Wrocław 2002, ISBN 83-7023-954-4, pp. 8-53.
  4. U źródeł Polski, p. 55, Sławomir Kadrow
  5. U źródeł Polski, p. 68, Bogusław Gediga.
  6. U źródeł Polski, pp. 54-85.
  7. Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, pp. 10-11, Jacek Poleski.
  8. U źródeł Polski, pp. 54-83, Sławomir Kadrow, Bogusław Gediga.
  9. Brather, Sebastian (2004). "The Archaeology of the Northwestern Slavs (Seventh To Ninth Centuries)". East Central Europe. 31 (1): 78–81. doi:10.1163/187633004x00116.
  10. Trubačev, O. N. 1985. Linguistics and Ethnogenesis of the Slavs: The Ancient Slavs as Evidenced by Etymology and Onomastics. Journal of Indo-European Studies (JIES), 13: 203–256.
  11. ^ Kobyliński, Zbigniew (2005). "The Slavs". In Fouracre, Paul (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 1: c.500–c.700. Cambridge University Press. pp. 525–526. ISBN 978-0-521-36291-7.
  12. U źródeł Polski, pp. 86-121.
  13. U źródeł Polski, pp. 86-93.
  14. U źródeł Polski, pp. 94-115.
  15. Lampe, G. W. (1975). "The vernacular scriptures. The Gothic Bible.". The Cambridge History of the Bible: Volume 2, The West from the Fathers to the Reformation. Cambridge University Press. p. 338.
  16. U źródeł Polski, pp. 116-119.
  17. Brather, Sebastian (2004). "The Archaeology of the Northwestern Slavs (Seventh To Ninth Centuries)". East Central Europe. 31 (1): 78–81. doi:10.1163/187633004x00116.
  18. Trubačev, O. N. 1985. Linguistics and Ethnogenesis of the Slavs: The Ancient Slavs as Evidenced by Etymology and Onomastics. Journal of Indo-European Studies (JIES), 13: 203–256.
  19. J. P. Mallory: Przeworsk culture. W: J. P. Mallory, D. Adams: Encyclopedia Of Indo-European Culture. Routledge, 1997, s. 470. ISBN 1-884964-98-2.
  20. "Land and People, p.25" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 26, 2007. Retrieved July 30, 2005.
  21. Pronk-Tiethoff, Saskia. New York 2013. The Germanic loanwords in Proto-Slavic. "The Przeworsk Culture has most often been considered to be Germanic or of mixed Slavic and Germanic nature." Page 64.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of the history of Poland
  • (in Polish) Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, Wrocław 2002, ISBN 83-7023-954-4
  • (in Polish) Piotr Kaczanowski, Janusz Krzysztof Kozłowski - Najdawniejsze dzieje ziem polskich (do VII w.) (Oldest history of Polish lands, up to the 7th century CE.), Fogra, Kraków 1998, ISBN 83-85719-34-2

External links

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Sovereign states
States with limited
recognition
Dependencies and
other entities
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