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{{Short description|CIA officer (1909–1965)}}
'''Frank Gardiner Wisner''' (], ] – ], ]) was head of ] operations in ] at the end of ], and the head of the ] of the ] during the 1950s.
{{For|the diplomat, his son|Frank G. Wisner}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Frank Wisner
| image = Frank Wisner.jpeg
| caption =
| birth_name = Frank Gardner Wisner
| branch = {{navy|USA}}
| serviceyears = 1941–1962
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1909|06|23}}
| birth_place = ], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1965|10|29|1909|06|23}}
| death_place = ], U.S.
| death_cause = ]
| battles = {{tree list}}
*]
**]
----
*]
**]
**]
{{tree list/end}}
| alma_mater = ] (], ])
| spouse = Mary Ellis Knowles
| children = 4
}}


'''Frank Gardiner Wisner''' (June 23, 1909 – October 29, 1965) was one of the founding officers of the ] (CIA) and played a major role in CIA operations throughout the 1950s.
==Education==
He was educated at ] in ],<ref name="Arlington">, at the Arlington National Cemetery website</ref> and the ], where he received both ] and ] degrees.<ref name="Theoharis">Athan Theoharis, Richard Immerman, Loch Johnson, Kathryn Olmsted, and John Prados, "The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny", Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. ISBN 0-313-33282-7 {{doi|10.1336/0313332827}}</ref>. He was also tapped for the ].<ref name="thomas">{{cite book |url=http://search.barnesandnoble.com/The-Very-Best-Men/Evan-Thomas/e/9780684810256#CHP |title=The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA |last=Thomas |first=Evan |year=1996 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0684825384}}</ref>


Wisner began his intelligence career in the ] in ]. After the war, he headed the ] (OPC), one of the OSS successor organizations, from 1948 to 1950. In 1950, the OPC was placed under the ] and renamed the ]. First headed by ], Wisner succeeded Dulles in 1951 when Dulles was named ].
==OSS==
After graduating, Wisner worked as a ] ]. In 1941, 6 months before the ], he enlisted in the ]. He worked in the Navy's censor's office until he was able to get a transfer to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).<ref name="Spartacus"></ref> He was stationed first in ], and then in ], where he became head of OSS operations in southeastern Europe. This happened just prior to the Romanian ] of ], ]. At Wisner's behest, King ] permitted the ] to fly out ] ]. On ], some 1,350 American airmen who had been held prisoners in Romania were rescued by an U.S. Air Crew Rescue Unit, with ] troops only days away from entering ]. Despite continuing fighting between Romanian and ] forces, and the presence of the ] and ] in the immediate Bucharest area, the rescue team used the ] Airfield.<ref name="Cubbins">William R. Cubbins, , ], ]</ref> Twelve ] flew out the prisoners in hourly shifts. In all, some 1,700 American POWs were rescued with the help of the Romanians.<ref name="Wadley">Patricia Louise Wadley, , Ph.D. thesis, Texas Christian University, 1993</ref>


Wisner remained as Deputy Director of Plans (DDP) until September 1958, playing an important role in the early history of the CIA. He suffered a breakdown in 1958, and retired from the Agency in 1962. He committed suicide in 1965.
Later, Wisner's main task was to spy on the activities of the Soviet Union. Wisner's agents managed to penetrate the ] and the ]'s headquarters in Bucharest.<ref name="Theoharis"/> He learned that the Soviet Union planned to take over all of ], and was disappointed at the U.S. failure to move to prevent it. He advised the Romanian royal family to go into exile.


==Education and early career ==
In March 1945, Wisner was transferred to ], where he served as OSS liaison to the ].<ref name="Theoharis"/> In 1946, he returned to law practice, joining the ] law firm of ].
Wisner was educated at the ], where he received both a ] and a ] degree.<ref name="Theoharis">Athan Theoharis, Richard Immerman, Loch Johnson, Kathryn Olmsted, and ], "The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny", Westport, Conn.: ], 2006. {{ISBN|0-313-33282-7}}</ref> He was also tapped for the ].<ref name="thomas">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/verybestmenfourw00thom_0 |title=The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA |last=Thomas |first=Evan |year=1996 |publisher=] |isbn=0-684-82538-4 |url-access=registration |author-link=Evan Thomas}}</ref> After graduating from the ] in 1934,<ref>{{cite web|title=Our History: Featured Alumni: Wisner, Frank G., 1934|url=https://libguides.law.virginia.edu/c.php?g=39996&p=254196|website=libguides.law.virginia.edu|access-date=May 2, 2018}}</ref> Wisner began working as a ] ] for ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Prados|first=John|title=Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA|date=2006|publisher=Ivan R. Dee|isbn=978-1615780112|page=|language=en|author-link=John Prados}}</ref>


