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| The ] were a series of explosions that hit apartment blocks in the ]n cities of ], ] and ] in September 1999, killing nearly 300 people and spreading a wave of fear across the country. The bombings were blamed by the ] on rebels from the ] region and together with the ], that took place in August 1999, lead to the military invasion of the separatist ]. The militants as well as the secessionist Chechen authorities denied their involvement in the bombing campaign. | |||
| ] deputies ], ] and ], cast doubts on the official version and sought an independent investigation. Anti-Kremlin oligarch ] (and his close associates ] and ]), ], ], ], ], as well as the secessionist Chechen authorities and former popular Russian politician ], claimed that the 1999 bombings were a ] attack coordinated by the FSB in order to win public support for a new full-scale war in Chechnya, which boosted Prime Minister and former FSB Director ]'s popularity, brought the pro-war ] to the ] and him to the presidency within a few months.<ref name="Kagarlitsky" | |||
| ></ref><ref></ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Satter|2003|pp=24-33, 63-71}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Felshtinsky|Pribylovsky|2008|pp=105-111}}</ref><ref>{{youtube|PnkYo9TuBIQ}}''In Memoriam Aleksander Litvinenko'', Jos de Putter, Tegenlicht documentary VPRO 2007, ], 2004 Interview with ]</ref><ref></ref><ref>{{ru icon}} , an interview with ], radio ], July 25, 2002, </ref><ref>, Richard C. Paddock, ], September 10, 1999</ref><ref>, from staff and wire reports, ], September 10, 1999</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Evangelista|2002|p=81}}</ref><ref>, Jamie Dettmer, ], April 17, 2000.</ref><ref>’’The consolidation of Dictatorship in Russia’’ by ], ], ] p.96</ref><ref>, November 4, 2003</ref> | |||
| ], ], Paul J. Murphy, ], ], ] and ] criticized the conspiracy theories, pointing out problems such as the lack of evidence.<ref name="sakwa2"/><ref name="bennett"/><ref name="from_past_to_future">{{harvnb|Sakwa|2005}}</ref><ref name="monaghan"></ref><ref>http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=19795</ref><ref name="wolvesofislam">{{Harvnb|Murphy|2004|p=106}}</ref> | |||
| ==Theory of Russian government involvement== | |||
| According to a theory that was put forward by anti-Kremlin oligarch ], ], ], American writer David Satter, ] ], Russian Duma lawmaker ], film maker ], investigator ], the bombings were a successful ] organized by the FSB to bring future Russian president Vladimir Putin to power. Some of them described the bombings as typical "]" practicised by the ] in the past. David Satter stated during his testimony in the ], {{quote|"With Yeltsin and his family facing possible criminal prosecution, however, a plan was put into motion to put in place a successor who would guarantee that Yeltsin and his family would be safe from prosecution and the criminal division of property in the country would not be subject to reexamination. For “Operation Successor” to succeed, however, it was necessary to have a massive provocation. In my view, this provocation was the bombing in September, 1999 of the apartment building bombings in Moscow, Buinaksk, and Volgodonsk. In the aftermath of these attacks, which claimed 300 lives, a new war was launched against Chechnya. Putin, the newly appointed prime minister who was put in charge of that war, achieved overnight popularity. Yeltsin resigned early. Putin was elected president and his first act was to guarantee Yeltsin immunity from prosecution."<ref>, 2007.</ref>}} | |||
| Yuri Felshtinsky and Vladimir Pribylovsky wrote that the September 4 attack in Buynaksk was probably conducted by a ] unit of twelve Russian GRU officers who acted on the orders of Colonel-General Valentin Korabelnikov.<ref name="Assassins">{{harvnb|Felshtinsky|Pribylovsky|2008|pp=105-111}}</ref><ref name="Galkin">.</ref> They referred to the testimony of GRU officer Aleksey Galkin. According to this version, all other attacks were organized by FSB forces based on the following chain of command: "Putin (former director of the secret service, future president) - Patrushev (Putin's successor as director of the secret service) - secret service General German Ugryumov (director of the counter-terrorism department)." FSB officers Vladimir Romanovich, Ramazan Dyshekov and others directly carried out the bombings. Several Chechens were recruited by FSB agents to deliver explosives disguised as bags of sugar to Volgodonsk and Moscow: Adam Dekkushev, Yusuf Krymshakhalov, and Timur Batchaev. The Chechens believed that apartment buildings were merely temporarily storage places, and that the explosives would be used against federal military targets. Ethnic Karachai ] rented the apartment basements as storage spaces on request from the FSB agent ].<ref name="Assassins"/> | |||
| ===Prevented bombings=== | |||
| According to Oksana Yablokova of ], authorities said they defused explosives on Borisovskiye Prudy street in Moscow September 14, 1999.<ref>, Oksana Yablokova, ], 2002-07-26</ref> Yuri Felshtinsky and Alexander Litvinenko added a site in the Liublino district and another in Kapotnya to the list of caches.<ref>{{Harvnb|Felshtinsky|Litvinenko|2007|loc=chapter 6}}</ref> Satter wrote that three attempted bombings were prevented.<ref>{{Harvnb|Satter|2003|pp=24-33 and 63-71}}</ref> | |||
| ===Claims attributed to a fugitive suspect=== | |||
| In 2002 ] agency published a letter whose author claimed to be ], the suspect of the official investigation. The author of the letter claimed he called the police and warned about the bombing locations. He wrote that he was framed by his old acquaintance who asked him to rent basements "as storage facilities" at four locations where bombs were later found.<ref name="Prima"> by ], July 25, 2002</ref> | |||
| On ], ] ] provided ''Novaya Gazeta'' with a video recording and its transcript.<ref>{{ru icon}}, ], March 3, 2003 ()</ref> The video dated ], ] contained an interview with a man who claimed to be the fugitive suspect Achemez Gochiyayev. According to the statement, Mr Gochiyaev was an unknowing participant in a plot organized by an undercover FSB agent, his former acquaintance ]. In 2005 ''Novaya Gazeta'' published another letter attributed to Mr Gochiyaev.<ref name="fugitive-2005">{{ru icon}}, ] No. 18, March 14, 2005 ()</ref> | |||
| ===Books and films=== | |||
| David Satter, a senior fellow of the Hudson Institute, authored a book ''Darkness at Dawn: The Rise of the Russian Criminal State''{{harv|Satter|2003}} that scrutinized the paradoxes surrounding the bombings.<ref name="shadow">, ], April 30, 2002</ref> | |||
| In 2002 former FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko and historian Yuri Felshtinsky published a book ''FSB vzryvaet Rossiyu'' (''FSB is blowing up Russia''). It was later translated into English under the title '']''.{{harv|Felshtinsky|Litvinenko|2007}} The book alleged that the bombings and other terrorist acts have been committed by Russian security services to justify the Second Chechen War and to bring Vladimir Putin to power. On ], ], Russian authorities confiscated over 4000 copies of the book en route to Moscow.<ref name="seizure"></ref>. In a subsequent book, '']''{{harv|Litvinenko|2002}}, Litvinenko and ] described the transformation of the FSB into a criminal and terrorist organization. | |||
| A documentary film ''Assassination of Russia'' was made in 2000 by two French producers who had previously worked on NTV's ''Sugar of Ryazan'' program.{{harv|Goldfarb|Litvinenko|2007|pp=249-250}} This film was broadcast by the main TV channels of ], ], and ].{{fact}} Russian ] ] brought a hundred copies to St. Petersburg but the copies were confiscated at customs in violation of his ]. No TV station in Russia was able to show the film.<ref>{{harvnb|Felshtinsky|Pribylovsky|2008|pp=249-250}}</ref> Tens of thousands of pirate copies were sold in Russia in 2002.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} Sergei Yushenkov presented the film at the ] in 2002, decrying lack of civilian control over the Russian armed forces including the secret services.<ref>, ], April 24, 2002</ref> A staffer in ] said, ''"We just cannot go out and say that the president of Russia is a mass murderer. But it is important that we know it."''{{harv|Goldfarb|Litvinenko|2007|p=259}} | |||
| A documentary ''Nedoverie'' ("Disbelief") about the bombing controversy made by Russian director ] was premiered at the 2004 ]. The film chronicles the story of Tatyana and Alyona Morozova, the two Russian-American sisters, who had lost their mother in the attack, and decided to find out who did it.<ref name="TheMoscowTimes">, ''The Moscow Times'']</ref><ref name="IMDb">. The record in IMDb.</ref><ref name="GoogleVideo"> ]</ref> | |||
| Alexander Goldfarb and Marina Litvinenko published a book '']''.{{harv|Goldfarb|Litvinenko|2007}} They asserted that the ] was "the most compelling proof" of the FSB involvement theory. According to the book, the murder of Litvinenko "gave credence to all his previous theories, delivering justice for the tenants of the bombed apartment blocks, the ], Sergei Yushenkov, Yuri Shchekochikhin, and ], and the half-exterminated ], exposing their killers for the whole world to see."{{harv|Goldfarb|Litvinenko|2007|p=259}} | |||
| The films ''Assassination of Russia'' and ''Disbelief'' were sponsored by a controversial self-exiled Russian tycoon and Putin ally-turned-enemy ].<ref>, Nicholas Blincoe, ], 19 June 2007</ref><ref>, By Greg Walters, ], September 3, 2004</ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> Since 2001 co-author of the book ''Death of a Dissident'' Alexander Goldfarb is an executive director of ] established by Mr. Berezovsky.<ref>, Oleg Varfolomeyev, April 4, 2005, based on a number of stories in Ukrainian media</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| According to a posting by ] in the ], the allegations put forward by David Satter and J Putley are "kept afloat" mostly by people "close to Berezovsky and his money".<ref></ref> | |||
| The ] ] programme ''Dispatches'' report ''Dying for the President'', screened on March 9, 2000, and a subsequent article in '']'' also alleged that their journalists put Russian "secret police in frame for Moscow atrocities".<ref name="wsws.org">, Julie Hyland, ], 15 March 2000</ref><ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite web|author=Johann Hari|publisher=New Statesman|title=Conspiracy theories: a guide|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200212160014|accessdate=2008-01-28}}</ref> | |||
| ===List of suspects per the conspiracy theory=== | |||
| According to the conspiracy theory, the following suspects have been involved <ref name="Assassins"/>: | |||
| *Future Russian president ] who was leading the chain of command according to the book by Felshinsky and Pribylovsky. | |||
| *Director of Russian ] agency ] | |||
| *FSB General ] who supervised the special forces ] and ] units at this time <ref></ref> <ref></ref> (according to a confession of ] officer ], made under torture) | |||
| *], an FSB officer who was also involved in staging of bombings in Moscow in 1994. | |||
| *] and ], two official convicts who were hired by FSB agents provocateurs]] and who organized transportation of explosives to Moscow according to both versions | |||
| *FSB officers Vladimir Romanovich and Ramazan Dyshenkov who carried out the apartment bombings in ] according to this version | |||
| *] who rented basements of the bombed buildings under request from Dyshenkov and later reported about other mined buildings to police, according to his tape that Chechen middle men passed to Kovalev Comission | |||
| *Three FSB agents (two men and a women) who conducted the "training exercise" in the city of ]. Their identities and fate remains unknown although their photos were advertised on Russian television. | |||
| *A team of twelve ] operatives who allegedly conducted bombings in the city of ] under general command of Leutenatnt General Kostechko (according to a confession of ] officer ], made under torture) | |||
| ==Criticism of the conspiracy theory== | |||
| ===Officials=== | |||
| In 2000, Russia's President Vladimir Putin dismissed the allegations of FSB involvement in the bombings as "delirious nonsense." "There are no people in the Russian secret services who would be capable of such crime against their own people. The very allegation is immoral," he said.<ref></ref> An FSB spokesman said that "Litvinenko's evidence cannot be taken seriously by those who are investigating the bombings".<ref name="Nedbaeva">{{cite web|publisher=Agence France-Presse|author=Olga Nedbayeva|title=Conspiracy theories on Russia's 1999 bombings gain ground|url=http://eng.terror99.ru/publications/072.htm}}</ref> | |||
| ], an advisor to the Russian government, criticized the film ''Assassination of Russia'' which supported the FSB involvement theory. Markov said that the film was "a well-made professional example of the propagandist and psychological war that Boris Berezovsky is notoriously good at." Markov found parallels between the film and the conspiracy theory that the United States and/or ] organized the ] to justify military actions.<ref>, ], April 24 2002.</ref> | |||
| ===Scholars=== | |||
| According to researcher Gordon Bennett, the conspiracy theory that FSB was behind explosions is kept alive by the Russian oligarch and Kremlin-critic ]. Bennett points out, that neither Berezovsky nor his team (which includes Alexander Litvinenko) have provided any evidence to support their claims. In the ] ] interview on 8 May 2002, Berezovsky was also not able to present any evidence for his claims, and also did not suggest he was in possession of such evidence which he would be ready to present in a court.<ref name="bennett"> Gordon Bennet, 2002</ref> Bennett also points out that it is occasionally forgotten by Putin's critics, that the decision to send troops to Chechnya was taken by Boris Yeltsin — not Vladimir Putin — with the wholehearted support of all power structures.<ref name="bennett"/> | |||
| Professor Richard Sakwa has commented on the claims of Berezovsky and Litvinenko, saying that the evidence they presented was at best circumstanstial.<ref name="sakwa2">{{harvnb|Sakwa|2008|pp=333-334}}</ref> | |||
| Dr Vlad Sobell has pointed out, that the proponents of the theory that the second invasion of Chechnya was a plot by Putin to get elected regularly ignore the key fact, that Putin's attack on Chechnya in 1999 was preceded by Chechen insurrection in Dagestan, whose objective was to turn it into another unstable Chechnya.<ref name="sobell_interview"></ref> | |||
| According to Associate Professor of Political Science and International Affairs ] of ], one thing that remains unclear about the "FSB did it" theory: If the motive was to get an FSB-friendly man installed as president, why would the FSB have preferred Putin, a little-known "upstart" who had leapt to the post of FSB director through outside political channels, to Primakov, who was certainly senior in stature and pedigree and who was also widely reputed to have a KGB past?<ref name="henryhale_8"></ref> | |||
| According to Dr. Robert Bruce Ware of Southern Illinois University, "The assertions that Russian security services are responsible for the bombings is at least partially incorrect, and appears to have given rise to an obscurantist mythology of Russian culpability. At the very least, it is clear that these assertions are incomplete in so far as they have not taken full account of the evidence suggesting the responsibility of Wahhabis under the leadership of Khattab, who may have been seeking retribution for the federal assault upon Dagestan's Islamic Djamaat."<ref name="from_past_to_future"/> | |||
| ===Other=== | |||
| A year after the apartment bombings, on 8 August, 2000, another explosion happened in Moscow.<ref name="bbc_aug2000"/> Eight people were killed and more than 50 were injured. Chechen separatists were widely blamed for the blast. One of Russia's heavyweight papers, Nezavisimaya Gazeta, argued the blast lifted any suspicion that the now-president Putin had anything to do with the apartment-block bombs in 1999. "The explosion in Pushkin Square has dispelled all speculation in this respect", the paper wrote, adding that one can only imagine what the public's reaction will be after the newest blast.<ref name="bbc_aug2000"></ref> | |||
| Security and policy analysts Simon Saradzhyan and Nabi Abdullaev also point out, that Litvinenko and Felshtinsky have not provided any direct evidence to back up their claims about FSB involvement in the bombings.<ref name="saradzhyan"></ref> | |||
| ==Support for the conspiracy theory== | |||
| ] and presidential candidate ] said that there remained "credible allegations that Russia's FSB had a hand in carrying out these attacks".<ref>, November 4, 2003, Friends of John McCain.</ref><ref></ref> Popular Russian politician and retired army general ], at the time the ] of ], asked if he thought the government had organized the terrorist attacks, said that he is "almost convinced of it."<ref> by ]</ref> | |||
| Some publications tell that "being prone to conspiracy theories, as Russians certainly are, doesn’t mean that someone is not conspiring against them".<ref name=autogenerated4 /><ref>{{cite web|author=Steven Lee Myers|title=The New York Times|accessdate=2008-01-28|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/weekinreview/03myers.html}}</ref> The director of the ] ] commented that Putin's willingness to shut down the ''Novaya Gazeta'' could be understood because "most dismiss the involvement of the Russian government in the apartment bombings as an unsupported conspiracy theory though it has received widespread attention".<ref>{{cite web|author=Paul J. Saunders|publisher=]|url=http://www.nixoncenter.org/publications/articles/5_09_00Russia.htm|title=Russian Villain or Hero?|date=2000-05-09|accessdate=2008-01-29}}</ref> British author and journalist ] said that although "it sounds far-fetched at first", | |||
| :"remember that the FSB is simply the renamed KGB, whose raison d'etre for decades was essentially ]. Putin is himself an ex-KGB man, and he has twice blocked, through the Duma, any independent investigation into the bombings. No evidence of Chechen involvement has ever been forthcoming, and the Chechen groups have claimed that they were not responsible — although they admit to other acts of violence. The Ryazan "training exercise" excuse is preposterous. It does seem to suggest that the Russian secret services were caught red-handed".<ref>{{citenews|title=From Russia with secrets|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,18389-1610952,00.html|publisher=]|accessdate=2007-12-17|date=May 13, 2007}}</ref> | |||
| Former KGB colonel ] said that "Litvinenko's accusations are not unfounded. Chechen rebels were incapable of organising a series of bombings without help from high-ranking Moscow officials."<ref name="Nedbaeva"/> | |||
| GRU defector and author ] said that the Litvinenko's book ''Lubyanka Criminal Group'' describes "a leading criminal group that provides "protection" for all other ] in the country and which continues the criminal war against their own people", like their predecessors ] and KGB. He added: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "The book proves: ] was taken over by enemies of the people. (Is it possible to call them friends of people, them who put their own people on the needle and blow up sleeping children?). If Putin's team can not disprove the facts provided by Litvinenko, Putin must shoot himself. Patrushev and all other leadership of ''Lubyanka Criminal Group'' must follow his example."<ref>, by ] </ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| ==Neutral stance== | |||
| A summary of a conference at ] concluded that although "the Russian leadership has exploited the tragedy of the bombings for political purposes", there is no convincing proof of any version, including the "Chechen guilt" or "the 'conspiracy theory' that ties responsibility to the Russian FSB (the successor to the KGB)."<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-01-28|title=The Crisis In Chechnya: Causes, Prospects, Solutions|publisher=Princeton University|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~lisd/projects/archives/russia/Summary_Chechnya_2000.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> | |||
| Russian military analyst ] noted: "The FSB accused Khattab and Gochiyaev, but oddly they did not point the finger at Chechen president Aslan Maskhadov's regime, which is what the war was launched against."<ref name="Nedbaeva"/> | |||
| In his book ''Inside Putin's Russia'' ], former Moscow bureau chief for the '']'', mentions several aspects in favor and against the conspiracy theory<ref>{{Harvnb|Jack|2005}}</ref> | |||
| ==Explosives controversies== | |||
| It was initially reported by the FSB that the explosives used by the terrorists was ] (or "hexogen"). However, it was officially declared later that the explosive was not RDX, but a mixture of aluminum powder, ] (saltpeter), ], and ] prepared by the perpetrators in a ] at a fertilizer factory in ], Chechnya.<ref name="Kommersant2002-12-10">, '']'', December 10, 2002.</ref><ref name="Kommersant2004-01-13">{{ru icon}} , '']'', January 13, 2004. (Russian:"в бетономешалке изготовила смесь из сахара, селитры и алюминиевой пудры"</ref> | |||
| Yuri Tkachenko, the police explosives expert who defused the Ryazan bomb, insisted that it was in fact ], in reply to an FSB report the chemical test was inaccurate due to contamination of the apparatus.<ref name="guardian.co.uk">, ], ], March 12, 2000</ref><ref name="wsws.org"/> Mr. Tkachenko said that the explosives, including a timer, a power source, and a detonator were genuine military equipment and obviously prepared by a professional. He also said that the gas analyzer that tested the vapors coming from the sacks unmistakably indicated the presence of RDX. Mr. Tkachenko said that it was out of the question that the analyzer could have malfunctioned, as the gas analyzer was of world class quality, costing $20,000 and was maintained by a specialist who worked according to a strict schedule, checking the analyzer after each use and making frequent prophylactic checks. Mr Tkachenko pointed out that meticulous care in the handling of the gas analyzer was a necessity because the lives of the bomb squad experts depended on the reliability of their equipment. The police officers who answered the original call and discovered the bomb also insisted that it was obvious from its appearance that the substance in the bomb was not sugar.<ref name="Satter">{{harvnb|Satter|2003|pp=24-33 and 63-71}}</ref><ref name="NationalReview">, ], ], ], ].</ref> | |||
| In March 2000, Russian newspaper ''] ''reported about a Private Alexei Pinyaev of the 137th Regiment who guarded a military facility near the city of Ryazan. He was surprised to see that "a storehouse with weapons and ammunition" contained sacks with the word "sugar" on them. The two paratroopers cut a hole in one of the bags and made a tea with the sugar taken from the bag. But the taste of tea was terrible. They became suspicious since people were talking about the explosions. The substance turned out to be RDX. After the newspaper report, FSB officers "descended on Pinyaev's unit", accused them of "divulging a state secret", and told them "You guys can't even imagine what serious business you've got yourselves tangled up in." The regiment later sued ''Novaya Gazeta'' for insulting the honor of the Russian Army, since there was no Private Alexei Pinyaev in the regiment, according to their statement.<ref>{{harvnb|Felshtinsky|Pribylovsky|2008|pp=127-129}}</ref> After Russian troops entered Chechnya in October 1999, military officials said they had discovered a laboratory in the town of ], along with a large stockpile of explosive materials and training literature that they said appeared to be connected to several of the apartment building explosions.<ref name="nyt_6conv">, Patrick E. Tyler, ], March 20, 2001</ref> | |||
| RDX is produced in only one factory in Russia, in the city of ],<ref name="Satter"/> although it might be also smuggled from suppliers outside of Russia<ref>, Raymond Bonner, ], March 7, 1998</ref> or stolen from munition storage facilities.<ref>{{ru icon}} , ], 19.07.2003</ref><ref>{{ru icon}} </ref><ref>{{ru icon}} , ], March 5 2002</ref> According to the book by Satter, FSB changed the story about the type of explosive, since it was difficult to explain how huge amounts of RDX disappeared from the closely guarded Perm facility. Former Russian government official Dzhabrail Gakayev said that ] was ''readily available in ]''<ref>{{harvnb|Sakwa|2005|p=95}}</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| Answering a parliamentary request, the Russian Deputy Prosecutor declared in 2002 that a comprehensive testing of the samples showed no traces of any explosives, and that sacks from Ryazan in fact contained only ].<ref name="kolmogorov">{{ru icon}}, ], 2002 ()</ref> | |||
| In 2002 deputy of ] ] requested the General Prosecutor's Office on the results of investigation of criminal cases incited by facts of explosions of blocks of apartments in Moscow, Volgodonsk and discovering of explosive devices in Ryazan. The answer of Russian Deputy Prosecutor Vasiliy Kolmogorov was then published in Russian media.<ref name="kolmogorov"/> According to it, express analysis of the discovered substance made by detectors "Exprei" и "М-02" showed controversial results. To resolve the controversy, three 3 kg samples were taken from the sacks and ignited at the testing area; in all cases no explosion followed. During the additional investigation ordered by the General Prosecutor's Office, an explosives examination showed that {{quote|"the sacks contained ] — ] based on ] and ]. No traces of ]s (], ], ], ], ], ], ]) were found in the examined substance. Investigation of clocks, elements of power supply, shell, bulb and wires showed that although these items constituted a single electronic block, it wasn't capable of giving voltage when alarm of the timer was triggered and isn't a blasting device".}} It was also noted that {{quote|"the mission in Ryazan was not properly planned and done, in particular the question of limits of carrying out this action was not properly specified, no provision was made for information sharing with representatives of local bodies or bodies of law and order about the training character of the implant in case it was discovered."}}<ref name="kolmogorov"/> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
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| |authorlink=Peter Reddaway | |||
| |coauthors=Dmitri Glinski | |||
| |title=The Tragedy of Russia's Reforms: Market Bolshevism Against Democracy | |||
| |publisher=United States Institute of Peace Press | |||
| |year=2001 | |||
| |isbn=1-929223-06-4 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{citation | |||
| |first=Paul | |||
| |last=Murphy | |||
| |title=The Wolves of Islam: Russia and the Faces of Chechen Terror | |||
| |publisher=Potomac Books Inc. | |||
| |year=2004 | |||
| |isbn=978-1574888300 | |||
| }} | |||
Latest revision as of 20:40, 28 April 2023
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