Revision as of 02:49, 31 March 2009 editJFD (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users7,235 edits →Shared Conditions Theory: wl← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 05:01, 21 December 2024 edit undoGreenC bot (talk | contribs)Bots2,548,646 edits Rescued 1 archive link; reformat 1 link. Wayback Medic 2.5 per WP:USURPURL and JUDI batch #20 | ||
(374 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|none}} | |||
{{mergeto|History of martial arts}}] monks practicing the art of ].]]Theories of the '''origins of ]''' range from the highly ] to models which show greater recognition of independent invention. | |||
The origins of Asian ] are diverse and scattered, having roots in various regions of Asia. Various ] ] reference the study of animal movements as inspiration for martial arts techniques. | |||
==Prehistory== | |||
]: 3–7) identify a number of different theories of the history of martial arts—the centralized origins theory, the shared conditions theory, the great person theory, the politico-historical conditions theory, and the sociological class theory—and state that a satisfactory account "will have to include elements of all these theories (with the exception of the centralized origins theory)". | |||
The evolution of the martial arts has been described by historians in the context of countless historical battles. Building on the work of ] (], ]), Rudgley argues that ], as well as the martial arts of the ], ] and ] peoples, all have "roots in the prehistoric era and to a common ] ancestral people who inhabited north-eastern Asia."<ref>{{cite book | last = Rudgley | first = Richard | author-link = Richard Rudgley | title = The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age | orig-year = 1999 | year = 2000 | publisher = Simon & Schuster}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Laughlin | first=William S. | author-link=William S. Laughlin | year=1961 | publication-date=2004 | contribution=Acquisition of Anatomical Knowledge by Ancient Man | editor-last=Washburn | editor-first=Sherwood L | editor-link=Sherwood Washburn | title=Social Life of Early Man | publication-place=London | publisher=Routledge | pages=150–175 }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite news | last=Marsh | first=Gordon H. | last2=Laughlin | first2=William S. | author2-link=William S. Laughlin | year=1956 | title=Human Anatomical Knowledge among the Aleutian Islanders | periodical=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology | volume=12 | issue=1 | pages=38–78 }}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt}}</ref> | |||
==India== | |||
==Centralized Origins Theory== | |||
⚫ | {{further|Indian martial arts}} | ||
] (1839-1892)]] | |||
''Dhanurveda'', a section found in the ] (1700 BC - 1100 BC) contains references to martial arts.<ref>{{cite book|title=Psychophysical Acting: An Intercultural Approach After Stanislavski|page=66|publisher=Routledge|author1=Phillip B. Zarrilli |author2=Peter Hulton }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|page=182|author1=Denise Cush |author2=Catherine A. Robinson |author3=Michael York |publisher=Psychology press}}</ref> Around the 3rd century BC, the ] taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various ] finger movements were taught in ] Buddhism. These elements of ], as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref><ref>The Bodhisattva Warriors : The Origin, Inner Philosophy, History, and Symbolism of the Buddhist Martial Art within India and China, by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: Yorkindo Beach, Me. {{ISBN|0877287856}}</ref><ref>The Spiritual Legacy of Shaolin Temple: Buddhism, Daoism, and the Energetic Arts - Page 78 by Andy James. Published 2004. Wisdom Publications. 179 pages. {{ISBN|0861713524}}</ref> | |||
The centralized origins theory is the idea that the origin of the various martial arts is a single person, nation, or group of people. | |||
] were an important influence in the development of a number of modern ], particularly within the ] (countries outside ] influenced by ] and religion) of ]. Examples include Indo-Malay ],<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1992). ''Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia''. pg 23. Tuttle Publishing</ref> Burmese ], ] and ],<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.</ref> Filipino ] and ],<ref>Mark V. Wiley (1994). ''Filipino Martial Arts: Serrada Escrima'' pg21. Tuttle Publishing</ref> Thai ]<ref name=DraegerComp>Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. Kodansha International.</ref> and Cambodian ]. Indian martial arts also influenced the various forms of ], namely ] from ], ] from ], ] from ], ] from ] and ] from ].<ref name=DraegerComp/> | |||
]: 4–5) give as their first example of the centralized origins theory "semilegendary figures such as the sixth-century ], who traveled from ] to ] and taught his combat exercises to the monks of the ]"; ]: 4–5) state that such claims have "little hard evidence or inherent credibility", and that "fundamental weaknesses...severely undermine" their credibility. | |||
==China== | |||