==CIA== ==Career==
Wisner was recruited in 1947 by ] to join the ]'s Office of Occupied Territories. In 1948, the ] created a covert action wing, innocuously called the ] (OPC). Frank Wisner was put in charge of the operation and recruited many of his old friends from Carter Ledyard. According to its secret charter, its responsibilities include "], economic warfare, preventive direct action, including ], antisabotage, demolition and evacuation procedures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance groups, and support of indigenous ] elements in threatened countries of the free world."


=== Navy and OSS career ===
Later that year Wisner established ], a program to influence the domestic and foreign ]. In 1952, he became head of the Directorate of Plans, with ] as his chief of operations. This office had control of 75% of the CIA budget. In this position, he was instrumental in bringing about the fall of ] in ] and ] in ].<ref>, CIA History Staff document by Nicholas Cullather, 1994. Excerpt.</ref>
In 1941, six months before the ], he enlisted in the ]. He worked in the Navy's censor's office until he managed to transfer to the ] (OSS) in 1943. He was first stationed in ] where he spent an uneventful year. After Cairo (from June 15, 1944) he spent three months in OSS Istanbul, ], as head of SI (Secret Intelligence) branch. On August 29, 1944, Lt. Comdr. Wisner and 21 OSS agents landed in ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aparaschivei |first=Sorin |title=Spionajul american în România 1944-1948 |publisher=Editura Militară |year=2013 |isbn=978-973-32-0924-9 |location=Bucuresti, România |language=ro}}</ref> where he became head of OSS Bucharest.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Dill, Josh (September 2019). . ''Citizens Association of Georgetown''. page 6. Retrieved June 17, 2021.</ref>


Wisner arrived just as Romania joined the Allies and declared war on the Axis. His first task was to oversee the return of over 1,000 American airmen who had been shot down in missions against Romanian oilfields. The POWs were returned by the ] via the ] Airfield during ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.450thbg.com/real/miscellaneous/letter.shtml|title=Letters from Georgescu|author=V.C.Georgescu|website=450thbg.com|access-date=January 19, 2024|date=January 1990}}</ref> Over 50 ] airplanes flew out the prisoners between August 31 and September 3. In all, some 1,127 American POWs were transported.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iar80flyagain.org/operatiunea-reunion-ii/|title=Operatiunea Reunion (II)|language=ro|website=iar80flyagain.org|date=October 28, 2022}}</ref><ref>Patricia Louise Wadley, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405100334/http://www.aiipowmia.com/research/wadley.html |date=April 5, 2007 }}, Ph.D. thesis, Texas Christian University, 1993</ref>
The ] ], ], became jealous of the CIA's growing power. He described the OPC as "Wisner's gang of weirdos" and began carrying out investigations into their past. It did not take him long to discover that some of them had been active in ] politics in the 1930s. This information was passed to ] who started making attacks on members of the OPC. Hoover also gave McCarthy details of an affair that Wisner had with Princess ] in ] during the war; Hoover claimed that Caradja was a ] agent.<ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=The Very Best Men: The Early Years of the CIA|year=1995|pages=98-106}}</ref>


Immediately after the arrival of Major Robert Bishop (September 9, 1944) as head of X-2 (Counter Espionage) branch in Bucharest, Wisner started the search for German records. With the help of Romanian Intelligence, they manage to obtain tons of records, including SD files, 200 rolls of German film and a large amount of Soviet information. During that time, Wisner and Bishop discovered and penetrated a Soviet intelligence service named GUGBEZ. Wisner left Bucharest in the last week of January 1945.<ref name=":0">CIA FOIA ERR, </ref>
Wisner worked closely with ], the ] agent who was eventually unmasked as a Soviet spy.


