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{{short description|Conflict fought for national liberation}}
] — independent since 1975, with the ] as ] of the ] against the ], the ] as symbol of ] and a farm instrument as symbol of ]]]
{{redirect-multi|4|National liberation|Liberation struggle|War of independence|War of Liberation|the concept in Marxist thought|National liberation (Marxism)|the anticommunist campaign in Kerala|Liberation Struggle (Kerala)||List of wars of independence}}
] by ], part of the ] against the ]]]


'''Wars of national liberation''', also called '''wars of independence''' or '''wars of liberation''', are conflicts fought by ] to gain ]. The term is used in conjunction with wars against foreign powers (or at least those perceived as foreign) to establish separate ]s for the rebelling nationality. From a different point of view, such wars are called ] or ].<ref name="mtw">{{cite book|title=Moscow's Third World Strategy|last=Rubinstein|first= Alvin Z.|publisher=]|year=1990|page=|isbn=0-691-07790-8|url=https://archive.org/details/moscowsthirdworl00rubi/page/80}}</ref> ] or ] is often utilized by groups labeled as national ]s, often with support from other states. The term "wars of national liberation" is most commonly used for those fought during the ] movement. Since these were primarily in the ], against Western powers and their economic influence, and a major aspect of the ], the phrase has often been applied selectively to criticize the foreign power involved.<ref name="McNamara">{{Cite journal | first = Robert S. | last = McNamara | author-link = Robert S. McNamara | title = Buildup of U.S. Forces in VietNam, Statement by Secretary of Defense, Robert S. McNamara, Before the Subcommittee on Department of Defense Appropriations of the Senate Committee on Appropriations on August 4, 1965 | journal = Department of State Bulletin | date =1965-08-30 | page = 369 | url = http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon4/ps3.htm | access-date = 2010-07-16 }}</ref>
'''Wars of national liberation''' are conflicts fought by ] military groups against an ] power in the name of ], thus attempting to remove that power's influence, in particular during the ] period. They are often founded in ] or ], sometimes with intervention from other states.<ref>See for example ] various books; .</ref>


Some of these wars were either vocally or materially supported by the ], which claimed to be an ] power, supporting the replacement of Western-backed governments with local ] or other non pro-Western parties.<ref name="mtw"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Student's Companion to Sociology|first1=Chet|last1=Ballard|first2=Jon|last2=Gubbay|first3=Chris|last3=Middleton|publisher=]|year=1997|page=36|isbn=0-7567-7867-0}}</ref> In January 1961 Soviet premier ] pledged support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world.<ref name="Little">{{Cite journal |last=Little |first=Wendell E. |year=1980 |title=Wars of National Liberation—Insurgency |url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1980/sep-oct/little.html |journal=Air University Review |issue=September–October |access-date=2010-07-16}}</ref> On the other hand, the Soviet involvement was often viewed as a way to increase the size and influence of the ], and thus a form of imperialism itself. The ] criticized the Soviet Union as being ]. In turn, China presented themselves as models of independent nationalist development outside of Western influence, particularly as such posturing and other long-term hostility meant they were regarded as a threat to Western power and regarded themselves as such, using their resources to politically, economically and militarily assist movements such as in ]. When the nation is defined in ethnic terms, wars fought to liberate it have often entailed ] or ] in order to rid the claimed territory of other population groups.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lieberman |first1=Benjamin |title=Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |date=2013 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-3038-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hayden |first1=Robert M. |title=Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers |journal=Slavic Review |date=1996 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=727–748 |doi=10.2307/2501233 |jstor=2501233 |s2cid=232725375 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2501233 |issn=0037-6779 |quote="Rendering an area ethnically homogenous by using force or in- timidation to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group" seems, in fact, an essential element in the program of many state builders and national liberation movements.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelman |first1=Herbert C. |title=Negotiating National Identity and Self-Determination in Ethnic Conflicts: The Choice Between Pluralism and Ethnic Cleansing |journal=Negotiation Journal |date=1997 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=327–340 |doi=10.1023/A:1024840110195|s2cid=189900927 }}</ref>
According to political scientist ], guerrilla wars against ] were always a political success, although they may have been in some cases a ] defeat.{{Fact|date=November 2008}} However, according to ], the tactics and strategies used against colonial powers were almost invariably failures when used against indigenous regimes.{{Fact|date=November 2008}}


==Legal issues==
Such wars were supported by the ], which claimed to be an ] power and by ] worldwide. In January 1961 Soviet premier ] pledged support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world.
] generally holds that a ] with a legal right to ] are entitled to wage wars of national liberation.<ref name=Malanczukp336>Malanczuk, 1997, p. 336.</ref><ref name="Higgins">{{cite journal | first = Noelle | last = Higgins | title = The Application of International Humanitarian Law to Wars of National Liberation | journal = Journal of Humanitarian Assistance | date = April 2004 | url = http://www.jha.ac/articles/a132.pdf | access-date = 2010-07-15 }}
</ref> While ] states tend to view these wars as ]s, ] and ] states tend to view them as international wars.<ref name=Malanczukp336/> This difference in classification leads to varying perceptions of which laws of war apply in such situations.<ref name=Malanczukp336/> However, there is general agreement among all states today in principle that the use of force to frustrate a people's legal right to self-determination is unlawful.<ref name=Malanczukp336/>


== Strategies and tactics ==
In fact, since the 1917 ], the ]ary objectives of ] were shared by many anticolonialist leaders, thus explaining the objective alliance between anticolonialist forces and ]. The concept of "]" itself had been which had theorized in ]'s famous 1916 book, . For example, ] &mdash; who founded the ] in 1930 and declared the independence of ] on ], ], following the 1945 ] &mdash; was a founding member of the ] (PCF) in 1921.
]; independent from ] since 1975, after the ] in ], with the ] as symbol of the ] against the ], the book as symbol of instruction and a farming implement as symbol of ].]]
] of national liberation are usually fought using guerrilla warfare. The main purpose of these tactics is to increase the cost of the anti-guerrilla forces past the point where such forces are willing to bear. Wars of national liberation generally depend on widespread public support, with ordinary civilians providing crucial support. Finally, wars of national liberation are often embedded in a larger context of great power politics and are often ]s.


These strategies explain why they are quite successful against foreign regimes and quite unsuccessful against indigenous regimes. Foreign regimes usually have a threshold beyond which they would prefer to go home rather than to fight the war. By contrast, an indigenous regime has no place to which they can retreat, and will fight much harder because of the lack of alternatives. Moreover, foreign regimes usually have fewer active supporters in the theater, and those that exist can often be easily identified, making it possible for guerrilla armies to identify their targets. By contrast, indigenous regimes often have much more popular support, and their supporters are often not easily recognized as such, making it much harder to conduct operations against them without also causing harm to neutral parties.
==Legal Issues==
] generally holds that a ] with a legal right to self-determination are entitled to wage wars of national liberation.<ref name=Malanczukp336>Malanczuk, 1997, p. 336.</ref> While ] states tend to view wars of national liberation as ]s, ] and ] states tend to view them as international wars.<ref name=Malanczukp336/> This difference in classification leads to varying perceptions of which laws of war apply in such situations.<ref name=Malanczukp336/> However, there is general agreement among all states today in principle that the use of force to frustrate a people's legal right to self-determination is unlawful.<ref name=Malanczukp336/>


==History== == History ==
=== Maccabean Revolt ===
The ] (167 BC-160 BC) was a war of national liberation fought by the "Judean peasantry." <ref>Bandits, Prophets, and Messiahs: Popular Movements in the Time of Jesus, By Richard A. Horsley, John S. Hanson, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999, p. 22</ref><ref>History of the Second Temple Period, Paolo Sacchi, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004, p. 239</ref> It secured the independence of the Jewish ] from the ].


===First Jewish–Roman War=== === Decolonization period ===
{{Further|Decolonization|Colonialism}}
The ] (66-73 BC) was a war of national liberation. Jewish freedom fighters attempted to liberate the Jewish people in Judea from occupation by the Roman empire. The effort failed.<ref>Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations, Martin Sicker, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, p. x</ref>
] at ] in 1781]]
] during the ] in 1814]]
The ] (1791-1804) can be considered to be one of the first wars of national liberation. It pitted self-liberated ] against ], coming about during a period in history where interconnected movements such as the ] and ]s had caused a rise of national consciousness in the Atlantic world. At the same time during the ] (1808-1833), the ] launched a series of complex wars of independence against the ], which resulted in the formation of new ] states. The ] (1821) led to the ], ending ] in the establishment of the ].


The ] (1916) in ] eventually led to the ] (1919-1921), ending in the establishment of the ]. In the ] and the 1917 ] the ]s unsuccessfully fought a number of ] until ], ], ], ], and ] gained independence. The ] fought its ] (1917-1921), which resulted in being absorbed into a ]. Following the defeat of the ], the ] fought a series of campaigns in the ] (1919-1922), which resulted in the subsequent withdrawal of ] and establishment of the ].
===Bar Kokhba revolt===
The ] of 132-135 BC was a war of national liberation fought to free the Jewish people from the oppressive Roman Empire.<ref>
Law, Politics, and Morality in Judaism, Michael Walzer, Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 154</ref>


The ] (1945-1949) followed with the Liberation of ] (1960-1962), the ] (1946–54), ] (1959–75), ] (1971) and the ] (1954–62) were all considered national liberation wars by the rebelling sides of the conflicts. The ] (ANC)'s struggle against the ] regime is also another example. Most of these rebellions were in part supported by the ]. Since the ] the ]ary objectives of ] and ] were shared by many anticolonialist leaders, thus explaining the objective alliance between anticolonialist forces and ]. The concept of "]" itself had been theorized in Lenin's 1916 book, '']''. For example, ] &mdash; who founded the ] in 1941 and declared the independence of ] on September 2, 1945, following the 1945 ] &mdash; was a founding member of the ] (PCF) in 1921. In January 1961, over three years before the ] which would mark the ]'s increased involvement in the ], Soviet premier ] would pledge support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world.<ref name=WGOW432-433>{{cite book|title=The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World|year=2005|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=9780465003112|pages=432–433|author=] and ]|type=hardcover|chapter=24 "The Cold War Comes to Africa}}</ref> In the same decade, ], led by ], would support national liberation movements in ] and ].
=== Decolonization of the Americas ===
{{main|Decolonization of the Americas|South American Wars of Independence}}
Following the ] (1775-1783), the ] (1791-1804), which led to the proclamation of ] as the first independent black republic in 1804, and the ] wars of independence from ] led in the 1810-1820s by famous '']'' such as ] in North and ] in the South, led to the decolonization of most of the Americas. ]'s independence was declared in 1822 by ].


The ] finally led to the recognition of Angola, Mozambique and ] as independent states in 1975, following the April ]. The ] became a scene of guerrilla warfare by factors of the ] and ] against ] until white-majority rule came to an end in 1979 and the ] led to the independence of ] in April 1980. In February 1991, six months after the outbreak of the ], the ] launched a ground offensive to ]. The 1991 ] led to fewer wars of independence in part of the ], including the ] and the ]. The aftermath of the ] saw the ] ], overthrowing the regime of ] and reverting its name to the ]. In the ] (2011), an uprising developed into a ], toppling the regime of ] and the ] declared the liberation of Libya from 42 years of his rule.
===The Greek War of Independence===
The ], (1821–1829,) was fought to liberate Greece from a centuries-long Ottoman occupation. Independence was secured by the intervention of a combined British-French fleet at the ].


==Ongoing wars defined as national liberation conflicts==
===Irish War of Independence===
The ] (PLO) is a national liberation movement, meaning that it holds official recognition of its legal status as such.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sess.: 1988-1989) |first=UN General Assembly (43rd |date=1989 |title=Observer status of national liberation movements recognized by the Organization of African Unity and/or the League of Arab States :: resolutions /: adopted by the General Assembly. |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/192616 |journal=] |language=en}}</ref> Other national liberation movements in the ] at that time included the ] (ANC) and ] (PAC). It is the only non-African national liberation movement to hold observer status in the OAU, and was one of the first national liberation movements granted permanent observer status by the ] pursuant to a 1974 resolution.<ref name=Shultzp100>Shultz, 1988, p. 100.</ref><ref name=Wilsonp119>Wilson, 1990, p. 119.</ref> The PLO also participates in UN Security Council debates; since 1988, it has represented the ] at the UN under the name "]".<ref name=Boczekp86>Boczek, 2005, p86.</ref>
The ] of 1919-1921 led to the independence of most of ] (26 counties out of 32).


The following current conflicts have sometimes also been characterized as wars or struggles of national liberation (such a designation is often subject to controversy):
=== First Indochinese War===
The ] (1946-54,) secured the independence of Vietnam from French imperial domination, although liberation from the French was sought as far back as the 1920s by the ].


* Many ] and foreign observers consider the ] and ]s to be wars of national liberation against ].<ref>] (2005), ''Chechnya: From Past to Future'', p. 208. Anthem Press, {{ISBN|1-84331-164-X}}, 9781843311645</ref><ref>Evangelista, Matthew (2002), The Chechen wars: will Russia go the way of the Soviet Union?, p. 142. Brookings Institution Press, {{ISBN|0-8157-2498-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8157-2498-8}}</ref><ref>Dunlop, John B. (1998), ''Russia Confronts Chechnya'', p. 93. ], {{ISBN|0-521-63619-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-63619-3}}</ref>
===Africa===
* Some Iraqi insurgent groups, and certain political groups believe that the ] was a war of national liberation against the US-led ].
* Many Kurds believe the ] to be a war of national liberation of ] in ].
* The ] has sought the independence of ] since 1975 and considered its guerrilla war against Morocco as national liberation war (like many foreign observers, countries and the ]), while Morocco considered it a ] movement. Polisario had been recognized by many countries, the African Union and the ] as the legitimate representative of the ]. The hostilities are frozen since the 1991 cease-fire following the settlement plan agreement.


==Conflicts==
The ] (1954-62) was one of the most famous national liberation wars. The ] (ANC)'s struggle against the ] regime is also part of these wars.
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2011}}
{{Seealso|List of wars of independence}}
]]]
] during the ]]]
] against Turkish troops was crucial for the independence of ]]]
] in 1877]]
]]]
Conflicts which have been described as national liberation struggles:
*The ] (1521–23).
*The ].
*The ].
*The ].
*The ].
*The ].
*The ] against Napoleon's occupation of Spain and Portugal during the ].
*The ].
*The ] against Napoleon's occupation of German lands during the ].
*The ].
*The ].
*The ] (1821).
*The ].
*The ] (1844–1856).
*The ] (1848-1866)
*The ] (1863–1865).
*The ].
*The ]
*Explicit wars of ]:
**The ]
**The ], ] against Japanese invasion of Vietnam.
**The ], ] against French colonial rule in Indochina
**The ]
**The Tamil ] to ] in Tamil-speaking territories and discrimination against the Tamil people.
**The ] against French colonial rule in 1947.
**The ] against ] (1954–1962).
**The ] in ], ], and ] against ] (1961-1974).
**In ], by the ] against ].
**In ] by the ] (NLF) and the ] (FLOSY).
**The ] against British rule in Kenya.
**The ] in white-ruled ] (now ]), led by ] and ].
**In ], by the ] against ] & ], and by the ] against ] & ]n occupation.
**In ], by the South West Africa People's Organization (]) and ] against ] South Africa.
**The ] in ].
**The ] in ].
**The ].
*The ].
*The ].
*The ].
*The ].
*The ].
*The ] of ] within ], by the ] (National Liberation Army) against ] occupators and their collaborators.
*The ] in which forces of the ] and the ] fought against occupying forces of ] and forces of the ] during the ] of ].
*In ], the ].
*In ], the ] against ].
*The ], with ] and the ] against ], ], ] and communist bloc.
*The ] against ].
*The ] against ].
*The ] against the occupying ].
*In ], the ] and ] in ]; also, the ] ] against the ], aimed at creating a socialist republic within a united Ireland, from 1969 until 1998.
*In ], against the occupying ] and ] during the ].
*The ] of 1977 with ] against ]
*In ], by ]'s forces against the occupying ].
*In ], by ] against the ] dictatorship
*In ], against the ] regime by ] and ].
*The ] and ]s, by the Chechen peoples against ]
*The ]
*In ], by the ] against ]
*The ] by the ] against ] has been considered a national liberation movement.
*The ]
*The ]
*The ]
*The ]


== See also ==
], led by ], supported national liberation movements in ] and ].
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* ]
* ]
* ]'s '']''
* ] and ]
* ]
* ], especially V and XII
* ]
* ] and ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
}}


== References ==
The ] finally led to the recognition of Angola, Mozambique and ] as independent states in 1975, following the April ].
{{Reflist|30em}}


===China=== ==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NR7mFXCB-wgC&pg=PA86 |page=86|title=International law: a dictionary|author=Boleslaw Adam Boczek|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8108-5078-1}}
*{{cite book |title=Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law |first=Peter Autor |last=Malanczuk |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-415-11120-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/akehurstsmoderni0000mala }}
*{{cite book|title=Native vs. settler: ethnic conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland, and South Africa|first1=Thomas G.|last1=Mitchell|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2000|isbn=978-0-313-31357-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PNt46aB_sYC&pg=PA41 }}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtebWixsIdYC&pg=PA100 |title=The Soviet Union and revolutionary warfare: principles, practices, and regional comparisons|author=]|publisher=Hoover Press|year=1988|isbn=978-0-8179-8711-4}}
*{{cite book|title=International law and the use of force by national liberation movements|first1=Heather A.|last1=Wilson|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-19-825662-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNj5hzOHIasC&pg=PA119 }}
{{Refend}}


Attempts to break free of Chinese Imperialism, whether in the Imperial of Communist era, have generally proven unsuccessful. The ] Rebellion]] of 1856-1873) succeeded in expelling the ] and establishing a Sultanate of the Muslim ] in what is now southwestern ], but the Qing managed a successful re-conquest.<ref>The Chinese Sultanate, Atwill, David G.. Stanford University Press, 2005</ref>

A revolt broke out in Tibet in 1959 against the Communist rule, but the region has not experienced large-scale rebellion since then.

== On-going national liberation conflicts==
The following current conflicts have sometimes been characterized as wars or struggles of national liberation (such a designation is often subject to controversy):

* Many ] and foreign observers consider the ] and ]s to be wars of national liberation against ].<ref>] (2005), ''Chechnya: From Past to Future'', p. 208. Anthem Press, ISBN 184331164X, 9781843311645</ref><ref>Evangelista, Matthew (2002), The Chechen wars: will Russia go the way of the Soviet Union?, p. 142. Brookings Institution Press, ISBN 0815724985, 9780815724988</ref><ref>Dunlop, John B. (1998), ''Russia Confronts Chechnya'', p. 93. ], ISBN 0521636191, 9780521636193</ref>
* Some Iraqi insurgent groups, and certain political groups believe that the ] is a war of national liberation against the US-led ].
* Some think that the ] (PLO), dubbed "the official representative of the ]", which was granted observer status in the ] in 1974.<ref>{{cite web|title=Security Council|publisher=WorldMUN2007 - ]|date=26 March - 30 March 2007|accessdate=2007-07-31|url=http://www.worldmun.org/MUNBase2007/files/downloads/guides/SCGuideA.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sovereignty Is No Longer Sacrosanct:Codifying Humanitarian Intervention|author=Jarat Chopra et al.|publisher=Humanitarianism and War Project|accessdate=2007-08-21|url=http://hwproject.tufts.edu/publications/electronic/e_sinls.html}}</ref> However, the contention of being a liberation movement is extremely controversial, due to its goals initially of destroying another sovereign state to achieve "liberation."
* The ] has sought the independence of ] since 1975 and considered its guerilla war against Morocco as national liberation war, while Morocco considered it a ] movement. The hostilities are frozen since the 1991 cease-fire following the settlement plan agreement.
* As a result of the ], a group of ethnic-Albanian politicians in ] declared (on ] ]) an independent "Republic of Kosovo" from the ]'s ]. After the dissolution of SFRY, an unofficial referendum was held for independence in 1992 that passed and began a conflict between the Albanian separatists led by the ] and the Yugoslav military and paramilitary armed forces. This lasted until 1999 when a peace was brokered and the province came under ] under the terms of UNSCR 1244. International negotiations between ] and ] are in progress on the future status of Kosovo. The conflict would only count as a war of national liberation if you exclude the fact that an Albanian state already exists, and that ethnic-Albanians in Kosovo seek their own separate nationhood.{{fact|date=April 2009}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links== ==External links==
{{Portal|Politics|History}}
* *
*
==Bibliography==
*
{{refbegin}}
*{{Citation|title=AKEHURST'S MODERN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL LAW|author=first-Peter Autor|last=Malanczuk|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=041511120X, 9780415111201}}
{{refend}}

== See also ==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] & ]
* ]
* ]
* ] and ]
* ]
* ]
* ]'s '']'' (1832) ("war is the continuation of politics by other means")
* ]

]
]
]


{{Authority control}}
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 08:58, 22 December 2024

Conflict fought for national liberation "National liberation", "Liberation struggle", "War of independence", and "War of Liberation" redirect here. For the concept in Marxist thought, see National liberation (Marxism). For the anticommunist campaign in Kerala, see Liberation Struggle (Kerala). For other uses, see List of wars of independence.
Allied naval intervention at the Battle of Navarino by Ambroise Louis Garneray, part of the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire

Wars of national liberation, also called wars of independence or wars of liberation, are conflicts fought by nations to gain independence. The term is used in conjunction with wars against foreign powers (or at least those perceived as foreign) to establish separate sovereign states for the rebelling nationality. From a different point of view, such wars are called insurgencies or rebellions. Guerrilla warfare or asymmetric warfare is often utilized by groups labeled as national liberation movements, often with support from other states. The term "wars of national liberation" is most commonly used for those fought during the decolonization movement. Since these were primarily in the third world, against Western powers and their economic influence, and a major aspect of the Cold War, the phrase has often been applied selectively to criticize the foreign power involved.

Some of these wars were either vocally or materially supported by the Soviet Union, which claimed to be an anti-imperialist power, supporting the replacement of Western-backed governments with local Communist or other non pro-Western parties. In January 1961 Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev pledged support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world. On the other hand, the Soviet involvement was often viewed as a way to increase the size and influence of the Soviet Bloc, and thus a form of imperialism itself. The People's Republic of China criticized the Soviet Union as being social imperialist. In turn, China presented themselves as models of independent nationalist development outside of Western influence, particularly as such posturing and other long-term hostility meant they were regarded as a threat to Western power and regarded themselves as such, using their resources to politically, economically and militarily assist movements such as in Vietnam. When the nation is defined in ethnic terms, wars fought to liberate it have often entailed ethnic cleansing or genocide in order to rid the claimed territory of other population groups.

Legal issues

International law generally holds that a people with a legal right to self-determination are entitled to wage wars of national liberation. While Western states tend to view these wars as civil wars, Third World and communist states tend to view them as international wars. This difference in classification leads to varying perceptions of which laws of war apply in such situations. However, there is general agreement among all states today in principle that the use of force to frustrate a people's legal right to self-determination is unlawful.

Strategies and tactics

Flag of Mozambique; independent from Portugal since 1975, after the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon, with the Kalashnikov as symbol of the armed struggle against the Portuguese empire, the book as symbol of instruction and a farming implement as symbol of economic growth.

Wars of national liberation are usually fought using guerrilla warfare. The main purpose of these tactics is to increase the cost of the anti-guerrilla forces past the point where such forces are willing to bear. Wars of national liberation generally depend on widespread public support, with ordinary civilians providing crucial support. Finally, wars of national liberation are often embedded in a larger context of great power politics and are often proxy wars.

These strategies explain why they are quite successful against foreign regimes and quite unsuccessful against indigenous regimes. Foreign regimes usually have a threshold beyond which they would prefer to go home rather than to fight the war. By contrast, an indigenous regime has no place to which they can retreat, and will fight much harder because of the lack of alternatives. Moreover, foreign regimes usually have fewer active supporters in the theater, and those that exist can often be easily identified, making it possible for guerrilla armies to identify their targets. By contrast, indigenous regimes often have much more popular support, and their supporters are often not easily recognized as such, making it much harder to conduct operations against them without also causing harm to neutral parties.

History

Decolonization period

Further information: Decolonization and Colonialism
Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781
The Battle of Rancagua during the Chilean War of Independence in 1814

The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) can be considered to be one of the first wars of national liberation. It pitted self-liberated slaves against Imperial France, coming about during a period in history where interconnected movements such as the American and French Revolutions had caused a rise of national consciousness in the Atlantic world. At the same time during the Spanish American wars of independence (1808-1833), the patriots launched a series of complex wars of independence against the royalists, which resulted in the formation of new Latin American states. The Siege of Patras (1821) led to the Greek War of Independence, ending Ottoman domination in the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece.

The Easter Rising (1916) in Dublin eventually led to the Irish War of Independence (1919-1921), ending in the establishment of the Irish Free State. In the aftermath of World War I and the 1917 Russian Revolution the Bolsheviks unsuccessfully fought a number of independence movements until Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland gained independence. The Ukrainian People's Republic fought its war of independence (1917-1921), which resulted in being absorbed into a Soviet republic. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish National Movement fought a series of campaigns in the war of independence (1919-1922), which resulted in the subsequent withdrawal of Allied forces and establishment of the Republic of Turkey.

The Indonesian War of Independence (1945-1949) followed with the Liberation of Irian Jaya (1960-1962), the First Indochina War (1946–54), Vietnam War (1959–75), Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) and the Algerian War (1954–62) were all considered national liberation wars by the rebelling sides of the conflicts. The African National Congress (ANC)'s struggle against the apartheid regime is also another example. Most of these rebellions were in part supported by the Soviet Union. Since the Russian Revolution the revolutionary objectives of communism and socialism were shared by many anticolonialist leaders, thus explaining the objective alliance between anticolonialist forces and Marxism. The concept of "imperialism" itself had been theorized in Lenin's 1916 book, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. For example, Ho Chi Minh — who founded the Viet-Minh in 1941 and declared the independence of Vietnam on September 2, 1945, following the 1945 August Revolution — was a founding member of the French Communist Party (PCF) in 1921. In January 1961, over three years before the Gulf of Tonkin incident which would mark the United States government's increased involvement in the Vietnam War, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev would pledge support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world. In the same decade, Cuba, led by Fidel Castro, would support national liberation movements in Angola and Mozambique.

The Portuguese colonial wars finally led to the recognition of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau as independent states in 1975, following the April Carnation Revolution. The Rhodesian Bush War became a scene of guerrilla warfare by factors of the ZANLA and ZAPU against Rhodesia until white-majority rule came to an end in 1979 and the Lancaster House Agreement led to the independence of Zimbabwe in April 1980. In February 1991, six months after the outbreak of the Gulf War, the coalition led by the United States launched a ground offensive to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation. The 1991 breakup of Yugoslavia led to fewer wars of independence in part of the Yugoslav Wars, including the Ten-Day War and the Croatian War of Independence. The aftermath of the Rwandan genocide saw the AFDL invade Zaire, overthrowing the regime of Mobutu and reverting its name to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In the first Libyan Civil War (2011), an uprising developed into a rebellion, toppling the regime of Muammar Gaddafi and the National Transitional Council declared the liberation of Libya from 42 years of his rule.

Ongoing wars defined as national liberation conflicts

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is a national liberation movement, meaning that it holds official recognition of its legal status as such. Other national liberation movements in the OAU at that time included the African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC). It is the only non-African national liberation movement to hold observer status in the OAU, and was one of the first national liberation movements granted permanent observer status by the United Nations General Assembly pursuant to a 1974 resolution. The PLO also participates in UN Security Council debates; since 1988, it has represented the Palestinian people at the UN under the name "Palestine".

The following current conflicts have sometimes also been characterized as wars or struggles of national liberation (such a designation is often subject to controversy):

Conflicts

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See also: List of wars of independence
Irish Rebellion of 1798
Battle of Ostrołęka during the November Uprising
Defence of Shipka Pass against Turkish troops was crucial for the independence of Bulgaria
Clash between Turks and Romanians during the Romanian War of Independence in 1877
Estonian artillery preparing for a battle during the 1918–1920 Estonian War of Independence

Conflicts which have been described as national liberation struggles:

See also

References

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  2. McNamara, Robert S. (1965-08-30). "Buildup of U.S. Forces in VietNam, Statement by Secretary of Defense, Robert S. McNamara, Before the Subcommittee on Department of Defense Appropriations of the Senate Committee on Appropriations on August 4, 1965". Department of State Bulletin: 369. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
  3. Ballard, Chet; Gubbay, Jon; Middleton, Chris (1997). The Student's Companion to Sociology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 36. ISBN 0-7567-7867-0.
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  7. Kelman, Herbert C. (1997). "Negotiating National Identity and Self-Determination in Ethnic Conflicts: The Choice Between Pluralism and Ethnic Cleansing". Negotiation Journal. 13 (4): 327–340. doi:10.1023/A:1024840110195. S2CID 189900927.
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  9. Higgins, Noelle (April 2004). "The Application of International Humanitarian Law to Wars of National Liberation" (PDF). Journal of Humanitarian Assistance. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
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  11. Sess.: 1988-1989), UN General Assembly (43rd (1989). "Observer status of national liberation movements recognized by the Organization of African Unity and/or the League of Arab States :: resolutions /: adopted by the General Assembly". United Nations Digital Library.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  14. Boczek, 2005, p86.
  15. Sakwa, Richard (2005), Chechnya: From Past to Future, p. 208. Anthem Press, ISBN 1-84331-164-X, 9781843311645
  16. Evangelista, Matthew (2002), The Chechen wars: will Russia go the way of the Soviet Union?, p. 142. Brookings Institution Press, ISBN 0-8157-2498-5, ISBN 978-0-8157-2498-8
  17. Dunlop, John B. (1998), Russia Confronts Chechnya, p. 93. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-63619-1, ISBN 978-0-521-63619-3

Bibliography

External links

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