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{{Short description|Forests in the temperate zone}}
{{POV|date=June 2009}}
{{tooshort|date=March 2009}} {{more citations needed|date=January 2022}}
[[File:Windy Bay forest.jpg|thumb|
'''Temperate ]s''' are ]ous or ] ] that occur in the ] and receive high rainfall.
] rainforest, ], Canada]]
] of Washington, USA.]]

'''Temperate rainforests''' are ]s with ]ous or ] ] that occur in the ] and receive heavy ].

Temperate rainforests occur in oceanic moist regions around the world: the ] of ]n ] as well as the ] in the ]n region of the ]; the ] of southwestern ]; the rainforests of ] and southeastern ]; ] (small pockets in ] and larger areas in ], southern ], northern ] and ]); southern ]; the ]–] region from the southeasternmost coastal zone of the ], through ], to ], and northern ].

The moist conditions of temperate rainforests generally support an understory of ]es, ]s and some shrubs and berries. Temperate rainforests can be ] or ]s.


==Definition== ==Definition==
] ], Chile]]
For temperate rain forests of North America, Alaback's definition<ref name=Alaback>Alaback, P.B. 1991: ''Comparative ecology of temperate rainforests of the Americas along analogous climatic gradients''. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 64: 399–412.</ref> is widely recognized<ref name=Definition>{{cite web|url=http://www.inforain.org/rainforestatlas/rainforestatlas_page2.html |title=A Review of Past and Current Research|publisher=Ecotrust|accessdate=2008-10-23}}</ref>: For temperate ]s of North America, Alaback's definition<ref name=Alaback/> is widely recognized:<ref name=Definition>{{cite web|url=http://www.inforain.org/rainforestatlas/rainforestatlas_page2.html|title=A Review of Past and Current Research|publisher=Ecotrust|access-date=2008-10-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216092224/http://www.inforain.org/rainforestatlas/rainforestatlas_page2.html|archive-date=2012-12-16}}</ref>
# Annual ] over 1400 mm. * Annual ] over {{convert|140|cm|in|abbr=on}} (KJ)
# Mean annual temperature between 4 and 12 degrees Celsius. (39 and 54 degrees Fahrenheit) * Mean annual temperature is between {{convert|4|and|12|C|F}}.
However, required annual precipitation depends on factors such as distribution of rain over the year, temperatures over the year and fog presence, and definitions in other regions of the world differ considerably. For example, Australian definitions are ]-structural rather than ]:
* Closed ] of ]s excludes at least 69% of the sky.
* Forest is composed mainly of tree ] which do not require fire for regeneration, but with ]s able to regenerate under shade and in natural openings.<ref name=Floyd>Floyd, A. (1990) ''Australian Rainforests in New South Wales'', Vol. 1. Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping Norton, NSW, {{ISBN|0949324302}}.</ref>
Australian definitions would exclude some temperate rainforests of western North America that are ] dominant, such as parts of the ] in southern Oregon and northern California, the ] of western Washington and the ] in British Columbia,<ref>Reilly, Matthew & Spies, Thomas. (2015). Regional variation in stand structure and development in forests of Oregon, Washington, and inland Northern California. Ecosphere. 6. art192. 10.1890/ES14-00469.1.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Egan |first1=Brian |last2=Fergusson |first2=Susan |date=March 1999 |title=The Ecology of the Coastal Douglas-fir Zone |url=https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Bro/bro30.pdf |publisher=British Columbia Ministry of Forests}}</ref> as their dominant tree species, the Coast Douglas-fir, requires stand-destroying disturbance to initiate a new cohort of seedlings.<ref name=Pseudotsuga>{{cite web|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/psemenm/all.html#BOTANICAL%20AND%20ECOLOGICAL%20CHARACTERISTICS |title=Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|publisher=USDA Forest Service|access-date=2008-10-23}}</ref> The North American definition would in turn exclude a part of temperate rainforests under definitions used elsewhere.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}


==Canopy level==
However, required annual precipitation depends on factors such as distribution of rainfall over the year, temperatures over the year and fog presence, and definitions in other countries differ considerably. For example, Australian definitions are ]-structural rather than ]:
] of ], ]]]
# Closed ] of ]s excludes at least 70% of the sky.
For ], ] refers to the upper layer or ] zone, formed by mature ] and including other biological organisms (], ], arboreal animals, etc.). The canopy level is the third level of the temperate rainforest. The trees forming the canopy, ], can stand as tall as 100 metres or more. A variety of species survive in the canopy. The tops of these trees collect most of the rain, moisture, and photosynthesis that the ] takes in. They form a canopy over the forest, covering about 95% of the floor during the summer.
# Forest is composed mainly of tree ], which do not require fire for regeneration but their ]s are able to regenerate under shade and in natural openings.<ref name=Floyd>Floyd, A. 1990: ''Australian Rainforests in New South Wales, Volume 1''. Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping Norton, NSW.</ref>
The latter would, for example, exclude a part of the temperate rain forests of western North America, as ], one of its dominant tree species, requires stand-destroying disturbance to initiate a new cohort of seedlings<ref name=Pseudotsuga>{{cite web|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/psemenm/all.html#BOTANICAL%20AND%20ECOLOGICAL%20CHARACTERISTICS |title=Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|publisher=USDA Forest Service|accessdate=2008-10-23}}</ref>. The North American definition would in turn exclude a part of temperate rain forests in other countries.


The canopy's coverage affects the ] levels of forest floor plants. When the canopy is in full bloom, covering about 95% of the floor, plant survival decreases. Some plant species have become shade tolerant in order to survive.
==Characteristics==
The treetops take in the heavy amount of rain and keep the lower levels of the forest damp.
]es and ]es on ]s in ].]]
Temperate rain forests have following characteristics:
* Relative proximity to the ocean, usually coastal mountains. Temperate rain forests depend on the proximity to the ocean to moderate seasonal variations in temperature, creating milder winters and cooler summers than continental-climate areas. Many temperate rain forests have summer fogs that keep the forests cool and moist in the hottest months. Coastal mountains increase rainfall on the ocean-facing slopes.
* ]s are uncommon because of constant high ] content in forest.
* ]s, including ]es, are abundant. They are dependent on rainfall and high atmospheric moisture levels, as they have no access to ] water.


The canopy survives through ]. The leaves provide energy and nutrients for the trees, which provide homes and food for the forest. Through satellite data, the radiation use efficiency (RUE) calculates the annual amount of photosynthesis that occurs in temperate rainforests. A diverse amount of photosynthesis occurs based on the location and ]s of the forest.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}
Temperate rain forests may be predominantly ], ] ], broadleaf ], or mixed forests, and occur in ] and ] ].
==Distribution==


===North America===
The temperate coniferous rain forests sustain the highest levels of biomass in any terrestrial ecosystem and are notable for trees of massive proportions, including ] (''Sequoia sempervirens''), ] (''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''menziesii''), ] (''Picea sitchensis''), ] (''Fitzroya cupressoides''), ] (''Chamaecyparis formosensis''), ] (''Taiwania cryptomerioides''), ] (''Cryptomeria japonica'') and ] (''Agathis australis'').


====Pacific temperate rainforests====
==Global distribution==
{{Main|Pacific temperate rain forests}}
]
], Oregon, US. This area, on the west side of the mountain, receives close to {{convert|100|in|mm}} of rain per year.]]
Temperate forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rain forests only occur in few regions around the world. Most of these occur in Oceanic-Moist Climates: the ] in Western ] (Southeastern ] to Central ]), the ] and ] temperate rain forests of southwestern ] (Southern ] and adjacent ]), pockets of rain forest in northwest ] (southern ] to northern ]), temperate rain forests of southeastern ] (] and ]) and the ] temperate rain forests (]'s west coast).
A portion of the temperate rain forest region of ], the largest area of temperate zone rainforests on the planet, is the ] ecoregion, which occur on west-facing ] along the Pacific coast of ], from ] in ] to northern ], and are part of the ]. In the different system established by the ], this same general region is classed as the ] by ] and as the ] and ] Level II ecoregions by the United States ]. In terms of the ] system used by ], the bulk of the region is the ] but a small southern portion is part of the ].
] forest in ]]]


Sub-ecoregions of the Pacific temperate rainforest ecoregion as defined by the ] include the ], ] ecoregion, ] ecoregion, ], ], ], ], and ] ecoregions. They vary in their ], but are all predominantly ], sometimes with an ] of ] ]s and ]s. Most of the precipitation occurs in winter, similar to ]s, but in summer, ] moisture is extracted by the trees and produces a ] keeping the forest moist.<ref name=Franklin>Franklin, J.F. & Dyrness C.T. (1988) ''Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington''. Oregon State University Press, {{ISBN|0870713566}}.</ref> The Northern California coastal forests are home to the ] (''Sequoia sempervirens''), the world's tallest tree. In the other ecoregions, ] (''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''menziesii''), ] (''Picea sitchensis''), ] (''Tsuga heterophylla'') and ] (''Thuja plicata'') are the most important tree species. A common feature of Pacific temperate rainforests of North America is the ], a fallen tree which as it decays, provides ecological facilitation to seedlings. Trees such as the ], ], ], ], and ] are more closely related to coniferous and deciduous trees in the temperate forests of ].
Others occur in Subtropical-Moist Climates: ]'s ], the Colchian rain forests of the eastern ] region (] and ]), the Caspian temperate rain forests of ] (]), the mountain temperate rain forests along eastern ]'s Pacific Coast, southwest ]'s Taiheiyo forests, Australia's coastal ] and New Zealand's ].


], located on Vancouver Island]]
Some areas, however, such as the ] of ], northern ] and nortwestern ], ] in BC and Montana, and the ] Far East (Ussuri, ], ]) in ] have more of continental climate but get enough precipitation in both rain and snow to harbor significant pockets of temperate rain forest.
] (in the ]) in British Columbia, Canada]]
Some of the largest expanses of old growth are found in ], ], ], ], ], and throughout ] (including British Columbia's Coastal Mountain Ranges), with the coastal ] containing the largest expanses of old growth temperate rainforest found in the world.


]'s ], ], ] (east of ]) and the ] of Southeastern British Columbia (west of the Canadian ] that extend into parts of Idaho and Northwestern Montana in the US), which include the ], ], and the ], have the largest stretch of interior temperate coniferous rainforests.<ref>Northern Wetbelt – University of Northern British Columbia http://wetbelt.unbc.ca/</ref> These ]s have more continental climate with a large proportion of the precipitation falling as snow. Being closer to the Rocky Mountains, there is more of a diverse mammalian fauna. Some of the best interior rainforests are found in ] and ] in the Columbia Mountains.
Scattered small pockets of temperate rain forest also exist along the ] from northern ] to ]. The mountainous coniferous forests of the ] bordering ] and ] are a good example contain some of the richest high-elevation coniferous evergreen forests in East Asia.