The first weakness is that hard historical evidence often shows the existence of purportedly derivative martial arts prior to the supposed central origin. | |||
{{Main article|Chinese martial arts}} | |||
Chinese boxing can be reliably traced back to the ] (1122-255 BC).<ref name="Draeger">{{cite book |last = Draeger & Smith |title = Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts |year = 1969 |isbn =978-0-87011-436-6 |pages = 15 }}</ref> During the ], the literature mentions displays of archery, fencing and wrestling by nobles. Warfare between rival states was conducted according to Confucian chivalry (deference to rank, attacking in turn, food sent to hungry enemies). During the ], warfare grew bloodier and common men were expected to have skill in personal attack (chi-chi).<ref name="Draeger"/> | |||
Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Huiguang and Sengchou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Canzonieri, Salvatore |date=February–March 1998 | title = History of Chinese Martial Arts: Jin Dynasty to the Period of Disunity | journal = Han Wei Wushu | volume = 3 | issue = 9 }}</ref> The martial arts '']'' and ''] Quan'' predate the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery by centuries<ref>{{cite journal | first = Salvatore | last = Canzonieri | title = The Emergence of the Chinese Martial Arts | journal = Han Wei Wushu | issue = 23 }}</ref> as does shǒubó (手搏). | |||
The Maiden of Yue's exegesis of the ideas of ] (as recorded in the ''] of Wu and Yue'') shows that martial arts theory had reached a level of sophistication well before the arrival of ], let alone the construction of the Shaolin Temple or the purported arrival of Bodhidharma.<ref name=Henning1999>{{cite journal|last=Henning|first=Stanley E.|year=1999|month=|date=Fall 1999|title=Academia Encounters the Chinese Martial arts|journal=China Review International|volume=6|issue=2|pages=319–332|id={{ISSN|1069-5834}}|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/china_review_international/v006/6.2henning.pdf|doi=10.1353/cri.1999.0020}}</ref> The ''] Bibliographies'' record that, by the ] (206 BCE – 8 CE), there was a distinction between no-holds-barred weaponless fighting, which it calls ''shǒubó'' (手搏), for which "how-to" manuals had already been written, and sportive wrestling, then known as juélì or ] (角力), again, centuries before the construction of the Shaolin Temple or the arrival of Bodhidharma.<ref name=Henning1999/> | |||
] may have spread to China via the ] in the early 5th or 6th centuries of the common era and thus influenced ]. Elements from ], like the ], ], and the fierce ] were ] into protectors of ]; these mythical figures from the ]s figure prominently in ], ] and ] fighting.<ref>Wells, Marnix, and Naizhou Chang. Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou's Theory of Internal Martial Arts and the Evolution of Taijiquan. Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books, 2004, p. 23</ref> The religious figures from ] also figure in the movement and fighting techniques of Chinese martial arts.<ref>Wells, ''Scholar Boxer,'' p. 200</ref> Various styles of kung fu are known to contain movements that are identical to the ] hand positions used in ] and ], both of which derived from India.<ref>Johnson, Nathan J. Barefoot Zen: The Shaolin Roots of Kung Fu and Karate. York Beach, Me: S. Weiser, 2000, p. 48</ref> Similarly, the 108 pressure points in Chinese martial arts are believed by some to be based on the marmam points of Indian ].<ref>{{cite book | last = Subramaniam Phd. | first = P., (general editors) Dr. Shu Hikosaka, Asst. Prof. Norinaga Shimizu, & Dr. G. John Samuel, (translator) Dr. M. Radhika | title = Varma Cuttiram வர்ம சுத்திரம்: A Tamil Text on Martial Art from Palm-Leaf Manuscript | year = 1994 | publisher = Institute of Asian Studies | location = Madras | pages = 90 & 91}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Reid Phd. | first = Howard, Michael Croucher | title = The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts | year = 1991 | publisher = Outlook Press | location = New York | isbn = 0879514337| pages = 58–85}}</ref> | |||
The Greek martial art of ] made its Olympic debut in the ] of 648 B.C.E., roughly a century before the birth of ].<ref>Poliakoff 1987</ref> According to ]: 21), Tatsuo Suzuki, ] and Masutasu Oyama, the direction of martial arts influence ran from Greece to India.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Todd | first1=Tank | last2=Webb | first2=James | year=2005 | title=Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century |ref=Tank2005}}.</ref><ref></ref> | |||
The predominant telling of the diffusion of the martial arts from India to China involves a 5th-century prince turned into a ] named ] who is said to have traveled to ], sharing his own style and thus creating ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Cephas, Shawn|date=Winter 1994|title=The Root of Warrior Priests in the Martial Arts|journal=]}}</ref> According to ], the Monk's creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a watershed in the history of kungfu, because it led to a change of course, as kungfu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense."<ref>Wong, Kiew Kit. ''The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense Health and Enlightenment''. Tuttle martial arts. Boston, Mass: Tuttle, 2002, p. 13</ref> | |||
]: 12) state that "], ], and even ] are often cited as the original sources of ]. All such claims are entirely lacking in hard evidence...the whole notion of an ultimate origin of jujitsu (or any other martial art for that matter) is inherently implausible." The record of an empty-hand duel in 23 B.C. in the '']'' precedes the arrival of ], and prior documentation of schools of jujitsu precludes its attribution to the 17th century Chin Gempin;<ref name=Gracie>{{cite book |last1=Gracie |first1=Renzo |authorlink1=Renzo Gracie |last2=Danaher |first2=John |title=Mastering Jujitsu |year=2003 |publisher=Human Kinetics |ref=Gracie2003}}</ref> however, unlike Bodhidharma, there is at least contemporary documentation—in the form of the ''Kitô-ryû kempô'' stele—of Chin Gempin practicing martial arts and teaching them to others.<ref name=Henning1999/> | |||
⚫ | ].]] | ||
The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts is attributed to Bodhidharma's own ], though its authorship has been disputed by several modern historians such as Tang Hao,<ref>{{cite book | author = Tang Hao 唐豪 | title = Shàolín Wǔdāng kǎo 少林武當考 | orig-year = 1930 | year = 1968 | publisher = Qílín tushu | location = Hong Kong 香港 | language = zh}}</ref> Xu Zhen and ].<ref name=Matsuda>{{cite book | author = Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 | author-link = Ryuchi Matsuda | title = Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 | year = 1986 | publisher = Danqing tushu | location = Taipei 臺北 | language = zh}}</ref> The oldest known available copy of the Yi Jin Jing was published in 1827<ref name=Matsuda/> and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624. According to Matsuda, none of the contemporary texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's ''Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method'' or Zhang Kongzhao's ''Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods'', mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The association of Bodhidharma with the martial arts only became widespread after the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel ''The Travels of Lao Ts'an'' in ''Illustrated Fiction Magazine''.<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Henning | first=Stanley | title=Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan | journal=Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii | volume=2 | issue=3 | year=1994 | pages=1–7 | url=http://seinenkai.com/articles/henning/il&t.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621110700/http://seinenkai.com/articles/henning/il&t.pdf| url-status=usurped| archive-date=June 21, 2007|format=PDF }}.</ref> | |||
According to ]: 4–5), it clashes with common sense that one person or group of people "should gain a unique insight into combat technique that had eluded the rest of the world...the conditions that create a need for martial skills—war and civil strife—are not unique to one region or time. The reality of conflict would naturally inspire people of every region to create a fighting system." | |||
The discovery of arms caches in the monasteries of ] during government raids in 446 AD suggests that Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery in 497.<ref name=Henning2>{{cite journal | author = Henning, Stanley | year = 1999b | title = Martial Arts Myths of Shaolin Monastery, Part I: The Giant with the Flaming Staff | journal = Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii | volume = 5 | issue = 1 }}</ref> Moreover, Chinese monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in many ways were effectively large landed estates, that is, sources of considerable wealth which required protection that had to be supplied by the monasteries' own manpower.<ref name=Henning2/> | |||
]: 4–5) ask: "If the true foundations of the martial arts genuinely come from one birthplace and were so much superior to everything else, why do we see such variation among them? To say the people subsequently modified them at a later date is inadequate. If we can presume that autonomous development of fighting arts is that common and simple, then we can probably doubt that it took one central originator to develop them all in the first place." | |||
==Japan== | |||
==Shared Conditions Theory== | |||
{{main article|Japanese martial arts}} | |||
The shared conditions theory is the idea that different people in different places at different times independently arrived at similar answers to the same problems (warfare, interpersonal conflict, crime). | |||
The historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in the warrior traditions of the ] and the ] that restricted the use of weapons by members of the non-warrior classes. Originally, samurai were expected to be proficient in many weapons, as well as unarmed combat, and attain the highest possible mastery of combat skills, for the purpose of glorifying either themselves or their lord. Over time, this purpose gave way to a philosophy of achieving spiritual goals by striving to perfect their martial skills.<ref>{{cite book|title=Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Eastern Thought|page=169|publisher=Suny press|first=John |last =Suler}}</ref> | |||
==Korea== | |||
The following passage by ] encapsulates the shared conditions theory:{{quotation2|As to the origin and native land of ], there are several opinions, but these are found to be mere assumptions based on narratives relating to the founding of certain schools or some incidental records or illustrations found in ancient manuscripts, not only in ], but also in ], ], ] and ]. There is no record by which the origins of jujitsu can be definitely established. It would however, be rational to assume that ever since the creation, with the instinct of self-preservation, man has had to fight for his existence and was inspired to develop an art or skill to implement the body mechanism for this purpose. In such efforts, the development may have taken various courses according to the conditions of life or tribal circumstance, but the objects of the body being common, the results could not have been so different from each other. No doubt this is the reason for finding records relating to the practice of arts similar to jujitsu in various parts of the world....<ref>] (1960), as quoted in ]: 5).</ref>}} | |||
{{Main article|Korean martial arts}} | |||
Wrestling, called ], and ] are the oldest forms of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, these were also popular among villagers during festivals, for dancing, mask performance and sport-fighting. The ancient Koreans did develop their own comprehensive system of unarmed weapon-based combat, but they had a preference for bows and arrows. It appears that during the ] dynasty, (37 BC – 668 AD) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, bow and arrow, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced. | |||
In 1593, Korea received help from ] to win back ] from the Japanese. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled ] (紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist ]. ] (1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the ] (무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the ] (Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).<ref>Kim, Wee-hyun. "Muyedobo T'ongji: Illustrated Survey of the Martial arts." Korea Journal 26:8 (August 1986): 42-54.</ref> | |||
There is strong historical evidence supporting shared conditions theory as an explanation for both the origin of martial arts, and for the similarities between various styles; instruction manuals, illustrations, and artworks depicting similar combat styles are "from areas and times that cannot possibly be related to the development of jujitsu in Japan, or anywhere else in the ]".<ref name=Gracie/> | |||
In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated ] (Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to Taekkyon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on. | |||
However, shared conditions theory has difficulty accounting for differences between, and change within martial arts, which are better explained by the great person, politico-historical conditions, and sociological class models. | |||
== |
== Indonesia == | ||
{{main| |
{{main article|Indonesian martial arts}} | ||
The Indonesian natives began to develop and formulate various style of combat and self-defence systems. Archaeological findings revealed that the origins of ] dates back to the sixth century, to the times of the ] empire on Sumatra and also the 13th century ] empire in East Java. Artifacts showed that this unique combat system had been used consistently through Indonesia’s history.<ref name="Wonderful">{{cite web |title=Silek Harimau Minangkabau: the True Martial Art of West Sumatra |publisher=Wonderful Indonesia |url=http://www.indonesia.travel/en/destination/467/padang/article/74/silek-harimau-minangkabau-seni-bela-diri-minangkabau |access-date=8 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708113338/http://www.indonesia.travel/en/destination/467/padang/article/74/silek-harimau-minangkabau-seni-bela-diri-minangkabau |archive-date=8 July 2015 }}</ref> | |||
The great person theory is the idea that the history of the martial arts is essentially the history of individual martial artists who rose to prominence and, if they were able to recruit and teach students, established a new school or style of martial arts. | |||
==Philippines== | |||
]: 7) draw an important distinction between the great person and centralized origins theories of martial arts: the great person theory is a model of how martial arts change and evolve, not of how the martial arts originated. | |||
{{Main article|Filipino martial arts}} | |||
Filipino martial arts are considered hybrid systems which incorporates elements from both ] and eastern martial arts. Its origins are Asian and come from a period wherein the various prehispanic Philippine states; ], ], ] and ]ates warred with each other, therefore producing a rich martial tradition with hundreds of schools as numerous as there are Filipino ethnic groups. It then incorporated Western elements when the Spaniards arrived from Mexico and they unified these prehispanic states unto one Filipino identity and thus, infused the Filipino martial arts with ] styles of combat. | |||
During the Spanish period, Chinese and Japanese converts<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianews.it/news-en/The-Japanese-Church-ready-to-celebrate-Takayama-Ukon,-samurai-of-Christ-28785.html|title=The Japanese Church ready to celebrate Takayama Ukon, "samurai of Christ" - Asia News|work=asianews.it}}</ref><references group="Notes" /> to Christianity who fled to the Philippines away from their homeland's persecution, also enriched Filipino martial arts with their own styles. The ] (Launched from India) and the ] also shaped Filipino martial arts up to a certain extent. Although the martial arts fell into disuse during the artillery-intensive ] and ], it became practical again during the ] especially to Guerillas. | |||
For example, the success of the Brazilian Gracie family in vale tudo and mixed martial arts competition convincingly demonstrated the value of ground grappling to the broader community of martial artists.<ref name=Gracie/> | |||
==Politico-Historical Conditions Theory== | |||
⚫ | ].]] | ||
According to politico-historical conditions theory, changes in direction and development of the martial arts are often in response to changing political, historical, and cultural conditions. | |||
==Vietnam== | |||
==Sociological Class Theory== | |||
] | |||
Sociological class theory is the idea that every culture has a class system that ranks citizens into various groups based on income, occupation, lineage, and so on. | |||
{{Main article|Vietnamese martial arts}} | |||
Vietnamese martial arts are influenced by efforts to defend the country from foreign threats . The most influential in the country's martial arts is China with its thousand-year occupation of Vietnam. But through thousands of years of internal, civil strife: dynastic changes (]), foreign conquests, warlordism and guerrilla tactics, the Vietnamese martial artists used what they learned from their neighbors and evolved a unique form of martial arts. | |||
The martial arts were used by Vietnamese kings to train their troops and to defend the country against enemies. In addition to the army, family clans and Buddhist temples cultivated a variety of styles to defend themselves.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} | |||
{{Manav by country}} | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{reflist |
{{reflist}} | ||
{{martial arts}} | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Origins of Asian martial arts}} | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
⚫ |
Latest revision as of 05:01, 21 December 2024
The origins of Asian martial arts are diverse and scattered, having roots in various regions of Asia. Various Asian martial arts reference the study of animal movements as inspiration for martial arts techniques.
Prehistory
The evolution of the martial arts has been described by historians in the context of countless historical battles. Building on the work of Laughlin (1956, 1961), Rudgley argues that Mongolian wrestling, as well as the martial arts of the Chinese, Japanese and Aleut peoples, all have "roots in the prehistoric era and to a common Mongoloid ancestral people who inhabited north-eastern Asia."
India
Further information: Indian martial artsDhanurveda, a section found in the Vedas (1700 BC - 1100 BC) contains references to martial arts. Around the 3rd century BC, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These elements of yoga, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.
Indian martial arts were an important influence in the development of a number of modern Asian martial arts, particularly within the Indian cultural sphere (countries outside India influenced by Indian culture and religion) of Southeast Asia. Examples include Indo-Malay silat, Burmese banshay, naban and bando, Filipino escrima and kali, Thai krabi krabong and Cambodian bokator. Indian martial arts also influenced the various forms of Indochinese kickboxing, namely Muay Thai from Thailand, Muay Lao from Laos, Tomoi from Malaysia, Pradal Serey from Cambodia and Lethwei from Myanmar.
China
Main article: Chinese martial artsChinese boxing can be reliably traced back to the Zhou dynasty (1122-255 BC). During the Spring and Autumn period, the literature mentions displays of archery, fencing and wrestling by nobles. Warfare between rival states was conducted according to Confucian chivalry (deference to rank, attacking in turn, food sent to hungry enemies). During the Warring States period, warfare grew bloodier and common men were expected to have skill in personal attack (chi-chi).
Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Huiguang and Sengchou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma. The martial arts Shuāi Jiāo and Sun Bin Quan predate the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery by centuries as does shǒubó (手搏).
Indian martial arts may have spread to China via the transmission of Buddhism in the early 5th or 6th centuries of the common era and thus influenced Shaolin Kungfu. Elements from Indian philosophy, like the Nāga, Rakshasa, and the fierce Yaksha were syncretized into protectors of Dharma; these mythical figures from the Dharmic religions figure prominently in Shaolinquan, Chang quan and staff fighting. The religious figures from Dharmic religions also figure in the movement and fighting techniques of Chinese martial arts. Various styles of kung fu are known to contain movements that are identical to the Mudra hand positions used in Hinduism and Buddhism, both of which derived from India. Similarly, the 108 pressure points in Chinese martial arts are believed by some to be based on the marmam points of Indian varmakalai.
The predominant telling of the diffusion of the martial arts from India to China involves a 5th-century prince turned into a monk named Bodhidharma who is said to have traveled to Shaolin, sharing his own style and thus creating Shaolinquan. According to Wong Kiew Kit, the Monk's creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a watershed in the history of kungfu, because it led to a change of course, as kungfu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense."
The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts is attributed to Bodhidharma's own Yi Jin Jing, though its authorship has been disputed by several modern historians such as Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi. The oldest known available copy of the Yi Jin Jing was published in 1827 and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624. According to Matsuda, none of the contemporary texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method or Zhang Kongzhao's Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods, mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The association of Bodhidharma with the martial arts only became widespread after the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.
The discovery of arms caches in the monasteries of Chang'an during government raids in 446 AD suggests that Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery in 497. Moreover, Chinese monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in many ways were effectively large landed estates, that is, sources of considerable wealth which required protection that had to be supplied by the monasteries' own manpower.
Japan
Main article: Japanese martial artsThe historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in the warrior traditions of the samurai and the caste system that restricted the use of weapons by members of the non-warrior classes. Originally, samurai were expected to be proficient in many weapons, as well as unarmed combat, and attain the highest possible mastery of combat skills, for the purpose of glorifying either themselves or their lord. Over time, this purpose gave way to a philosophy of achieving spiritual goals by striving to perfect their martial skills.
Korea
Main article: Korean martial artsWrestling, called Ssireum, and Taekkyon are the oldest forms of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, these were also popular among villagers during festivals, for dancing, mask performance and sport-fighting. The ancient Koreans did develop their own comprehensive system of unarmed weapon-based combat, but they had a preference for bows and arrows. It appears that during the Goguryeo dynasty, (37 BC – 668 AD) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, bow and arrow, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced.
In 1593, Korea received help from China to win back Pyongyang from the Japanese. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled Ji Xiao Xin Shu (紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist Qi Jiguang. King Seonjo (1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the Muyejebo (무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the Muyesinbo (Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).
In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated Muyedobotongji (Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to Taekkyon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on.
Indonesia
Main article: Indonesian martial artsThe Indonesian natives began to develop and formulate various style of combat and self-defence systems. Archaeological findings revealed that the origins of Pencak Silat dates back to the sixth century, to the times of the Srivijaya empire on Sumatra and also the 13th century Majapahit empire in East Java. Artifacts showed that this unique combat system had been used consistently through Indonesia’s history.
Philippines
Main article: Filipino martial artsFilipino martial arts are considered hybrid systems which incorporates elements from both western and eastern martial arts. Its origins are Asian and come from a period wherein the various prehispanic Philippine states; Rajahnates, Kingdoms, Sultanates and Lakanates warred with each other, therefore producing a rich martial tradition with hundreds of schools as numerous as there are Filipino ethnic groups. It then incorporated Western elements when the Spaniards arrived from Mexico and they unified these prehispanic states unto one Filipino identity and thus, infused the Filipino martial arts with European styles of combat.
During the Spanish period, Chinese and Japanese converts to Christianity who fled to the Philippines away from their homeland's persecution, also enriched Filipino martial arts with their own styles. The British Occupation of Manila (Launched from India) and the Moro Wars also shaped Filipino martial arts up to a certain extent. Although the martial arts fell into disuse during the artillery-intensive Philippine Revolution and Philippine–American War, it became practical again during the Japanese occupation especially to Guerillas.
Vietnam
Main article: Vietnamese martial artsVietnamese martial arts are influenced by efforts to defend the country from foreign threats . The most influential in the country's martial arts is China with its thousand-year occupation of Vietnam. But through thousands of years of internal, civil strife: dynastic changes (dynasties), foreign conquests, warlordism and guerrilla tactics, the Vietnamese martial artists used what they learned from their neighbors and evolved a unique form of martial arts.
The martial arts were used by Vietnamese kings to train their troops and to defend the country against enemies. In addition to the army, family clans and Buddhist temples cultivated a variety of styles to defend themselves.
References
- Rudgley, Richard (2000) . The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. Simon & Schuster.
- Laughlin, William S. (1961). "Acquisition of Anatomical Knowledge by Ancient Man". In Washburn, Sherwood L (ed.). Social Life of Early Man. London: Routledge (published 2004). pp. 150–175..
- Marsh, Gordon H.; Laughlin, William S. (1956). "Human Anatomical Knowledge among the Aleutian Islanders". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. Vol. 12, no. 1. pp. 38–78.
- ] harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREF (help)
- Phillip B. Zarrilli; Peter Hulton. Psychophysical Acting: An Intercultural Approach After Stanislavski. Routledge. p. 66.
- Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York. Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Psychology press. p. 182.
- J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
- The Bodhisattva Warriors : The Origin, Inner Philosophy, History, and Symbolism of the Buddhist Martial Art within India and China, by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: Yorkindo Beach, Me. ISBN 0877287856
- The Spiritual Legacy of Shaolin Temple: Buddhism, Daoism, and the Energetic Arts - Page 78 by Andy James. Published 2004. Wisdom Publications. 179 pages. ISBN 0861713524
- Draeger, Donn F. (1992). Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. pg 23. Tuttle Publishing
- Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.
- Mark V. Wiley (1994). Filipino Martial Arts: Serrada Escrima pg21. Tuttle Publishing
- ^ Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. Kodansha International.
- ^ Draeger & Smith (1969). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-87011-436-6.
- Canzonieri, Salvatore (February–March 1998). "History of Chinese Martial Arts: Jin Dynasty to the Period of Disunity". Han Wei Wushu. 3 (9).
- Canzonieri, Salvatore. "The Emergence of the Chinese Martial Arts". Han Wei Wushu (23).
- Wells, Marnix, and Naizhou Chang. Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou's Theory of Internal Martial Arts and the Evolution of Taijiquan. Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books, 2004, p. 23
- Wells, Scholar Boxer, p. 200
- Johnson, Nathan J. Barefoot Zen: The Shaolin Roots of Kung Fu and Karate. York Beach, Me: S. Weiser, 2000, p. 48
- Subramaniam Phd., P., (general editors) Dr. Shu Hikosaka, Asst. Prof. Norinaga Shimizu, & Dr. G. John Samuel, (translator) Dr. M. Radhika (1994). Varma Cuttiram வர்ம சுத்திரம்: A Tamil Text on Martial Art from Palm-Leaf Manuscript. Madras: Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 90 & 91.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Reid Phd., Howard, Michael Croucher (1991). The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts. New York: Outlook Press. pp. 58–85. ISBN 0879514337.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Cephas, Shawn (Winter 1994). "The Root of Warrior Priests in the Martial Arts". Kung Fu Magazine.
- Wong, Kiew Kit. The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense Health and Enlightenment. Tuttle martial arts. Boston, Mass: Tuttle, 2002, p. 13
- Tang Hao 唐豪 (1968) . Shàolín Wǔdāng kǎo 少林武當考 (in Chinese). Hong Kong 香港: Qílín tushu.
- ^ Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 (1986). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 (in Chinese). Taipei 臺北: Danqing tushu.
- Henning, Stanley (1994). "Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan" (PDF). Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii. 2 (3): 1–7. Archived from the original on June 21, 2007..
- ^ Henning, Stanley (1999b). "Martial Arts Myths of Shaolin Monastery, Part I: The Giant with the Flaming Staff". Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii. 5 (1).
- Suler, John. Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Eastern Thought. Suny press. p. 169.
- Kim, Wee-hyun. "Muyedobo T'ongji: Illustrated Survey of the Martial arts." Korea Journal 26:8 (August 1986): 42-54.
- "Silek Harimau Minangkabau: the True Martial Art of West Sumatra". Wonderful Indonesia. Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
- "The Japanese Church ready to celebrate Takayama Ukon, "samurai of Christ" - Asia News". asianews.it.
Martial arts | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||