In March 1945, Wisner was transferred to ]. In 1945–1946, he returned to law practice at Carter, Ledyard & Milburn.
He was also deeply involved in establishing the ] ] program run by ]<ref name="Theoharis"/>


During World War II, Wisner and his wife Polly became close friends with ] and his wife ] who after the war became publishers of '']''.<ref name=WP11072002>{{cite news |last=Levy |first=Claudia |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2002/07/11/polly-fritchey-dies/828ee107-5c37-4f78-a19f-f2c1ea76dad8/ |title=Polly Fritchey Dies |newspaper=] |date=July 11, 2002 |access-date=June 17, 2021}}</ref>
Wisner was devastated when the Soviet Union crushed the ].<ref name="Theoharis"/> Soon thereafter, he suffered a breakdown, and was diagnosed as a ]. He underwent ] and was subjected to ]. After spending 6 months at the ],<ref name="Theoharis"/> he was released in 1958.
] ] named Wisner Chief of the CIA's ] Station, but he was still suffering from mental illness.<ref name="Theoharis"/> In 1962, he was recalled to ], and agreed to retire from the CIA.


=== CIA career ===
==Personal life==
Wisner was recruited in 1947 by ] to join the ] to become the Deputy ]. On June 18, 1948, the ] approved NSC 10/2 which created the Office of Special Projects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d292|title = Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945–1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment - Office of the Historian}}</ref> On September 1, 1948, the office was formally established, although it was renamed to the ] (OPC) for obfuscation purposes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mitrovich|first=Gregory|title=Undermining the Kremlin: America's Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947–1956|date=2000|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0801437113|page=|language=en}}</ref> Wisner was chosen to lead the OPC in the capacity of Assistant Director for Policy Coordination (ADPC).<ref>{{cite book|first=Anne|last=Karalekas|title=History of the Central Intelligence Agency|date=April 23, 1976|publisher=]|page=}}</ref> The OPC initially received services from the CIA but was accountable to the State Department.<ref>, Volume XXVI, Indonesia; Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines: Note on U.S. Covert Action Programs. United States Department of State.</ref>
Wisner was born in ] to parents Frank George Wisner, a lumberman, (], ] in ] &ndash; ?) and Mary Jeanette Gardiner (], ] in Clinton, Iowa &ndash; ?). They were married on ], ] in ]. He married Mary Knowles Fritchey (], ] in ] &ndash; ], ]). They had four children: ], Ellis Wisner, Graham Wisner and Elizabeth 'Wendy' Hazard.


According to its secret charter, the OPC's responsibilities include "propaganda, economic warfare, preventive direct action, including sabotage, antisabotage, demolition and evacuation procedures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance groups, guerrillas and refugee liberation groups, and support of indigenous anti-communist elements in threatened countries of the free world."<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = GPO| last1 = Thorne| first1 = C. Thomas Jr.| last2 = Patterson| first2 = David S.| title = Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945–1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment| chapter = National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects| access-date = January 5, 2017| date = 1995| chapter-url = https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945-50Intel/d292}}</ref>
Frank Wisner committed ] using one of his son's shotguns. His funeral service was held at the Bethlehem Chapel in the ]. He was buried at ] as a naval commander, his wartime rank.<ref name="Arlington"/>

During the early 1950s, Wisner was the subject of FBI inquiries in connection with his wartime work in Romania, including the claim that he had an affair with Tanda Caradja, daughter of Romanian princess ] during the war; Caradja was alleged in FBI reports to be a ] agent. However, Wisner was cleared of all suspicions by the CIA Office of Security.<ref>{{cite book|author=Evan Thomas|author-link=Evan Thomas|title=The Very Best Men: The Early Years of the CIA|url=https://archive.org/details/verybestmenfourw00thom_0|url-access=registration|year=1995|pages=}}</ref>