==== Appalachian temperate rainforests ====
==Temperate rain forest regions==
{{main|Appalachian temperate rainforest}}
], Oregon, USA. This area, on the west side of the mountain, receives over 2.5 meters of rain per year.]]
] in British Columbia, Canada.]] ] in the ]]]
Temperate rainforests are located in the southern ] where ] increases precipitation of weather systems coming from the west and from the ]. Temperate rainforest extends through the Appalachian areas of western ],<ref>{{cite web
| title = Average Annual Precipitation North Carolina
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/NC/nc.gif
| access-date = 2006-02-23 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060222085855/http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/NC/nc.gif |archive-date = 2006-02-22}}</ref> southeastern ],<ref>{{cite web
| title = Average Annual Precipitation Kentucky
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/KY/ky.gif
| access-date = 2006-02-23 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060222090153/http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/KY/ky.gif |archive-date = 2006-02-22}}</ref> southwest ], eastern ],<ref>{{cite web
| title = Average Annual Precipitation Tennessee
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/TN/tn.gif
| access-date = 2006-02-23 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060222090153/http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/TN/tn.gif |archive-date = 2006-02-22}}</ref> northern South Carolina,<ref>{{cite web
| title = Jocasse Gorges
| publisher = Learn NC
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/cede_jocassee/1
| access-date = 2006-02-23 }}</ref> and northern ].<ref>{{cite web
| title = Average Annual Precipitation Georgia
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/GA/ga.gif
| access-date = 2006-02-23 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060222090232/http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/GA/ga.gif |archive-date = 2006-02-22}}</ref>


Red spruce and Fraser fir are dominant canopy trees in high mountain areas. In higher elevation (over {{convert|1,980|m|ft|abbr=off|disp=semicolon}}), Fraser fir is dominant, in middle elevation ({{convert|1,675|to|1,890|m|ft|disp=semicolon}}) red spruce and Fraser fir grow together, and in lower elevation ({{convert|1,370|to|1,650|m|ft|disp=semicolon}}) red spruce is dominant. Yellow birch, mountain ash, and mountain maple grow in the understory. Younger spruce and fir and shrubs like raspberry, blackberry, hobblebush, southern mountain cranberries, red elderberry, minniebush, southern bush honeysuckle are understory vegetation. Below the spruce-fir forest, at around {{convert|1200|m|ft}}, are forests of American beech, yellow birch, maple birch, and oak. Skunk cabbage and ground juniper are northern species that were pushed into the areas from the north.
===Pacific temperate rain forests of western North America===
{{main|Pacific temperate rain forests (WWF ecoregion)}}
A portion of the temperate rain forest region of ], the largest area of temperate zone rain forests on the planet, is the ] which occur on west-facing ] along the Pacific coast of ], from ] in ] to northern ], and are part of the ] ecozone. In the different system established by the ], this same general region is classed as the ] by ] and as the ] and ] Level II ecoregions by the United States ]. In terms of the ] system used by ], the bulk of the region is the ] but a small southern portion is part of the ].


The mild and wet environment supports the high diversity of fungi. Over 2,000 species live in this area and scientists estimate many unidentified fungi may be there.
Sub-ecoregions of the Pacific temperate rain forest ecoregion as defined by the ] include the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] ecoregions. They vary in their species composition, but are all predominantly ], sometimes with an ] of ] ]s and ]s. The conifer dominance is a consequence of two climatic factors: Although the region has high total precipitation, most occurs during the winter, and summers are relatively dry. During summer, moisture stress reduces the amount of photosynthesis possible especially for broadleaved trees. However, winters are very mild, and coniferous species are capable to carry on substantial amounts of their yearly photosynthesis during fall, winter and spring<ref name=Franklin>Franklin, J.F. & Dyrness C.T.: ''Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington''. Oregon State University Press.</ref>. The Northern California coastal forests are home to the ] (''Sequoia sempervirens''), the world's tallest tree. In the other ecoregions, ] (''Pseudotsuga menziesii'' var. ''menziesii''), ] (''Picea sitchensis''), ] (''Tsuga heterophylla'') and ] (''Thuja plicata'') are the most important tree species. A common feature of Pacific temperate rain forests of North America is the ], a fallen tree which as it decays, provides ecological facilitation to seedlings.


===South America===
Some of the best forests are found in ], ], ], ], ], and throughout ] (including British Columbia's Coastal Mountain Ranges) with the coastal ] being the largest temperate rainforest found in the world.


====Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests====
]'s ], ], ] (east of ]) and the ] of Southeastern British Columbia (west of the Canadian ] that extend into parts of Idaho and Northwestern Montana in the USA), which include the ], ], and the ], have the largest stretch of interior temperate coniferous rain forests<ref>Northern Wetbelt - University of Northern British Columbia http://wetbelt.unbc.ca/</ref>. These ]s have more continental climate with a large proportion of the precipitation falling as snow. Being closer to the Rocky Mountains, there is more of a diverse mammalian fauna. Some of the best interior rain forests are found in ] and ] in the Columbia Mountains.
{{main|Valdivian temperate rainforests|Magellanic subpolar forests}}
]'' forest in ]]]
The temperate rainforests of ] are located on the Pacific coast of southern ], on the west-facing slopes of the southern Chilean coast range, and the ] in both Chile and Western ] down to the southern tip of South America, and are part of the ]. Temperate rainforests occur in the ] and ] ecoregions. The Valdivian rainforests are home to a variety of broadleaf evergreen trees, like '']'', '']'', and ] (''Nothofagus''), but include many ] as well, notably ] (''Fitzroya cupressoides''), one of the largest tree species of the world.


The Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests are the only temperate rainforests in ]. Together they are the second largest in the world, after the ] of ]. The Valdivian forests are a refuge for the ], and share many plant ] and ] with the temperate rainforests of ], ], and ]. Fully half the species of woody plants are ] to this ecoregion.
], part of the ].]]


In the Valdivian region the Andean Cordillera intercepts moist westerly winds along the Pacific coast during winter and summer months; these winds cool as they ascend the mountains, creating heavy rainfall on the mountains' west-facing slopes. The northward-flowing oceanic Humboldt Current creates humid and foggy conditions near the coast. The tree line is at about 2,400&nbsp;m in the northern part of the ecoregion (35°S), and descends to 1,000&nbsp;m in the south of the ]. In the summer the temperature can climb to {{convert|16.5|C|abbr=on}}, while during winter the temperature can drop below {{convert|7|C|abbr=on}}.<ref>Di Castri, F and Hajek, E. (1976) , 163 pages with English summary, Catholic University of Chile.</ref>
===Appalachian temperate rain forests of the eastern USA===
Temperate rain forests in the eastern USA are limited to areas in the southern ] where ] causes weather systems coming from the west and from the ] to drop more precipitation than in surrounding areas. The largest of these forest blocks are located in western ]<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Average Annual Precipitation North Carolina
| work =
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/NC/nc.gif
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-02-23 }}</ref>, northern ]<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Average Annual Precipitation Georgia
| work =
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/GA/ga.gif
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-02-23 }}</ref>, and far eastern ]<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Average Annual Precipitation Tennessee
| work =
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/TN/tn.gif
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-02-23 }}</ref>, largely in the ], ], ] National Forests and nearby ]<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Jocasse Gorges
| work =
| publisher = Learn NC
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/cede_jocassee/1
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-02-23 }}</ref>. In addition, small areas in the highest elevations of the ] also receive substantial rainfall, with ], for example, collecting about 2000 mm of precipitation per year<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Smoky Mountains Weather
| work =
| publisher = National Park Service
| date =
| url = http://www.nps.gov/grsm/planyourvisit/weather.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-02-23 }}</ref>. Although the highest summits of the ] of ]<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Average Annual Precipitation Vermont
| work =
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/VT/vt.gif
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-02-23 }}</ref>, the ] of ]<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Average Annual Precipitation New Hampshire
| work =
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/NH/nh.gif
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-02-23 }}</ref>, and ] in ]<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Average Annual Precipitation Maine
| work =
| publisher = Oregon State University
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.ocs.orst.edu/pub/maps/Precipitation/Total/States/ME/me.gif
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-02-23 }}</ref> receive over 2000 mm of precipitation per year, some of these locations have ] and whether or not temperate rain forests exist in these regions is subject to debate. It is possible for small blocks of temperate rainforest to exist along the slopes of these mountain ranges below the ] where annual precipitation is sufficient for such forests to thrive.


===Africa===
===Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests of South America===


====Knysna-Amatole coastal rainforests (South Africa)====
] forest in ]]]
], in the ], South Africa]]
The temperate rain forests of ] are located on the Pacific coast of southern ], on the west-facing slopes of the southern Chilean coast range, and the ] in both Chile and ] down to the southern tip of South America, and are part of the ] ecozone. The Valdivian rainforests are home to a variety of broadleaf evergreen trees, like '']'', '']'', and ] (''Nothofagus''), but include many ] as well, notably ] (''Fitzroya cupressoides''), one of the largest tree species of the world. The Valdivian rainforests occur in the ] and ] ecoregions.
The temperate rainforests of ] are part of the ] that are located along South Africa's ] between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth on the south-facing slopes of South Africa's Drakensberg Mountains facing the Indian Ocean. There are several coniferous ] that grow here. This forest receives a lot of moisture as fog from the Indian Ocean, and resembles not only other temperate rainforests worldwide, but also the montane evergreen ] forests that occur at higher elevations in southern and eastern Africa. A fine example of this forest is in South Africa's ].


===Macaronesia===
The Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforest's are the only temperate rain forests in ]. Together they are the second largest in the world, after the ] of ]. The Valdivian forests are a refuge for the ], and share many plant ] and ] with the temperate rainforest's of ], ], and ]. Fully half the species of woody plants are ] to this ecoregion.
====Azores====
], Azores]]
The rainforests of the ] (also known as ]s, due to the constant cloud coverage caused by ]) are found in the more humid, montane areas that transition from the lower altitude ]. They are generally found at altitudes ranging from {{convert|600|to|1000|m|abbr=on}}, and receive {{convert|2000|to|6000|mm|abbr=on}} of average annual rainfall.<ref name="pingo">{{cite web |last1=Elias |first1=Rui Bento |title=Laurissilva dos Açores: Mito ou Realidade? |url=https://montanheiros.com/pdf-files/pingo-lava/PingoLava2014-Laurissilva.pdf |publisher=Pingo de Lava |access-date=13 October 2024}}</ref><ref name="diaselias">{{cite book |last1=Elias |first1=Rui Bento |last2=Dias |first2=Eduardo |title=Ecologia das Florestas de Juniperus dos Açores |date=2008 |publisher=Cadernos de Botância nº5 |location=Angra do Heroísmo |isbn=978-989-630-978-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fernández‐Palacios |first1=José María |last2=Otto |first2=Rüdiger |last3=Capelo |first3=Jorge |last4=Caujapé‐Castells |first4=Juli |last5=de Nascimento |first5=Lea |last6=Duarte |first6=Maria Cristina |last7=Elias |first7=Rui B. |last8=García‐Verdugo |first8=Carlos |last9=Menezes de Sequeira |first9=Miguel |last10=Médail |first10=Frédéric |last11=Naranjo‐Cigala |first11=Agustín |last12=Patiño |first12=Jairo |last13=Price |first13=Jonathan |last14=Romeiras |first14=Maria M. |last15=Sánchez‐Pinto |first15=Lázaro |last16=Whittaker |first16=Robert J. |title=In defence of the entity of Macaronesia as a biogeographical region |journal=Biological Reviews |date=December 2024 |volume=99 |issue=6 |pages=2060–2081 |doi=10.1111/brv.13112 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/brv.13112 |access-date=24 November 2024 |language=en |issn=1464-7931|hdl=10451/65343 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>


Despite being located in the temperate zone, the Azores rainforest is similar in many ways to the cloud forest environments of the tropics and subtropics.<ref name="pingo"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berger |first1=F. |last2=Aptroot |first2=A. |title=Further contributions to the flora of lichens and lichenicolous fungi of the Azores |journal=Arquipélago |date=2002 |volume=Life and Marine Sciences |issue=19A |pages=1-12 |url=https://islandlab.uac.pt/fotos/publicacoes/publicacoes_1_Berger_Aptroot_19A.pdf |access-date=20 October 2024}}</ref> These pluvial montane forests hold the highest biodiversity and degree of endemism of the whole archipelago.<ref name="pingo"/> They are dominated by dense formations of endemic ], ], ] and ]<ref name="pingo"/><ref name="diaselias"/> with several species of ] ferns<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schäfer |first1=H. |title=The grammitidaceae, pteridophyta, of macaronesia |journal=Feddes Repertorium |date=December 2001 |volume=112 |issue=7-8 |pages=509–523 |doi=10.1002/fedr.4921120710}}</ref> and an abundance of mosses and rainforest lichens (such as '']'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jørgensen |first1=Per M. |last2=James |first2=Peter W. |title=A new Erioderma taxon from the Azores |journal=The Lichenologist |date=1 November 2001 |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=483–485 |doi=10.1006/lich.2001.0352 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0024282901903524 |access-date=13 October 2024 |issn=0024-2829}}</ref>
In the Valdivian region the Andean Cordillera intercepts moist westerly winds along the Pacific coast during winter and summer months; these winds cool as they ascend the mountains, creating heavy rainfall on the mountains' west-facing slopes. The northward-flowing oceanic Humboldt Current creates humid and foggy conditions near the coast. The tree line is at about 2,400 m in the northern part of the ecoregion (35° S), and descends to 1,000 m in the south of the Valdivian region. In the summer the temperature can climb to 62 degrees ] (16.5 °C), while during winter the temperature can drop below 45 °F (7 °C).<ref>Di Castri F di & E. Hajek 1976.
</ref>


The climate in the rainforest is mild and cool, averaging {{convert|12|C|abbr=on}}<ref name="pingo"/> with a narrow diurnal temperature range and temperatures that only drop below freezing in exceptional years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rede Hidrometeorológica dos Açores - Direcção Regional do Ambiente - SRAAC - GRA |url=https://redehidro.ambiente.azores.gov.pt/ |website=redehidro.ambiente.azores.gov.pt |access-date=13 October 2024}}</ref>
===South Africa's Knysna-Amatole coastal rain forests===
], in the ], ]]]
The temperate rain forests of ] are part of the ] that are located along South Africa's ] between Cape Town and Durban on the south-facing slopes of South Africa's Drakensberg Mountains facing the Indian Ocean. There are several coniferous ] that grow here. This forest receives a lot of moisture as fog from the Indian Ocean, and resembles not only other temperate rain forests worldwide, but also the montane evergreen ] forests that occur at higher elevations in southern and eastern Africa. A fine example of this forest is in South Africa's ].


Since human settlement in the 15th century, these rainforests, which once covered most of the high altitudes of the archipelago, have gradually been reduced to relics and are now found almost exclusively on three of the nine islands (], ] and ]). Their main threat is the expansion of cattle grazing pastures.<ref name="diaselias"/>
===Northwest Europe===
Temperate rainforest occurs in fragments across the west of ], ], southern ] and northern ]. They mainly consist of oak species, typically '']'' and have been managed by people for thousands of years.
====Britain====
The woodlands are variously referred to in Britain as Upland Oakwoods, Atlantic Oakwoods, Western Oakwoods or Temperate Rainforest. They are also listed in the ] as ] and ] depending on the ground flora. In England many steep sided valleys in Devon and Cornwall harbour the rainforest with notable examples being the ] valley in Cornwall and the valley of the ] which, flowing off Dartmoor, has rainfall in excess of 2 metres per year.<ref name="UK Government Met Office">. ''South-west England Rainfall''. Retrieved 9 September 2008.</ref>


===Europe===
], ] in the ]]]
Temperate rainforest occurs in fragments across the north and west of Europe in countries such as southern ] (see ]) and northern ]. Other temperate rainforest regions include areas of south eastern Europe such as mountains on the east coast of the ], surrounding North Western ] along with the ].


===Colchian rain forests of Turkey and Georgia=== ====Atlantic Oakwood forest (Britain and Ireland)====
], Ireland]]
The Colchian rainforests are found around the southeast corner of the Black Sea in ] and ] and are part of the ] ecoregion, together with the drier Euxine forests further west. The Colchian rain forests are mixed, with deciduous ] ''(Alnus glutinosa)'', hornbeam ('']'' and '']''), ] (''Fagus orientalis''), and ] ''(Castanea sativa)'' together with evergreen ] (''Abies nordmanniana'', the tallest tree in Europe at 78m), ] (''Picea orientalis'') and ] (''Pinus sylvestris'').
The woodlands are variously referred to in Britain as Upland Oakwoods, Atlantic Oakwoods, Western Oakwoods or Temperate Rainforest, ], and colloquially as ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Secrets of the Celtic Rainforest |url=https://www.plantlife.org.uk/scotland/our-work-scotland/projects-scotland/celtic-rainforests |website=Plantlife |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> They are also listed in the ] as ] and ] depending on the ground flora. The majority of surviving fragments of Atlantic Oakwoods in Britain occur on steep-sided slopes above rivers and lakes which have avoided clearance and intensive grazing pressure. There are notable examples on the islands and shores of ], ], ] and one of the best preserved sites on the remote ] in Argyll.<ref name="UK Government Met Office" /> There are also small areas on steep-sided riverine gorges in ] and Mid Wales, such as found at the ] in Gwynedd.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Benson |first=Jen and Sim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0YmEAAAQBAJ&dq=dolmelynllyn&pg=PT489 |title=Short Runs in Beautiful Places: 100 Spectacular Routes |date=2020-04-01 |publisher=National Trust |isbn=978-1-911657-18-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Wild places in South Snowdonia |url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/south-snowdonia/features/wild-places-in-south-snowdonia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419192535/https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/south-snowdonia/features/wild-places-in-south-snowdonia |archive-date=2022-04-19 |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=National Trust |language=en}}</ref>


In England, they occur in the ] (] Woods) and steep sided riverine and estuarine valleys in Devon and Cornwall and the ] disused slate & granite quarries in these counties. This includes the ] valley in Cornwall and the valley of the ] which flows off ] and has rainfall in excess of 2&nbsp;metres per year.<ref name="UK Government Met Office">. ''South-west England Rainfall''. Retrieved 9 September 2008.</ref>
===Iran rain forests and jungles===
], ] ]]
The ] ecoregion in northern ] contains a jungle in the form of a rain forest which stretches from the east in the ] to the west in the ] province, covering the other provinces of ], ], and ]. The Elburz or ] mountain range is the highest mountain range in the ] which captures the moisture of the ] to its north and forms ] and temperate rain forests in the northern part of ]. The Iranians call this forest and region ''Shomal'' which means ''north'' in ].


], located in the ], is the best example of the ancient damp-climate oceanic forest that covered an estimated 80 percent of Ireland prior to the arrival of humans in 7,000 BCE.
They are ] forests containing tree species such as Black Alder ('']'' subsp. ''barbata''), hornbeam ('']'' and '']''), Caucasian wingnut ('']''), chestnut-leaved oak ('']''), Caucasian oak ('']''), oriental beech ('']''), Persian ironwood ('']'') and Persian silk tree ('']'').


]'s ''Lost Rainforests of Britain'' attempts to find, map, photograph, and restore them.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shrubsole |first1=Guy |author1-link=Guy Shrubsole |title=Life finds a way: in search of England's lost, forgotten rainforests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/29/life-finds-a-way-in-search-of-englands-lost-forgotten-rainforests |access-date=10 January 2022 |work=] |date=29 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Take action: help map the lost rainforests of Britain |url=https://lostrainforestsofbritain.org/2021/03/16/mapping-the-lost-rainforests-of-england/ |website=Lost Rainforests of Britain |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en |date=16 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=12 Temperate Rainforests Around the World |url=https://www.treehugger.com/lush-temperate-rain-forests-around-world-4869718 |website=Treehugger |publisher=] |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rainforest Scorecard |url=https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/our-work/publications/secrets-of-the-celtic-rainforest-first-rate-rainforest-scorecard |website=] |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How healthy is your rainforest? - A guide for educators |url=https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/our-work/publications/how-healthy-is-your-rainforest-a-guide-for-educators |website=] |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Branching Out: Am I in a Rainforest? |url=https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/our-work/publications/branching-out-am-i-in-a-rainforest |website=] |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Shrubsole |first1=Guy |author1-link=Guy Shrubsole |title=Lost rainforests of Britain |url=https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=1VX8n1mzclN2OGSPTPUtM2r2txKOceDEz&ll=50.61593039999999%2C-3.7415176000000083&z=18 |website=My Maps |access-date=10 January 2022}}</ref>
===Taiwan's mountain rain forests===
These forests are found in eastern Taiwan and Taiwan's Central Mountain Ranges, part of the ] region covering the higher elevations. Most of the lower elevations are covered by subtropical broadleaf evergreen forests, dominated by Chinese Cryptocarya ('']''), '']'' and Japanese Blue Oak ('']''). Higher elevations give way to temperate forests with large stands of ] Taiwan Cypress ('']''), Camphor tree ('']''), maple ('']'' spp.), Chinese yew ('']''), Taiwan Hemlock ('']''), and Taiwan Douglas-fir (''] var. wilsoniana''). These higher elevation forests include also giant conifers Formosan Cypress ('']'') and Taiwania ('']'') Some fine examples of forests are found in Yushan (]) National Park and ].<ref name=Taiwan>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0172_full.html |title=Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2008-10-25}}</ref><ref name=farjon>Farjon, A. (2005). ''Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys''. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 1-84246-068-4</ref>


====Colchian (Colchis) rainforests (Bulgaria, Turkey and Georgia)====
===Japan's Taiheiyo (Pacific) rain forests===
{{Main|Euxine–Colchic deciduous forests}}
], the largest specimen of Japanese Cedar ('']''), on ], Japan]]
Southwestern ]'s ] region covers much of ] and ] Islands, and the Southern/Pacific Ocean-facing side of ] ("Taiheiyo" is the ], in Japanese). Here the natural forests are mainly ] ] in lower ]s and ] in higher elevations. The limit occurs at 500-1000 metres depending on ]<ref name=Satoo>Satoo, T. (1983). ''Temperate broad-leaved evergreen forests of Japan''. In: Ovington, J.V. (ed.) ''Ecosystems of the world 10: Temperate broad-leaved evergreen forests'', pp. 169-189. Elsevier, Amsterdam</ref>. The main tree species are members of beech ] (]). In lower altitudes these include evergreen oaks ('']'' spp.), Japanese Chinquapin ('']'') and Japanese Stone Oak ('']'')<ref name=Satoo/>, and in higher altitudes Japanese Blue Beech ('']'') and Siebold's beech ('']'')<ref name=Ching>Ching, K.K. (1991). ''Temperate deciduous forests in East Asia''. In: Röhrig, E. & Ulrich, B. (eds.) ''Ecosystems of the world 7: Temperate deciduous forests'', pp. 539-556. Elsevier, Amsterdam</ref>.


The Colchian rainforests are found around both the southeast and west corners of the Black Sea starting in ] all the way to ] and ] and are part of the ] ecoregion, together with the drier Euxine forests further west. The Colchian rainforests are mixed, with deciduous ] ''(Alnus glutinosa)'', hornbeam ('']'' and '']''), ] (''Fagus orientalis''), and ] ''(Castanea sativa)'' together with evergreen ] (''Abies nordmanniana'', the tallest tree in Europe at 78 m), ] (''Picea orientalis'') and ] (''Pinus sylvestris'').
Some of the best preserved examples of forest are found in ] on the Island of ] off of ] in a very wet ] (the annual ] is 4,000 to 10,000 mm depending on ]). Because of relatively infertile ]s on ], Yakushima's forests in higher elevations are dominated by a giant ] species, Japanese Cedar ('']''), rather than deciduous forests typical of the mainland.<ref name=farjon/><ref name=Yakushima>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/yaku.html |title=Yakushima - Natural site datasheet from WCMC|publisher=World Conservation Monitoring Centre|accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref> Other areas include ] near ] in southern Kyūshū. On Southern Honshū, there is a splendid forest with the beautiful ] located in ]. This particular area of Honshū has been described as one of the rainiest spots in Japan.
The refugium is the largest throughout the Western Asian{{nbsp}}/ near Eastern region.<ref>Zazanashvili N, Sanadiradze G, Bukhnikashvili A, Kandaurov A, Tarkhnishvili D. (2004). "Caucasus", pp. 148–153 in Mittermaier RA, Gil PG, Hoffmann M, Pilgrim J, Brooks T, Mittermaier CG, Lamoreux J, da Fonseca GAB (eds.) ''Hotspots revisited, Earth's biologically richest and most endangered terrestrial ecoregions''. Sierra Madre: CEMEX/Agrupacion Sierra Madre.</ref><ref>van Zeist W, Bottema S. (1991). ''Late Quaternary vegetation of the Near East''. Weisbaden: Reichert, {{ISBN|3882265302}}.</ref><ref name=tgm/> The area has multiple representatives of ] ] groups of ] with the closest relatives in Eastern Asia, southern Europe, and even North America.<ref name=Milne/><ref>Kikvidze Z, Ohsawa M. (1999) "Adjara, East Mediterranean refuge of Tertiary vegetation", pp. 297–315 in: Ohsawa M, Wildpret W, Arco MD (eds.) Anaga Cloud Forest, a comparative study on evergreen broad-leaved forests and trees of the Canary Islands and Japan. Chiba: Chiba University Publications.</ref><ref name=Denk/> Over 70 species of forest snails of the region are endemic.<ref name=Pokryszko/> Some relict species of vertebrates are ], ], ] and ]; they are almost entirely endemic groups of animals such as lizards of genus '']''. In general, ] of this refugium is quite distinct and differs from that of the other Western Eurasian refugia.<ref name=tgm />
Genetic data suggest that the Colchis temperate rainforest, during the ], was fragmented into smaller parts; in particular, evolutionary lineages of the ] from the central and south-western Colchis remained isolated from one another during the entire Ice Age.<ref name=Tarkhnishvili/>


====Fragas do Eume (Spain)====
], ], Australia.]]
{{Main|Fragas do Eume}}
], ], Australia.]]


The {{lang|gl|]|italic=no}} is a natural park situated in ], north-western ]. {{lang|gl|Fraga}} is a ] word for 'natural woodland', (old-growth forest) and the park is an example of a temperate rainforest in which oak ('']'' and '']'') is the ]. The protected area extends along the valley of the river Eume within the {{lang|gl|]|italic=no}} municipalities of {{lang|gl|]|italic=no}}, {{lang|gl|]|italic=no}}, {{lang|gl|]|italic=no}}, {{lang|gl|]|italic=no}} and {{lang|gl|]|italic=no}}. Some 500 people reside within the park. The monastery of ] also lies within the park.
===Australian temperate and subtropical rain forests===
In ] rainforests occur near the mainland east coast and in ]. Australian non-tropical rainforests are divided principally into ], warm-temperate and cool-temperate rainforests. They are ] ] forests with the exception of ] rainforests of Tasmania. ] forests are not classified as rainforests although some eucalypt forest types receive high annual ] (to over 2000 mm in ]<ref name=Reid>Reid et al. ''Vegetation of Tasmania.'' 2005.</ref>), and in the absence of ] they may develop to rainforest. If these widespread ] forests were considered rainforests, the total area of rainforest in Australia would be much larger.


The area was declared a ] (a level of protection lower than ]) in 1997. It is one of six natural parks in Galicia. The ] has recognised the park as a ]. There are a number of species of ferns. Invertebrate species include the ] and it is an important site for amphibians.
Subtropical rainforests can be found from ] and ], in the north they occur with increasing ]. They are floristically very rich, up to 100 ] ] per 10 ]s<ref name=Floyd2>Floyd, A. 1990: ''Australian Rainforests in New South Wales, Volume 2''. Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping Norton, NSW.</ref> including booyongs ('']'' spp.), Yellow Carabeen ('']''), Rosewood ('']''), figs ('']'' spp.) and ('']'' spp.).<ref name=harden>Harden, G., McDonald, B. & Williams, J. (2006). ''Rainforest Trees and Shrubs.'' Gwen Harden Publishing, Nambucca Heads. ISBN 0-9775553-0-5</ref>


==== Vinatovača rainforest (Serbia) ====
Warm-temperate rainforest replaces subtropical rainforest on poorer soils or with increasing altitude and latitude in NSW and ].
{{main|Vinatovača}}
Cool-temperate rainforests are widespread in Tasmania (] ecoregion) and they can be found scattered from the ] listed ] and ] on the NSW/Queensland border to ], ], ] and ] in Victoria. In the northern NSW they are usually dominated by Antarctic Beech ('']''), in the southern NSW by Pinkwood ('']'') and in Victoria and Tasmania by Myrtle Beech ('']'')<ref name=harden/>. The montane rainforests of Tasmania are dominated by tasmanian ] ]s (mainly '']'' spp.)<ref name=Reid/>.
The '''Vinatovača rainforest''', alternatively spelled '''vintovača''', is the only rainforest in Serbia.<ref name="rts">{{cite web|url= http://www.rts.rs/page/stories/sr/story/57/srbija-danas/968488/vinatovaca---jedina-prasuma-u-srbiji.html |title= Vinatovača - jedina prašuma u Srbiji|date=7 October 2011 |publisher=]|language=sr}}</ref> It has been left undisturbed for centuries due to strict conservation laws starting in the 17th century.


Vinatovača is situated in the central ] in the ] region, at an altitude between {{convert|640|m|abbr=on}} and {{convert|800|m|abbr=on}}. It is isolated and hard to reach which helped its preservation. It is believed that trees have not been cut in Vinatovača since about 1650. Being under strict protection means not only that the trees that die of old age are not being cleared or removed, but even picking herbs or mushrooms is forbidden. It is considered as an example of what central and eastern Serbia's natural look is. Beech trees are up to {{convert|45|m|abbr=on}} tall and some specimens are estimated to be over 300 years old.<ref name="rts"/>
] near ], New Zealand]]


===Asia===
===New Zealand temperate rain forests===
The temperate rain forests of New Zealand occur on the western shore of New Zealand's ] and on New Zealand's ]. The forests are made up of coniferous ] and broadleaf evergreen trees; the podocarps are abundant at lower elevations, while ] (''Nothofagus'') can be found on higher slopes and in the cooler southernmost rain forests. Ecoregions include the ] and ].


====Caspian Hyrcanian forest (Iran and Azerbaijan)====
===Southern ocean island temperate rain forests===
The ] ecoregion in northern ] contains a jungle in the form of a rainforest which stretches from the east in the ] to the west in the ], covering the other provinces of ], ], and ]. The Elburz or ] mountain range is the highest mountain range in the ] which captures the moisture of the ] to its north and forms ] and temperate rainforests in the northern part of ]. The Iranians call this forest and region ''Shomal'' which means ''north'' in ]. This forest was known for most of the history for being home to the now extinct ].
The islands of the ] group and ]'s southern outlying islands of the ], ], and ] all host temperate rain forests. Annual rainfall totals are high due to the lack of landmass in their latitudes. Some areas of these islands are too windy for forests, but those areas that are not as windy are capable of growing temperate rain forests. The only thing preventing the ] from having temperate rain forest is the proximity of the very high Andes Mountains to the west.


In southeast ], this ecoregion includes the ] and the ], the latter being evenly divided with Iran to the south. They are ] forests containing tree species such as black alder ('']'' subsp. ''barbata''), hornbeam ('']'' and '']''), Caucasian wingnut ('']''), chestnut-leaved oak ('']''), Caucasian oak ('']''), oriental beech ('']''), Persian ironwood ('']'') and Persian silk tree ('']'').
==Images==

<gallery>
The existing protected areas in Azerbaijan include:
Image:Abtao-Parque Nacional Chiloé.jpg|] in the west of ], ].

Image:Losophosoria.jpg|'']'' ferns in the ] of Southern Chile.
* ] – {{convert|88.4|km2|mi2}}
Image:Ghaleye Rud Khan (14).JPG|], Northern Iran.
* ] – {{convert|427.97|km2|mi2}}
Image:Sandspit River Wielangta Forest.jpg|The Sandspit River in a cool temperate rainforest area of ], ].
* ] – {{convert|15|km2|mi2}}
</gallery>
* ] – {{convert|3|km2|mi2}}

====High elevation mountain rainforests (Taiwan)====
These forests are found in eastern Taiwan and Taiwan's Central Mountain Ranges, part of the ] region covering the higher elevations. Most of the lower elevations are covered by subtropical broadleaf evergreen forests, dominated by Chinese Cryptocarya ('']''), '']'' and Japanese Blue Oak ('']''). Higher elevations give way to temperate forests with large stands of ] Taiwan Cypress ('']''), Camphor tree ('']''), maple ('']'' spp.), Chinese yew ('']''), Taiwan Hemlock ('']''), and Taiwan Douglas-fir (''] var. wilsoniana''). These higher elevation forests include also giant conifers Formosan Cypress ('']'') and Taiwania ('']'') Some fine examples of forests are found in Yushan (]) National Park and ].<ref name=Taiwan>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0172 |name=Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests|access-date=2008-10-25}}</ref><ref name=farjon>Farjon, A. (2005). ''Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys''. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. {{ISBN|978-1-84246-068-9}}</ref>

====Baekdu Mountain Range (Taebaek and Sobaek Mountain Ranges) and South Sea forests (Korea)====
{{See also|Southern Korea evergreen forests|Gotjawal Forest}}
], which is the southern end of Baekdu Mountain Range.]]

The forests that cover the mountains and valleys of the ] – from ], in the north, to ], in the southwest, forming the spine of the ] – and the ] of the peninsula – including ] – feature a wide variety of conifers and broadleaf trees. Much of these forests are protected in mountain and marine national forests, such as in ], which encompasses {{cvt|150.14|km2}} of mountainous forests spread out over 69 uninhabited islands and 30 inhabited islands in ] that provide a home to 1,142 plant species, including major species such as red pine, black pine, common camellia, serrata oak, and cork oak, as well as rare species such as nadopungnan (sedirea japonica), daeheongnan (cymbidium nipponicum) and the Korean winter hazel. Major animals species, such as otters, small-eared cats, and badgers also call Hallyeohaesang National Park home, and overall there are 25 mammal species, 115 bird species, 16 reptile species, 1,566 insect species, and 24 freshwater fish species found among the forested, mountains islands.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hallyeohaesang National Park|url=http://english.knps.or.kr/Knp/Hallyeohaesang/Intro/Introduction.aspx?MenuNum=1&Submenu=Npp|website=Korea National Park Service|access-date=15 June 2015}}</ref>

] covers {{cvt|398.539|km2}} of mountainous forests near the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula, and is a ] designated Biosphere Preservation District. Over 2,000 animal species live in Seoraksan, including the Korean goral, musk deer, and there are also more than 1,400 rare plant species, such as the edelweiss.<ref>{{cite web|title=Seoraksan National Park|url=http://english.knps.or.kr/Knp/Seoraksan/Intro/Introduction.aspx?MenuNum=1&Submenu=Npp|website=Korea National Park Service|access-date=15 June 2015|archive-date=9 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509003646/http://english.knps.or.kr/Knp/Seoraksan/Intro/Introduction.aspx?MenuNum=1&Submenu=Npp|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Taiheiyo (Pacific) rainforests (Japan)====
{{See also|Japanese temperate rainforest}}
], the largest specimen of Japanese Cedar ('']''), on ], Japan]]
Southwestern ]'s ] region covers much of ] and ] Islands, and the Southern/Pacific Ocean-facing side of ] ("Taiheiyo" is the ], in Japanese). Here the natural forests are mainly ] ] in lower ]s and ] in higher elevations. The '']'' species is an endemic deciduous species that can be found in this area. The limit occurs at 500–1000&nbsp;metres depending on ].<ref name=Satoo>Satoo, T. (1983). ''Temperate broad-leaved evergreen forests of Japan''. In: Ovington, J.V. (ed.) ''Ecosystems of the world 10: Temperate broad-leaved evergreen forests'', pp. 169–189. Elsevier, Amsterdam</ref> The main tree species are members of beech ] (]). In lower altitudes these include evergreen oaks ('']'' spp.), Japanese Chinquapin ('']'') and Japanese Stone Oak ('']''),<ref name=Satoo/> and in higher altitudes Japanese Blue Beech ('']'') and Siebold's beech ('']'').<ref name=Ching>Ching, K.K. (1991). ''Temperate deciduous forests in East Asia''. In: Röhrig, E. & Ulrich, B. (eds.) ''Ecosystems of the world 7: Temperate deciduous forests'', pp. 539–556. Elsevier, Amsterdam</ref>

Some of the best preserved examples of forest are found in ] on the Island of ] off of ] in a very wet ] (the annual ] is 4,000 to 10,000&nbsp;mm depending on ]). Because of relatively infertile ]s on ], Yakushima's forests in higher elevations are dominated by a giant ] species, Japanese Cedar ('']''), rather than deciduous forests typical of the mainland.<ref name=farjon/><ref name=Yakushima>{{cite web |url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/yaku.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080718173307/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/yaku.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-07-18 |title=Yakushima – Natural site datasheet from WCMC |publisher=World Conservation Monitoring Centre |access-date=2008-10-27 }}</ref> Other areas include ] near ] in southern Kyūshū. On Southern Honshū, there is a forest with the ] located in ]. This particular area of Honshū has been described as one of the rainiest spots in Japan.

==== Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests (Bhutan, India, Nepal) ====
{{See also|Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests}}
It is a ] ] found in the middle elevations of the eastern ], including parts of ], ], and ].

====Southern Siberian rainforest====
{{See also|Southern Siberian rainforest}}
{{expand section|date=June 2017}}

====Temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East====
{{See also|Temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East}}The ] region is the eastern-most region of both Russia and the Asian continent as a whole. The Russian federal subjects of ] and ] are located in the southeast of this region, with ] sharing a land border with ] and ], and both federal subjects face the Pacific ocean to the eaat and share maritime borders with Japan. The ] mountain range is located here and extends for about 1000 km in a northeast direction, parallel to the coast, from near the coastal city of ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Central Sikhote-Alin, Russia |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/766 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=whc.unesco.org (UNESCO)}}</ref>

Whilst the mountain range ascends from sea level to a maximum altitude of around 1900 metres contains a variety of different habitats, they are located in region with a temperate climate. During the last ] (or ice age), the area was not glaciated, allowing for the development of a complex ] containing species with origins in Siberia’s boreal forest and Manchuria’s subtropical forests.<ref name="DellaSala2011">DellaSala D. 2011. Temperate and Boreal Rainforests of the World. Island Press</ref> Temperate rainforest covers most of the mountain slopes and the biogeographic region is known as the Primorye centre of plant diversity, a biogeographic meeting point of flora and fauna from temperate, subtropical and taiga climatic regions.<ref name=":0" /> Historically these forests ranged from the southeastern Pacific coast of Russia, through ] and into northern ], however vast human development, particularly in China, has limited the forest to its current range in the Russian Far East.<ref name="DellaSala20112">DellaSala D. 2011. Temperate and Boreal Rainforests of the World. Island Press</ref> In 2001, ] recognized a 1.5 million hectare area of forest in the central part of the Sikhote-Alin mountains as a ] in Russia, citing the area as one of the most unique and valuable areas of intact forest in the world <ref>Central Sikhote-Alin. (n.d.). Retrieved November 22, 2014, from https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/766</ref>

Although not limited to forests, more than 2500 species of vascular plants have been described in the Primorye biographic region, of which many are considered relict and endemic species. Flora of mosses and lichens are particularly diverse. About 200 species are listed in the IUCN Red List as rare and endangered.<ref name="Cushman2002">Cushman, S. A., & Wallin, D. O. (2002). Separating the effects of environmental, spatial and disturbance factors on forest community structure in the Russian Far East. Forest Ecology and Management, 168(1), 201-215</ref> The forests fall in the transition zone between two ]: the southern Asian ] and the northern ].<ref name="Cushman2002" /> The rainforests are a mix of deciduous broadleaf and coniferous forest, with the dominant tree species becoming more coniferous at higher elevations, and more mixed forest found at lower elevations or within mountain valleys. The most common species include the ] (''Pinus koraiensis'') and ] (''Abies holophylla'') at the lowest elevations and coastlines. ] (''Picea jezoensis'') and ] (''Abies nephrolepis'') are common species to be found from 700–1400 metres altitude.<ref name="DellaSala20113">DellaSala D. 2011. Temperate and Boreal Rainforests of the World. Island Press</ref> Other tree species include ] (''Quercus mongolica''), ] (''Betula platyphylla''), ] (''Pinus sylvestris''), ] (''Populus tremula''), ] (''Pinus pumila''), ] (''Betula ermanii''), and ] (''Larix gmelinii''), a deciduous conifer common throughout, but dominant in the northernmost reaches of the forest<ref name="Cushman2002" /> Other characteristic flora include various ], ], (''Nelumbo nucifera'') and the willow ''],'' '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', ''Carpinus cordata'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']'' and many others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Yang |last2=Hu |first2=Yunfeng |date=1 January 2020 |title=Detecting Forest Disturbance and Recovery in Primorsky Krai, Russia, Using Annual Landsat Time Series and Multi–Source Land Cover Products |journal=Remote Sensing |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=129 |bibcode=2020RemS...12..129H |doi=10.3390/rs12010129 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Along with the neighbouring ] of Russia, the temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East hold the last remaining habitats for the critically endangered ], ], and ]. It has been estimated that there are less the 600 tigers.<ref name="Carroll2006">Carroll, C., & Miquelle, D. G. (2006). Spatial viability analysis of Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica in the Russian Far East: the role of protected areas and landscape matrix in population persistence. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43(6), 1056-1068</ref> and around 90 leopards left in the wild.<ref>Uphyrkina, O., Miquelle, D., Quigley, H., Driscoll, C., & O'Brien, S. J. (2002). Conservation genetics of the Far Eastern leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis). Journal of Heredity, 93(5), 303-311</ref> The area also contains populations of ], ], and ], as the Russian Far East, altogether, might probably be the only place in the world where endangered tigers, leopards, bears, and grey wolves coexist. This region also happens to be some of the last of habitat of the ] (Bubo blakistoni); along with being the world’s largest owl, it is unique in the way that it eats fish (primarily ]) and relies on ] along river banks to hunt, nest, and breed.<ref>WCS Study: Huge Trees Help Huge Salmon-Eating Owl. (2013, August 15). Retrieved November 22, 2014, from http://www.wcs.org/press/press-releases/rare-blakiston-fish-owls.aspx</ref> The ] is similar to the ] and ] of ], and can be found in the dense, remote pockets of broadleaf, coniferous and deciduous forests of Far East Russia. Common ungulates include ], ], ], Manchurian moose, and ].

===Oceania===

====Australian temperate rainforests====
] temperate rainforest in ], ]]]
] trees in ], ], Australia]]
]'' tree ferns in temperate rainforest in ], Australia]]
{{See also|Eastern Australian temperate forests|Rainforest in Victoria (Australia)}}

In ] rainforests occur near the mainland east coast and in ]. There are warm-temperate and cool-temperate rainforests. They are ] ] forests with the exception of ] rainforests of Tasmania. ] forests are not classified as rainforests although some eucalypt forest types receive high annual ] (to over 2000&nbsp;mm in ]<ref name=Reid>Reid, J. B. and Hill, R. S. (2005) ''Vegetation of Tasmania'', Australian Biological Resources Study, {{ISBN|064644512X}}</ref>), and in the absence of ] they may develop to rainforest. If these widespread ] forests were considered rainforests, the total area of rainforest in Australia would be much larger.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Physiognomic Classification of Australian Rain Forests|first1=Len|last1=Webb| author-link=Leonard Webb (academic) | journal = Journal of Ecology| publisher=British Ecological Society : Journal of Ecology Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 551-570|date=1 Oct 1959|volume = 47|issue = 3|pages = 551–570|doi = 10.2307/2257290|jstor = 2257290|bibcode=1959JEcol..47..551W }}</ref>

Warm-temperate rainforest replaces subtropical rainforest on poorer soils or with increasing altitude and latitude in ] and ]. Cool-temperate rainforests are widespread in Tasmania (] ecoregion) and they can be found scattered from the ] listed ] and ] on the NSW/Queensland border to ], ], ] and ] in Victoria. In the northern NSW they are usually dominated by Antarctic Beech ('']''), in the southern NSW by Pinkwood ('']'') and Coachwood ('']'') and in Victoria and Tasmania by Myrtle Beech ('']''), Southern Sassafras ('']'') and Mountain Ash ('']'').<ref name=harden>Harden, G., McDonald, B. & Williams, J. (2006). ''Rainforest Trees and Shrubs.'' Gwen Harden Publishing, Nambucca Heads. {{ISBN|978-0-9775553-0-7}}</ref> The montane rainforests of Tasmania are dominated by Tasmanian ] ]s (mainly '']'' spp.).<ref name=Reid/> They are dominated by Ferns such as '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''.

====New Zealand temperate rainforests====
The temperate rainforests of New Zealand occur on the western shore of the ] and on the ]. The forests are made up of coniferous ] and broadleaf evergreen trees. The podocarps are abundant at lower elevations, while ] (''Nothofagus'') can be found on higher slopes and in the cooler southernmost rainforests. Ecoregions include the ] and ].
{{Clear}}
] near ], New Zealand]]


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
{{reflist}}
<ref name=Alaback>{{cite journal|author=Alaback, P.B. |year=1991|title=Comparative ecology of temperate rainforests of the Americas along analogous climatic gradients|url=http://rchn.biologiachile.cl/pdfs/1991/3/Alaback_1991.pdf|journal=Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. |volume=64|pages= 399–412}}</ref>

<ref name=Denk>{{cite journal|vauthors=Denk T, Frotzler N, Davitashvili N |year=2001|title=Vegetational patterns and distribution of relict taxa in humid temperate forests and wetlands of Georgia Transcaucasia|journal= Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=72|pages= 287–332|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2001.tb01318.x|issue=2|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=Milne>{{cite journal|author=Milne RI. |year=2004|title= Phylogeny and biogeography of Rhododendron subsection Pontica, a group with a Tertiary relict distribution|journal= Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=33|pages= 389–401|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2004.06.009|pmid=15336673|issue=2}}</ref>

<ref name=Pokryszko>{{cite journal|vauthors=Pokryszko B, Cameron R, Mumladze L, Tarkhnishvili D |year=2011|title=Forest snail faunas from Georgian Transcaucasia: patterns of diversity in a Pleistocene refugium|journal= Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=102|pages= 239–250|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01575.x|issue=2|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=Tarkhnishvili>{{cite journal|last1=Tarkhnishvili |first1=David N. |last2=Thorpe |first2=Roger S. |last3=Arntzen |first3=Jan Willem |year=2000|title=Pre-Pleistocene refugia and differentiation between populations of the Caucasian salamander (''Mertensiella caucasica'')|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=14|pages=414–422|doi=10.1006/mpev.1999.0718|pmid=10712846|issue=3}}</ref>

<ref name=tgm>{{cite journal|vauthors=Tarkhnishvili D, Gavashelishvili A, Mumladze L |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01788.x|title=Palaeoclimatic models help to understand current distribution of Caucasian forest species|year=2012|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|pages=231–248|doi-access=free}}</ref>
}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Commons category|Temperate rainforests}}
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* - preserving rainforests in coastal British Columbia's Great Bear Rainforest
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Latest revision as of 03:53, 18 December 2024

Forests in the temperate zone
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Western hemlock rainforest, Gwaii Haanas, Canada

Temperate rainforests are rainforests with coniferous or broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rain.

Temperate rainforests occur in oceanic moist regions around the world: the Pacific temperate rainforests of North American Pacific Northwest as well as the Appalachian temperate rainforest in the Appalachian region of the United States; the Valdivian temperate rainforests of southwestern South America; the rainforests of New Zealand and southeastern Australia; northwest Europe (small pockets in Great Britain and larger areas in Ireland, southern Norway, northern Iberia and Brittany); southern Japan; the Black SeaCaspian Sea region from the southeasternmost coastal zone of the Bulgarian coast, through Turkey, to Georgia, and northern Iran.

The moist conditions of temperate rainforests generally support an understory of mosses, ferns and some shrubs and berries. Temperate rainforests can be temperate coniferous forests or temperate broadleaf and mixed forests.

Definition

Humid temperate rainforest in Termas Geométricas near Coñaripe, Chile

For temperate rainforests of North America, Alaback's definition is widely recognized:

  • Annual precipitation over 140 cm (55 in) (KJ)
  • Mean annual temperature is between 4 and 12 °C (39 and 54 °F).

However, required annual precipitation depends on factors such as distribution of rain over the year, temperatures over the year and fog presence, and definitions in other regions of the world differ considerably. For example, Australian definitions are ecological-structural rather than climatic:

  • Closed canopy of trees excludes at least 69% of the sky.
  • Forest is composed mainly of tree species which do not require fire for regeneration, but with seedlings able to regenerate under shade and in natural openings.

Australian definitions would exclude some temperate rainforests of western North America that are Coast Douglas-fir dominant, such as parts of the Klamath Mountains in southern Oregon and northern California, the Puget Lowlands of western Washington and the Georgia Depression in British Columbia, as their dominant tree species, the Coast Douglas-fir, requires stand-destroying disturbance to initiate a new cohort of seedlings. The North American definition would in turn exclude a part of temperate rainforests under definitions used elsewhere.

Canopy level

Canopy of Olympic National Park, Washington State

For forests, canopy refers to the upper layer or habitat zone, formed by mature tree crowns and including other biological organisms (epiphytes, lianas, arboreal animals, etc.). The canopy level is the third level of the temperate rainforest. The trees forming the canopy, conifers, can stand as tall as 100 metres or more. A variety of species survive in the canopy. The tops of these trees collect most of the rain, moisture, and photosynthesis that the rainforest takes in. They form a canopy over the forest, covering about 95% of the floor during the summer.

The canopy's coverage affects the shade tolerance levels of forest floor plants. When the canopy is in full bloom, covering about 95% of the floor, plant survival decreases. Some plant species have become shade tolerant in order to survive. The treetops take in the heavy amount of rain and keep the lower levels of the forest damp.

The canopy survives through photosynthesis. The leaves provide energy and nutrients for the trees, which provide homes and food for the forest. Through satellite data, the radiation use efficiency (RUE) calculates the annual amount of photosynthesis that occurs in temperate rainforests. A diverse amount of photosynthesis occurs based on the location and microclimates of the forest.

Distribution

North America

Pacific temperate rainforests

Main article: Pacific temperate rain forests
Temperate rainforest in the Mount Hood Wilderness, Oregon, US. This area, on the west side of the mountain, receives close to 100 inches (2,500 mm) of rain per year.

A portion of the temperate rain forest region of North America, the largest area of temperate zone rainforests on the planet, is the Pacific temperate rain forests ecoregion, which occur on west-facing coastal mountains along the Pacific coast of North America, from Kodiak Island in Alaska to northern California, and are part of the Nearctic realm. In the different system established by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation, this same general region is classed as the Pacific Maritime Ecozone by Environment Canada and as the Marine West Coast Forest and Northwestern Forested Mountains Level II ecoregions by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In terms of the floristic province system used by botany, the bulk of the region is the Rocky Mountain Floristic Region but a small southern portion is part of the California Floristic Province.

Coast Redwood forest in Redwood National Park

Sub-ecoregions of the Pacific temperate rainforest ecoregion as defined by the WWF include the Northern Pacific coastal forests, Haida Gwaii ecoregion, Vancouver Island ecoregion, British Columbia mainland coastal forests, Central Pacific coastal forests, Cascades forests, Klamath-Siskiyou coastal forests, and Northern California coastal forests ecoregions. They vary in their species composition, but are all predominantly coniferous, sometimes with an understory of broadleaved trees and shrubs. Most of the precipitation occurs in winter, similar to Mediterranean climates, but in summer, fog moisture is extracted by the trees and produces a fog drip keeping the forest moist. The Northern California coastal forests are home to the Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), the world's tallest tree. In the other ecoregions, Coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis), Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) are the most important tree species. A common feature of Pacific temperate rainforests of North America is the Nurse log, a fallen tree which as it decays, provides ecological facilitation to seedlings. Trees such as the Coast Douglas-fir, Western Hemlock, Western Red Cedar, Pacific Yew, and Vine Maple are more closely related to coniferous and deciduous trees in the temperate forests of East Asia.

Temperate rainforest in Carmanah Walbran Provincial Park, located on Vancouver Island
Temperate rainforest in Wells Gray Provincial Park (in the Cariboo Mountains) in British Columbia, Canada

Some of the largest expanses of old growth are found in Olympic National Park, Mount Rainier National Park, Tongass National Forest, Mount St. Helens National Monument, Redwood National Park, and throughout British Columbia (including British Columbia's Coastal Mountain Ranges), with the coastal Great Bear Rainforest containing the largest expanses of old growth temperate rainforest found in the world.

British Columbia's Rocky Mountains, Cariboo Mountains, Rocky Mountain Trench (east of Prince George) and the Columbia Mountains of Southeastern British Columbia (west of the Canadian Rocky Mountains that extend into parts of Idaho and Northwestern Montana in the US), which include the Selkirk Mountains, Monashee Mountains, and the Purcell Mountains, have the largest stretch of interior temperate coniferous rainforests. These inland rainforests have more continental climate with a large proportion of the precipitation falling as snow. Being closer to the Rocky Mountains, there is more of a diverse mammalian fauna. Some of the best interior rainforests are found in Mount Revelstoke National Park and Glacier National Park (Canada) in the Columbia Mountains.

Appalachian temperate rainforests

Main article: Appalachian temperate rainforest
Temperate rainforest in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the Appalachian Mountains

Temperate rainforests are located in the southern Appalachian Mountains where orographic precipitation increases precipitation of weather systems coming from the west and from the Gulf of Mexico. Temperate rainforest extends through the Appalachian areas of western North Carolina, southeastern Kentucky, southwest Virginia, eastern Tennessee, northern South Carolina, and northern Georgia.

Red spruce and Fraser fir are dominant canopy trees in high mountain areas. In higher elevation (over 1,980 metres; 6,500 feet), Fraser fir is dominant, in middle elevation (1,675 to 1,890 metres; 5,495 to 6,201 ft) red spruce and Fraser fir grow together, and in lower elevation (1,370 to 1,650 metres; 4,490 to 5,410 ft) red spruce is dominant. Yellow birch, mountain ash, and mountain maple grow in the understory. Younger spruce and fir and shrubs like raspberry, blackberry, hobblebush, southern mountain cranberries, red elderberry, minniebush, southern bush honeysuckle are understory vegetation. Below the spruce-fir forest, at around 1,200 metres (3,900 ft), are forests of American beech, yellow birch, maple birch, and oak. Skunk cabbage and ground juniper are northern species that were pushed into the areas from the north.

The mild and wet environment supports the high diversity of fungi. Over 2,000 species live in this area and scientists estimate many unidentified fungi may be there.

South America

Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests

Main articles: Valdivian temperate rainforests and Magellanic subpolar forests
Aextoxicon punctatum forest in Punta Curiñanco

The temperate rainforests of South America are located on the Pacific coast of southern Chile, on the west-facing slopes of the southern Chilean coast range, and the Andes Mountains in both Chile and Western Argentina down to the southern tip of South America, and are part of the Neotropical realm. Temperate rainforests occur in the Valdivian temperate rain forests and Magellanic subpolar forests ecoregions. The Valdivian rainforests are home to a variety of broadleaf evergreen trees, like Aextoxicon punctatum, Eucryphia cordifolia, and southern beech (Nothofagus), but include many conifers as well, notably Alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides), one of the largest tree species of the world.

The Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests are the only temperate rainforests in South America. Together they are the second largest in the world, after the Pacific temperate rainforests of North America. The Valdivian forests are a refuge for the Antarctic flora, and share many plant families and genera with the temperate rainforests of New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia. Fully half the species of woody plants are endemic to this ecoregion.

In the Valdivian region the Andean Cordillera intercepts moist westerly winds along the Pacific coast during winter and summer months; these winds cool as they ascend the mountains, creating heavy rainfall on the mountains' west-facing slopes. The northward-flowing oceanic Humboldt Current creates humid and foggy conditions near the coast. The tree line is at about 2,400 m in the northern part of the ecoregion (35°S), and descends to 1,000 m in the south of the Valdivian region. In the summer the temperature can climb to 16.5 °C (61.7 °F), while during winter the temperature can drop below 7 °C (45 °F).

Africa

Knysna-Amatole coastal rainforests (South Africa)

Knysna Forest Biome near Nature's Valley, in the Tsitsikamma, South Africa

The temperate rainforests of South Africa are part of the Knysna-Amatole forests that are located along South Africa's Garden Route between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth on the south-facing slopes of South Africa's Drakensberg Mountains facing the Indian Ocean. There are several coniferous podocarps that grow here. This forest receives a lot of moisture as fog from the Indian Ocean, and resembles not only other temperate rainforests worldwide, but also the montane evergreen Afromontane forests that occur at higher elevations in southern and eastern Africa. A fine example of this forest is in South Africa's Tsitsikamma National Park.

Macaronesia

Azores

Juniper montane rainforest, in Mistérios Negros, Terceira Island, Azores

The rainforests of the Azores (also known as cloud forests, due to the constant cloud coverage caused by orographic lift) are found in the more humid, montane areas that transition from the lower altitude laurissilva. They are generally found at altitudes ranging from 600 to 1,000 m (2,000 to 3,300 ft), and receive 2,000 to 6,000 mm (79 to 236 in) of average annual rainfall.

Despite being located in the temperate zone, the Azores rainforest is similar in many ways to the cloud forest environments of the tropics and subtropics. These pluvial montane forests hold the highest biodiversity and degree of endemism of the whole archipelago. They are dominated by dense formations of endemic juniper, laurel, holly and tree heaths with several species of epiphytic ferns and an abundance of mosses and rainforest lichens (such as Erioderma).

The climate in the rainforest is mild and cool, averaging 12 °C (54 °F) with a narrow diurnal temperature range and temperatures that only drop below freezing in exceptional years.

Since human settlement in the 15th century, these rainforests, which once covered most of the high altitudes of the archipelago, have gradually been reduced to relics and are now found almost exclusively on three of the nine islands (Flores, Pico and Terceira). Their main threat is the expansion of cattle grazing pastures.

Europe

Temperate rainforest occurs in fragments across the north and west of Europe in countries such as southern Norway (see Scandinavian coastal conifer forests) and northern Spain. Other temperate rainforest regions include areas of south eastern Europe such as mountains on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, surrounding North Western Bulgaria along with the Black Sea.

Atlantic Oakwood forest (Britain and Ireland)

Temperate rainforest at Kells Bay, County Kerry, Ireland

The woodlands are variously referred to in Britain as Upland Oakwoods, Atlantic Oakwoods, Western Oakwoods or Temperate Rainforest, Caledonian forest, and colloquially as 'Celtic Rainforests'. They are also listed in the British National Vegetation Classification as British NVC community W11 and British NVC community W17 depending on the ground flora. The majority of surviving fragments of Atlantic Oakwoods in Britain occur on steep-sided slopes above rivers and lakes which have avoided clearance and intensive grazing pressure. There are notable examples on the islands and shores of Loch Maree, Loch Sunart, Loch Lomond and one of the best preserved sites on the remote Taynish Peninsula in Argyll. There are also small areas on steep-sided riverine gorges in Snowdonia and Mid Wales, such as found at the Dolmelynllyn Estate in Gwynedd.

In England, they occur in the Lake District (Borrowdale Woods) and steep sided riverine and estuarine valleys in Devon and Cornwall and the Microclimate disused slate & granite quarries in these counties. This includes the Fowey valley in Cornwall and the valley of the river Dart which flows off Dartmoor and has rainfall in excess of 2 metres per year.

Derrycunnihy Wood, located in the Killarney National Park, is the best example of the ancient damp-climate oceanic forest that covered an estimated 80 percent of Ireland prior to the arrival of humans in 7,000 BCE.

Guy Shrubsole's Lost Rainforests of Britain attempts to find, map, photograph, and restore them.

Colchian (Colchis) rainforests (Bulgaria, Turkey and Georgia)

Main article: Euxine–Colchic deciduous forests

The Colchian rainforests are found around both the southeast and west corners of the Black Sea starting in Bulgaria all the way to Turkey and Georgia and are part of the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests ecoregion, together with the drier Euxine forests further west. The Colchian rainforests are mixed, with deciduous black alder (Alnus glutinosa), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus and C. orientalis), Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), and sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) together with evergreen Nordmann fir (Abies nordmanniana, the tallest tree in Europe at 78 m), Caucasian spruce (Picea orientalis) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). The refugium is the largest throughout the Western Asian / near Eastern region. The area has multiple representatives of disjunct relict groups of plants with the closest relatives in Eastern Asia, southern Europe, and even North America. Over 70 species of forest snails of the region are endemic. Some relict species of vertebrates are Caucasian parsley frog, Caucasian salamander, Robert's snow vole and Caucasian grouse; they are almost entirely endemic groups of animals such as lizards of genus Darevskia. In general, species composition of this refugium is quite distinct and differs from that of the other Western Eurasian refugia. Genetic data suggest that the Colchis temperate rainforest, during the Ice Age, was fragmented into smaller parts; in particular, evolutionary lineages of the Caucasian Salamander from the central and south-western Colchis remained isolated from one another during the entire Ice Age.

Fragas do Eume (Spain)

Main article: Fragas do Eume

The Fragas do Eume is a natural park situated in Galicia, north-western Spain. Fraga is a Galician word for 'natural woodland', (old-growth forest) and the park is an example of a temperate rainforest in which oak (Quercus robur and Quercus pyrenaica) is the climax vegetation. The protected area extends along the valley of the river Eume within the Ferrolterra municipalities of Pontedeume, Cabanas, A Capela, Monfero and As Pontes de García Rodríguez. Some 500 people reside within the park. The monastery of Monastery of San Xoán de Caaveiro also lies within the park.

The area was declared a natural park (a level of protection lower than national park) in 1997. It is one of six natural parks in Galicia. The European Union has recognised the park as a Site of Community Importance. There are a number of species of ferns. Invertebrate species include the Kerry slug and it is an important site for amphibians.

Vinatovača rainforest (Serbia)

Main article: Vinatovača

The Vinatovača rainforest, alternatively spelled vintovača, is the only rainforest in Serbia. It has been left undisturbed for centuries due to strict conservation laws starting in the 17th century.

Vinatovača is situated in the central Kučaj mountains in the Upper Resava region, at an altitude between 640 m (2,100 ft) and 800 m (2,600 ft). It is isolated and hard to reach which helped its preservation. It is believed that trees have not been cut in Vinatovača since about 1650. Being under strict protection means not only that the trees that die of old age are not being cleared or removed, but even picking herbs or mushrooms is forbidden. It is considered as an example of what central and eastern Serbia's natural look is. Beech trees are up to 45 m (148 ft) tall and some specimens are estimated to be over 300 years old.

Asia

Caspian Hyrcanian forest (Iran and Azerbaijan)

The Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests ecoregion in northern Iran contains a jungle in the form of a rainforest which stretches from the east in the Khorasan province to the west in the Ardabil Province, covering the other provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran, and Golestan. The Elburz or Alborz mountain range is the highest mountain range in the Middle East which captures the moisture of the Caspian Sea to its north and forms subtropical and temperate rainforests in the northern part of Iran. The Iranians call this forest and region Shomal which means north in Persian. This forest was known for most of the history for being home to the now extinct Caspian Tiger.

In southeast Azerbaijan, this ecoregion includes the Lankaran Lowland and the Talysh Mountains, the latter being evenly divided with Iran to the south. They are deciduous forests containing tree species such as black alder (Alnus glutinosa subsp. barbata), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus and C. orientalis), Caucasian wingnut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia), chestnut-leaved oak (Quercus castaneifolia), Caucasian oak (Quercus macranthera), oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), Persian ironwood (Parrotia persica) and Persian silk tree (Albizia julibrissin).

The existing protected areas in Azerbaijan include:

High elevation mountain rainforests (Taiwan)

These forests are found in eastern Taiwan and Taiwan's Central Mountain Ranges, part of the Taiwan subtropical evergreen forest region covering the higher elevations. Most of the lower elevations are covered by subtropical broadleaf evergreen forests, dominated by Chinese Cryptocarya (Cryptocarya chinensis), Castanopsis hystrix and Japanese Blue Oak (Quercus glauca). Higher elevations give way to temperate forests with large stands of old growth Taiwan Cypress (Chamaecyparis taiwanensis), Camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora), maple (Acer spp.), Chinese yew (Taxus chinensis), Taiwan Hemlock (Tsuga chinensis), and Taiwan Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga sinensis var. wilsoniana). These higher elevation forests include also giant conifers Formosan Cypress (Chamaecyparis formosensis) and Taiwania (Taiwania cryptomerioides) Some fine examples of forests are found in Yushan (Jade Mountain) National Park and Alishan.

Baekdu Mountain Range (Taebaek and Sobaek Mountain Ranges) and South Sea forests (Korea)

See also: Southern Korea evergreen forests and Gotjawal Forest
Baemsagol valley of Jirisan, which is the southern end of Baekdu Mountain Range.

The forests that cover the mountains and valleys of the Baekdu Mountain Range – from Mt. Baekdu, in the north, to Mt. Jiri, in the southwest, forming the spine of the Korean Peninsula – and the southern coast and islands of the peninsula – including Jeju Island – feature a wide variety of conifers and broadleaf trees. Much of these forests are protected in mountain and marine national forests, such as in Hallyeohaesang National Park, which encompasses 150.14 km (57.97 sq mi) of mountainous forests spread out over 69 uninhabited islands and 30 inhabited islands in Korea's South Sea that provide a home to 1,142 plant species, including major species such as red pine, black pine, common camellia, serrata oak, and cork oak, as well as rare species such as nadopungnan (sedirea japonica), daeheongnan (cymbidium nipponicum) and the Korean winter hazel. Major animals species, such as otters, small-eared cats, and badgers also call Hallyeohaesang National Park home, and overall there are 25 mammal species, 115 bird species, 16 reptile species, 1,566 insect species, and 24 freshwater fish species found among the forested, mountains islands.

Seoraksan National Park covers 398.539 km (153.877 sq mi) of mountainous forests near the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula, and is a UNESCO designated Biosphere Preservation District. Over 2,000 animal species live in Seoraksan, including the Korean goral, musk deer, and there are also more than 1,400 rare plant species, such as the edelweiss.

Taiheiyo (Pacific) rainforests (Japan)

See also: Japanese temperate rainforest
Jōmon Sugi, the largest specimen of Japanese Cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), on Yakushima, Japan

Southwestern Japan's Taiheiyo evergreen forests region covers much of Shikoku and Kyūshū Islands, and the Southern/Pacific Ocean-facing side of Honshu ("Taiheiyo" is the Pacific Ocean, in Japanese). Here the natural forests are mainly broadleaf evergreen in lower elevations and deciduous in higher elevations. The Hydrangea hirta species is an endemic deciduous species that can be found in this area. The limit occurs at 500–1000 metres depending on latitude. The main tree species are members of beech family (Fagaceae). In lower altitudes these include evergreen oaks (Quercus spp.), Japanese Chinquapin (Castanopsis cuspidata) and Japanese Stone Oak (Lithocarpus edulis), and in higher altitudes Japanese Blue Beech (Fagus japonica) and Siebold's beech (Fagus crenata).

Some of the best preserved examples of forest are found in Kirishima-Yaku National Park on the Island of Yakushima off of Kyūshū in a very wet climate (the annual rainfall is 4,000 to 10,000 mm depending on altitude). Because of relatively infertile soils on granite, Yakushima's forests in higher elevations are dominated by a giant conifer species, Japanese Cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), rather than deciduous forests typical of the mainland. Other areas include Mount Kirishima near Kagoshima in southern Kyūshū. On Southern Honshū, there is a forest with the Nachi Falls located in Yoshino-Kumano National Park. This particular area of Honshū has been described as one of the rainiest spots in Japan.

Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests (Bhutan, India, Nepal)

See also: Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests

It is a temperate broadleaf forest ecoregion found in the middle elevations of the eastern Himalayas, including parts of Nepal, India, and Bhutan.

Southern Siberian rainforest

See also: Southern Siberian rainforest
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2017)

Temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East

See also: Temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East

The Russian Far East region is the eastern-most region of both Russia and the Asian continent as a whole. The Russian federal subjects of Primorsky Krai and Khabarovsk Krai are located in the southeast of this region, with Primorsky Krai sharing a land border with China and North Korea, and both federal subjects face the Pacific ocean to the eaat and share maritime borders with Japan. The Sikhote-Alin mountain range is located here and extends for about 1000 km in a northeast direction, parallel to the coast, from near the coastal city of Vladivostok.

Whilst the mountain range ascends from sea level to a maximum altitude of around 1900 metres contains a variety of different habitats, they are located in region with a temperate climate. During the last glacial maximum (or ice age), the area was not glaciated, allowing for the development of a complex ecosystem containing species with origins in Siberia’s boreal forest and Manchuria’s subtropical forests. Temperate rainforest covers most of the mountain slopes and the biogeographic region is known as the Primorye centre of plant diversity, a biogeographic meeting point of flora and fauna from temperate, subtropical and taiga climatic regions. Historically these forests ranged from the southeastern Pacific coast of Russia, through North Korea and into northern China, however vast human development, particularly in China, has limited the forest to its current range in the Russian Far East. In 2001, UNESCO recognized a 1.5 million hectare area of forest in the central part of the Sikhote-Alin mountains as a World Heritage Site in Russia, citing the area as one of the most unique and valuable areas of intact forest in the world

Although not limited to forests, more than 2500 species of vascular plants have been described in the Primorye biographic region, of which many are considered relict and endemic species. Flora of mosses and lichens are particularly diverse. About 200 species are listed in the IUCN Red List as rare and endangered. The forests fall in the transition zone between two biomes: the southern Asian hardwood forest and the northern coniferous forest. The rainforests are a mix of deciduous broadleaf and coniferous forest, with the dominant tree species becoming more coniferous at higher elevations, and more mixed forest found at lower elevations or within mountain valleys. The most common species include the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) and Manchurian fir (Abies holophylla) at the lowest elevations and coastlines. Jezo spruce (Picea jezoensis) and Khingan fir (Abies nephrolepis) are common species to be found from 700–1400 metres altitude. Other tree species include Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), silver birch (Betula platyphylla), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), trembling aspen (Populus tremula), Siberian dwarf pine (Pinus pumila), Erman's birch (Betula ermanii), and Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii), a deciduous conifer common throughout, but dominant in the northernmost reaches of the forest Other characteristic flora include various ferns, lotus, (Nelumbo nucifera) and the willow Salix arbutifolia, Taxus cuspidata, Juniperus rigida, Phellodendron amurense, Kalopanax, Aralia elata, Maackia amurensis, Alnus japonica, Actinidia kolomikta, Schisandra chinensis, Celastrus orbiculatus, Thladiantha dubia, Weigela, Eleutherococcus, Flueggea suffruticosa, Deutzia, Betula schmidtii, Carpinus cordata, Acer mandshuricum, Parthenocissus tricuspidata, Vitis amurensis, and Panax ginseng and many others.

Along with the neighbouring Amur region of Russia, the temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East hold the last remaining habitats for the critically endangered Siberian tiger, Amur leopard, and Manchurian sika deer. It has been estimated that there are less the 600 tigers. and around 90 leopards left in the wild. The area also contains populations of Asiatic black bears, Kamchatka brown bears, and Mongolian grey wolves, as the Russian Far East, altogether, might probably be the only place in the world where endangered tigers, leopards, bears, and grey wolves coexist. This region also happens to be some of the last of habitat of the Blakiston’s fish owl (Bubo blakistoni); along with being the world’s largest owl, it is unique in the way that it eats fish (primarily Masu salmon) and relies on old growth forests along river banks to hunt, nest, and breed. The Siberian grouse is similar to the spruce grouse and Franklin's grouse of North America, and can be found in the dense, remote pockets of broadleaf, coniferous and deciduous forests of Far East Russia. Common ungulates include red deer, roe deer, wild boar, Manchurian moose, and musk deer.

Oceania

Australian temperate rainforests

Myrtle Beech temperate rainforest in Tasmania, Australia
Antarctic beech trees in Lamington National Park, Queensland, Australia
Dicksonia antarctica tree ferns in temperate rainforest in Tasmania, Australia
See also: Eastern Australian temperate forests and Rainforest in Victoria (Australia)

In Australia rainforests occur near the mainland east coast and in Tasmania. There are warm-temperate and cool-temperate rainforests. They are broadleaf evergreen forests with the exception of montane rainforests of Tasmania. Eucalypt forests are not classified as rainforests although some eucalypt forest types receive high annual rainfall (to over 2000 mm in Tasmania), and in the absence of fire they may develop to rainforest. If these widespread wet sclerophyll forests were considered rainforests, the total area of rainforest in Australia would be much larger.

Warm-temperate rainforest replaces subtropical rainforest on poorer soils or with increasing altitude and latitude in New South Wales and Victoria. Cool-temperate rainforests are widespread in Tasmania (Tasmanian temperate rainforests ecoregion) and they can be found scattered from the World Heritage listed Border Ranges National Park and Lamington National Park on the NSW/Queensland border to Otway Ranges, Strzelecki Ranges, Dandenong Ranges and Tarra Bulga in Victoria. In the northern NSW they are usually dominated by Antarctic Beech (Nothofagus moorei), in the southern NSW by Pinkwood (Eucryphia moorei) and Coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum) and in Victoria and Tasmania by Myrtle Beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii), Southern Sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum) and Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus regnans). The montane rainforests of Tasmania are dominated by Tasmanian endemic conifers (mainly Athrotaxis spp.). They are dominated by Ferns such as Cyathea cooperi, Cyathea australis, Dicksonia antarctica, Cyathea cunninghamii and Cyathea leichhardtiana.

New Zealand temperate rainforests

The temperate rainforests of New Zealand occur on the western shore of the South Island and on the North Island. The forests are made up of coniferous podocarps and broadleaf evergreen trees. The podocarps are abundant at lower elevations, while southern beech (Nothofagus) can be found on higher slopes and in the cooler southernmost rainforests. Ecoregions include the Fiordland temperate forests and Westland temperate rainforests.

Fiordland National Park near Te Anau, New Zealand

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