On August 23, 1951, Wisner succeeded ] and became the second ], with ] as his chief of operations. In this position, he was instrumental in supporting pro-American forces that ] ] in ] in 1953{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} and ] in ] ].<ref>, CIA History Staff document by Nicholas Cullather, 1994. Excerpt</ref> Another project he was involved in was with regard to the ]'s leaders, a unit incorporated into a German ], who were assisted into the ] after ], due largely to his efforts. In defiance of federal law, John Loftus asserted, the ] helped obtain ] for Nazi collaborators from Belarus — who were believed to have facilitated numerous atrocities by the Nazi Germany. According to Loftus, it was all part of a ] scheme to wage ], in which the Nazi collaborators were to play a key role. When the project collapsed, however, the Belarusians quickly settled in and obtained ] – and intelligence agencies protected them from exposure for decades.<ref name="Rashke2003">]: ''Useful Enemies: John Demjanjuk and America's Open-Door Policy For Nazi War Criminals'' (Delphinium Books, 2013) </ref>

FBI director ] and U.S. Senator ] succeeded in forcing CIA director ] to dismiss long-time staffer ] in 1950 for homosexuality, over Wisner's objections.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=Scott|title=The Quiet Americans: Four CIA Spies at the Dawn of the Cold War|date=2020|publisher=Doubleday|location=New York|isbn=978-0385540452}}</ref>
]
Wisner worked closely with ], the ] agent who was also a Soviet spy.

Wisner was also deeply involved in establishing the ] ] program run by ]<ref name="Theoharis"/>

Wisner suffered a serious breakdown in September 1958. He was diagnosed as ] and received ]. Bissell replaced Wisner as Deputy Director of Plans.<ref name=Prados180/> After a lengthy recovery, Wisner became chief of the CIA's ] Station.<ref name=Prados180>{{cite book|last=Prados|first=John|title=Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA|date=2006|publisher=Ivan R. Dee|isbn=978-1615780112|page=|language=en}}</ref>

In 1961, Wisner was ordered to organize CIA activities in ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rabe|first1=Stephen G.|title=U.S. intervention in British Guiana : a Cold War story|date=2005|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill|isbn=0-8078-5639-8|page=83|edition=}}</ref>

In 1962, Wisner retired from the CIA.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wharton |first1=Amy |title=Our History: Featured Alumni/ae: Wisner, Frank G., 1934 |url=https://libguides.law.virginia.edu/c.php?g=39996&p=254196 |website=libguides.law.virginia.edu |publisher=University of Virginia |access-date=July 7, 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

==Personal life and death==
Wisner married Mary Ellis 'Polly' Knowles (1912–2002) and they had four children: Elizabeth Wisner, Graham Wisner, Ellis Wisner, and ] who entered into diplomatic service.<ref name=WP11072002/> Wisner died on October 29, 1965, by ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Evan Thomas|author-link=Evan Thomas|title=The Very Best Men: The Early Years of the CIA|url=https://archive.org/details/verybestmenfourw00thom_0|url-access=registration|year=1995|page=}}</ref>


==References== ==References==
{{reflist}} {{Reflist}}


===Bibliography===
{{start box}}
* Wilford, Hugh. . Cambridge: ], 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-674-02681-0}}.

== External links ==
* ]

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Latest revision as of 12:50, 3 November 2024

CIA officer (1909–1965) For the diplomat, his son, see Frank G. Wisner.

Frank Wisner
Birth nameFrank Gardner Wisner
Born(1909-06-23)June 23, 1909
Laurel, Mississippi, U.S.
DiedOctober 29, 1965(1965-10-29) (aged 56)
Galena, Maryland, U.S.
Cause of deathSuicide by gunshot
Service / branch United States Navy
Years of service1941–1962
Battles / wars
Alma materUniversity of Virginia (BA, LLB)
Spouse(s)Mary Ellis Knowles
Children4

Frank Gardiner Wisner (June 23, 1909 – October 29, 1965) was one of the founding officers of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and played a major role in CIA operations throughout the 1950s.

Wisner began his intelligence career in the Office of Strategic Services in World War II. After the war, he headed the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC), one of the OSS successor organizations, from 1948 to 1950. In 1950, the OPC was placed under the Central Intelligence Agency and renamed the Directorate of Plans. First headed by Allen Dulles, Wisner succeeded Dulles in 1951 when Dulles was named Director of Central Intelligence.

Wisner remained as Deputy Director of Plans (DDP) until September 1958, playing an important role in the early history of the CIA. He suffered a breakdown in 1958, and retired from the Agency in 1962. He committed suicide in 1965.

Education and early career

Wisner was educated at the University of Virginia, where he received both a B.A. and a LL.B. degree. He was also tapped for the Seven Society. After graduating from the University of Virginia School of Law in 1934, Wisner began working as a Wall Street lawyer for Carter, Ledyard & Milburn.

Career

Navy and OSS career

In 1941, six months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, he enlisted in the United States Navy. He worked in the Navy's censor's office until he managed to transfer to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in 1943. He was first stationed in Cairo where he spent an uneventful year. After Cairo (from June 15, 1944) he spent three months in OSS Istanbul, Turkey, as head of SI (Secret Intelligence) branch. On August 29, 1944, Lt. Comdr. Wisner and 21 OSS agents landed in Romania, where he became head of OSS Bucharest.

Wisner arrived just as Romania joined the Allies and declared war on the Axis. His first task was to oversee the return of over 1,000 American airmen who had been shot down in missions against Romanian oilfields. The POWs were returned by the Fifteenth Air Force via the Popești-Leordeni Airfield during Operation Reunion. Over 50 B-17 Flying Fortress airplanes flew out the prisoners between August 31 and September 3. In all, some 1,127 American POWs were transported.

Immediately after the arrival of Major Robert Bishop (September 9, 1944) as head of X-2 (Counter Espionage) branch in Bucharest, Wisner started the search for German records. With the help of Romanian Intelligence, they manage to obtain tons of records, including SD files, 200 rolls of German film and a large amount of Soviet information. During that time, Wisner and Bishop discovered and penetrated a Soviet intelligence service named GUGBEZ. Wisner left Bucharest in the last week of January 1945.

In March 1945, Wisner was transferred to Wiesbaden, Germany. In 1945–1946, he returned to law practice at Carter, Ledyard & Milburn.

During World War II, Wisner and his wife Polly became close friends with Philip Graham and his wife Katharine Graham who after the war became publishers of The Washington Post.

CIA career

Wisner was recruited in 1947 by Dean Acheson to join the State Department to become the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Occupied Areas. On June 18, 1948, the United States National Security Council approved NSC 10/2 which created the Office of Special Projects. On September 1, 1948, the office was formally established, although it was renamed to the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC) for obfuscation purposes. Wisner was chosen to lead the OPC in the capacity of Assistant Director for Policy Coordination (ADPC). The OPC initially received services from the CIA but was accountable to the State Department.

According to its secret charter, the OPC's responsibilities include "propaganda, economic warfare, preventive direct action, including sabotage, antisabotage, demolition and evacuation procedures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance groups, guerrillas and refugee liberation groups, and support of indigenous anti-communist elements in threatened countries of the free world."

During the early 1950s, Wisner was the subject of FBI inquiries in connection with his wartime work in Romania, including the claim that he had an affair with Tanda Caradja, daughter of Romanian princess Catherine Caradja during the war; Caradja was alleged in FBI reports to be a Soviet agent. However, Wisner was cleared of all suspicions by the CIA Office of Security.

On August 23, 1951, Wisner succeeded Allen W. Dulles and became the second Deputy Director of Plans, with Richard Helms as his chief of operations. In this position, he was instrumental in supporting pro-American forces that toppled Mohammed Mossadegh in Iran in 1953 and Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in Guatemala in 1954. Another project he was involved in was with regard to the Belarus Brigade's leaders, a unit incorporated into a German SS division, who were assisted into the United States after World War II, due largely to his efforts. In defiance of federal law, John Loftus asserted, the Office of Policy Coordination helped obtain visas for Nazi collaborators from Belarus — who were believed to have facilitated numerous atrocities by the Nazi Germany. According to Loftus, it was all part of a Cold War scheme to wage guerrilla warfare in Soviet-occupied Europe, in which the Nazi collaborators were to play a key role. When the project collapsed, however, the Belarusians quickly settled in and obtained US citizenship – and intelligence agencies protected them from exposure for decades.

FBI director J. Edgar Hoover and U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy succeeded in forcing CIA director Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter to dismiss long-time staffer Carmel Offie in 1950 for homosexuality, over Wisner's objections.

Grave at Arlington National Cemetery

Wisner worked closely with Kim Philby, the British agent who was also a Soviet spy.

Wisner was also deeply involved in establishing the Lockheed U-2 spy plane program run by Richard M. Bissell Jr.

Wisner suffered a serious breakdown in September 1958. He was diagnosed as manic depressive and received electroshock therapy. Bissell replaced Wisner as Deputy Director of Plans. After a lengthy recovery, Wisner became chief of the CIA's London Station.

In 1961, Wisner was ordered to organize CIA activities in British Guiana.

In 1962, Wisner retired from the CIA.

Personal life and death

Wisner married Mary Ellis 'Polly' Knowles (1912–2002) and they had four children: Elizabeth Wisner, Graham Wisner, Ellis Wisner, and Frank G. Wisner who entered into diplomatic service. Wisner died on October 29, 1965, by suicide.

References

  1. ^ Athan Theoharis, Richard Immerman, Loch Johnson, Kathryn Olmsted, and John Prados, "The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny", Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2006. ISBN 0-313-33282-7
  2. Thomas, Evan (1996). The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-82538-4.
  3. "Our History: Featured Alumni: Wisner, Frank G., 1934". libguides.law.virginia.edu. Retrieved May 2, 2018.
  4. Prados, John (2006). Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA. Ivan R. Dee. p. 43. ISBN 978-1615780112.
  5. Aparaschivei, Sorin (2013). Spionajul american în România 1944-1948 (in Romanian). Bucuresti, România: Editura Militară. ISBN 978-973-32-0924-9.
  6. ^ CIA FOIA ERR, “Report on X-2 Activities in Bucharest, 25 April 1945”
  7. Dill, Josh (September 2019). Parties, Politics and Press on P Street. Citizens Association of Georgetown. page 6. Retrieved June 17, 2021.
  8. V.C.Georgescu (January 1990). "Letters from Georgescu". 450thbg.com. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
  9. "Operatiunea Reunion (II)". iar80flyagain.org (in Romanian). October 28, 2022.
  10. Patricia Louise Wadley, "Even One Is Too Many" Archived April 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Ph.D. thesis, Texas Christian University, 1993
  11. ^ Levy, Claudia (July 11, 2002). "Polly Fritchey Dies". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 17, 2021.
  12. "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945–1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment - Office of the Historian".
  13. Mitrovich, Gregory (2000). Undermining the Kremlin: America's Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947–1956. Cornell University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0801437113.
  14. Karalekas, Anne (April 23, 1976). History of the Central Intelligence Agency. Church Committee. p. 34.
  15. Foreign Relations 1964–1968, Volume XXVI, Indonesia; Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines: Note on U.S. Covert Action Programs. United States Department of State.
  16. Thorne, C. Thomas Jr.; Patterson, David S. (1995). "National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects". Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945–1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment. GPO. Retrieved January 5, 2017.
  17. Evan Thomas (1995). The Very Best Men: The Early Years of the CIA. pp. 138-139.
  18. Operation PBSUCCESS: The United States and Guatemala, 1952–1954, CIA History Staff document by Nicholas Cullather, 1994. Excerpt
  19. Richard Rashke: Useful Enemies: John Demjanjuk and America's Open-Door Policy For Nazi War Criminals (Delphinium Books, 2013) Google Books
  20. Anderson, Scott (2020). The Quiet Americans: Four CIA Spies at the Dawn of the Cold War. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0385540452.
  21. ^ Prados, John (2006). Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA. Ivan R. Dee. p. 180. ISBN 978-1615780112.
  22. Rabe, Stephen G. (2005). U.S. intervention in British Guiana : a Cold War story ( ed.). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 83. ISBN 0-8078-5639-8.
  23. Wharton, Amy. "Our History: Featured Alumni/ae: Wisner, Frank G., 1934". libguides.law.virginia.edu. University of Virginia. Retrieved July 7, 2024.
  24. Evan Thomas (1995). The Very Best Men: The Early Years of the CIA. p. 320.

Bibliography

External links

Government offices
Preceded byAllen W. Dulles Deputy Director for Plans
August 23, 1951 – January 1, 1959 		Succeeded byRichard M. Bissell Jr.
Categories: