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'''Academia''', '''Acadème''', or '''the Academy''' are the common terms for the ] of ]s and ]s engaged in ] and ]. |
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The word comes from the '']'', just outside ancient ], where the ] was made famous by ] as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, ], had formerly been an ] ], hence the expression "the groves of Academe."<ref>"see there the olive grove of Academe, Plato's retirement, where the ] bird Trills her thick-warbled notes the summer long..." (], '']'').</ref> |
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By extension ''Academia'' has come to connote the cultural accumulation of ], its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, ] and ] religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. The British adopted the form '''academy''', while the French adopted the forms '''acadème''' and '''académie'''. |
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An '''academic''' is a person who works as a researcher (and usually teacher) at a ], ], or similar institution in post-secondary (tertiary) education. He or she is nearly always an ] holder. In the ], the term academic is approximately synonymous with that of the job title ] although in recent decades a growing number of institutions are also including academic or professional ]s in the category of "academic staff." In the United Kingdom, various titles are used, typically ], ], ], and ] (see also ]), though the loose term ] is often popularly substituted. The term '''scholar''' is sometimes used with equivalent meaning to that of "academic" and describes in general those who attain mastery in a research discipline. It has wider application, with it also being used to describe those whose occupation was researched prior to organized higher education. |
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] such as ]s are not typically included in this use of the term ''academic'', although many administrators hold advanced degrees and pursue scholarly research and writing while also tending to their administrative duties. |
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Some ] have divided, but not limited, academia according to four basic historical types: ancient academia, early academia, academic societies, and the modern university. There are at least two models of academia: a ]an model developed since ancient times, as well as an ] model developed by ] in the mid-18th century and ] in the early 19th century. |
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==Structure== |
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Academia is usually conceived of as divided into '']'' or ''fields'' of study. These have their roots in the subjects of the medieval ] and ], which provided the model for scholastic thought in the first ]. |
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The disciplines have been much revised, and many new disciplines have become more specialized, researching smaller and smaller areas. Because of this, '']'' research is often prized in today's academy, though it can also be made difficult both by practical matters of administration and funding and by differing research methods of different disciplines. In fact, many new fields of study have initially been conceived as interdisciplinary, and later become specialized disciplines in their own right - a recent example is ]. |
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Most academic institutions reflect the divide of the disciplines in their ] structure, being divided internally into ''departments'' or ''programs'' in various fields of study. Each department is typically administered and funded separately by the academic institution, though there may be some overlap and ] members, research and administrative staff may in some cases be shared among departments. In addition, academic institutions generally have an overall administrative structure (usually including a ] and several ]) which is controlled by no single department, discipline, or field of thought. Also, the ] system, a major component of academic employment and research, serves to ensure that academia is relatively protected from political and financial pressures on thought. |
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===Qualifications=== |
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{{Main|Academic degree}} |
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The degree awarded for completed study is the primary academic qualification. Typically these are, in order of completion, ], ] (awarded for completion of ] study), ], and ] (awarded after ] or ] study). These are only currently being standardized in Europe as part of the ], as many different degrees and standards of time to reach each are currently awarded in different countries in Europe. In most fields the majority of academic researchers and teachers have doctorates or other terminal degrees, though in some ] and creative fields it is common for scholars and teachers to have only master's degrees. |
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===Academic conferences=== |
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{{Main|Academic conference}} |
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Closely related to academic publishing is the practice of bringing a number of intellectuals in a field to give talks on their research at an academic conference, often allowing for a wider audience to be exposed to their ideas. |
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===Conflicting goals=== |
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Within academia, diverse constituent groups have diverse, and sometimes conflicting, goals. In the contemporary academy several of these conflicts are widely distributed and common. A salient example of conflict is that between the goal to improve teaching quality and the goal to reduce costs. The conflicting goals of professional education programs and general education advocates currently are playing out in the negotiation over accreditation standards. |
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====Practice and theory==== |
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Putting theory into practice can result in a gap between what is learned in academic settings and how that learning is manifested in practical settings. This is addressed in a number of professional schools such as ] and ], which require students to participate in practica for credit. Students are taught to bridge the gap between theory and practice. |
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Not everyone agrees on the value of theory as opposed to practice. Academics are sometimes criticized as lacking practical experience and thus too insulated from the 'real world.' Academic insularity is colloquially criticized as being "]"; when used pejoratively, this term is criticized as ]. |
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To address this split, there is a growing body of ], such as the ] (PBRN) within clinical ]. ] and ] departments debate how to define this emerging research phenomenon. There are a variety of contested models of practice research (practice-as-research, practice-based and practice through research), for example, ]. |
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====Town and gown==== |
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{{Main|Town and gown}} |
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Universities are often culturally distinct from the towns or cities where they reside. In some cases this leads to discomfort or outright conflict between local residents and members of the university over political, economic, or other issues. Some localities in the Northeastern United States, for instance, have tried to block students from registering to vote as local residents—instead encouraging them to vote by absentee ballot at their primary residence—in order to retain control of local politics.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} Other issues can include deep cultural and class divisions between local residents and university students. The film '']'' dramatizes such a conflict. |
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====Commerce and scholarship==== |
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The goals of research for profit and for the sake of knowledge often conflict to some degree.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} |
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==History== |
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===Ancient times=== |
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{{Main|Academy}} |
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Academia takes its name from the ], a sanctuary outside the city walls of ancient ]. It was dedicated to the legendary hero ] and contained several olive groves, a ] and an area suited for intimate gatherings. In these gardens, largely planted and enhanced with statuary by its previous owner ], the philosopher ] conversed with followers who believed Plato would enlighten them. These informal sessions came to be known as the Academy. Plato later further developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what is known today as the ]. |
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Plato's colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. ], a Greek student of Plato established the ]. ], another student, established the ]. In 335 BC, ] refined the method with his own theories and established the ] in another gymnasium. |
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====African world==== |
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The University of Timbuktu was a medieval University in Mali, West Africa which comprised three schools; namely the Masajid of Djinguereber, the Masajid of Sidi Yahya, and the Masajid of Sankore. During its zenith, the university at Timbuktu had an average attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. ] (]) |
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The Royal Library of Alexandria, or Ancient Library of Alexandria, in Alexandria, Egypt, was a large and significant great library of the ancient world. Here, intellectuals from around the globe studied various aspects of Philosophy, Language, Mathematics, etc. ] (]) |
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====China==== |
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In China there was a higher education institution called ] founded by ] in the ] era before the 2nd century BC. The Imperial Central Academy at ], founded in 258, was a result of the evolution of Shang Xiang and it became the first comprehensive institution combining education and research and was divided into five faculties in 470, which later became ]. In the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named ], which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times. The degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as ] and ] can be classified as higher institutions of learning. |
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====India==== |
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The first ] founded in ] were ] (]) in the 7th century BC and ] (]) in the 5th century BC, followed by ] in the 5th century (in ] and ]). |
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====Islamic world==== |
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The first universities in the ] were founded in ] (]) in the 9th century and ] (]) in the 10th century. |
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====Western Europe==== |
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In western ], universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries. |
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====Medieval university==== |
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{{Main|Medieval university}} |
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In the same way that a ] would attain the status of ''master carpenter'' when fully qualified by his ], a teacher would become a ''master'' when he had been licensed by his profession, the teaching guild. |
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Academia as a modern institution began to take shape in the ] (] 450 to 1500). At this time, the ] had crumbled and new regimes were beginning to take shape throughout Western ]. Europe had just come out of a period of mass illiteracy and loss of information. The only repositories of ancient knowledge were the ] ] with ]s, ]s and ]s compiling all the world's knowledge into elaborate hand written books. The earliest precursors of the colleges and universities were just being developed at these monasteries in order to redistribute the knowledge they had saved through the collapse of the Roman Empire. |
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One had to go to a monastery to learn about ancient ] and ] and the wealth of information created in those societies. Being schooled at a monastery meant academia was effectively restricted to men who wanted to become monks and priests. But by the 11th century, some ] church leaders began a revolutionary campaign to proliferate the knowledge they had outside their groves of academe and into the greater society of early Europe. They believed that ], ], ], ], ] and the others belonged to the people and not just to the ]. The monks and priests moved out of the monasteries and went to the city ]s where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. |
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Most notable of these schools were in ], ], ] and ], though others were opened throughout ]. Studying at these schools, now called universities, meant sitting through a method of education called the ]. In a lecture, the master read aloud from ]s written by monks and priests while students sat at their ]s reading along from their own handwritten copies of the massive amounts of texts. Only the master could determine if a student had achieved enough knowledge to graduate and organize lectures of their own. By the end of the 13th century, there were over 80 universities in ]. |
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====Early methods==== |
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=====Seven liberal arts===== |
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The seven ] or '']'' became codified in late antiquity through textbooks by Varro and ], who offered the standardized structure through which men (and it was men, by and large, for women were excluded) could visualize the world of learning. The Liberal Arts consisted of the ], the basic "three ways" of ], ] and ], and the ], the "four ways" of ], ], ] and ]. ] and ] were the all-embracing studies that encompassed the Liberal Arts, but philosophy in the early Middle Ages was largely a matter of dialectic. The didactic allegory of the 5th-century pagan Martianus Capella's ''De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii'' ("The wedding of philology and Mercury") was of stupendous importance in fixing the unchanging formulas of Academia for the Latin West, from the Christianized Roman Empire of the 5th century until newly available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became available in Western Europe in the 12th century. |
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The conceptual scheme established by Martianus Capella, given Christian readings and interpretations, remained largely in effect in western Academia, even after the new scholasticism of the ] and the encyclopedic work of ], until the humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences. |
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=====Encyclopedists===== |
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Three medieval writers attempted to encompass the whole of Academia, the entire world of learning: ], ] and ]. |
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=====Abelard===== |
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In the 12th century, French philosopher ] instituted his own revolution in the world of academia with the 1123 publication of his book, '']''. He did away with the master reading from a text aloud in lectures and instead sat his students at desks in front of two separate texts contradicting each other. Instead of telling them which method was correct and which was wrong, he required his students to ask each other questions and come up with their own conclusions. Soon, almost all universities experimented with the use of the Abelard method. |
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=====Scholasticism===== |
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{{Main|Scholasticism}} |
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In the early 13th century, Saint ] revolutionized academia once again with his popularization of scholasticism. Scholasticism employed the Abelard method of education but went further. Masters offered their students long, involved resolutions in examining two opposing texts and asked them to consider religious ] in their reasoning. The resolutions were based on newly rediscovered philosophies of Aristotle which tried to balance out reason with faith in God. |
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===Rise of academic societies=== |
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{{Main|Learned society}} |
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Academic societies or ] began as groups of academics who worked together or presented their work to each other. These informal groups later became organized and in many cases state-approved. Membership was restricted, usually requiring approval of the current members and often total membership was limited to a specific number. The ] founded in 1660 was the first such academy. The ] was begun in 1780 by many of the same people prominent in the ]. Academic societies served both as a forum to present and publish academic work, the role now served by academic publishing, and as a means to sponsor research and support academics, a role they still serve. Membership in academic societies is still a matter of prestige in modern academia. |
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===Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries=== |
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{{ globalize |
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|date=December 2010}} |
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Academia began to splinter from its ] roots in 18th-century colonial ]. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the Academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the College and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the ]. For the first time, academia was established as a ] institution. For the most part, church-based dogmatic points of view were no longer thrust upon students in the examination of their subjects of study. Points of view became more varied as students were free to wander in thought without having to add religious dimensions to their conclusions. |
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In 1819, Thomas Jefferson founded the ] and developed the standards used today in organizing colleges and universities across the globe. The curriculum was taken from the traditional liberal arts, classical ] and the values introduced with the ]. Jefferson offered his students something new: the freedom to chart their own courses of study rather than mandate a fixed curriculum for all students. Religious colleges and universities followed suit. |
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The Academy movement in the U.S. in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the ], in western ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Dozens of academies were founded in the area, supported by private donations. |
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During ] in 18th-century Europe, the academy started to change in Europe. In the beginning of the 19th century ] not only published his philosophical paper ''On the Limits of State Action'', but also directed the educational system in ] for a short time. He introduced an academic system that was much more accessible to the lower classes. ''Humboldt's Ideal'' was an education based on individuality, creativity, wholeness, and versatility. Many continental European universities are still rooted in these ideas (or at least pay lip-service to them). They are, however, in contradiction to today's massive trend of specialization in academia. |
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===Recent economic changes=== |
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{{ globalize |
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In the 1980s and 1990s significant changes in the economics of academic life began to be felt, identified by some as a catastrophe in the making and by others as a new era with potentially huge gains for the university. Some critics identified the changes as a new "] of the university." Academic jobs have been traditionally viewed by many intellectuals as desirable, because of the ] and intellectual freedom they allow (especially because of the ] system), despite their low pay compared to other professions requiring extensive education. And until the mid-1970s, when federal expenditures for higher education fell sharply, there were routinely more tenure-track jobs than Ph.D. graduates. |
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Now, by contrast, despite rising ] rates and growing university revenues (especially in the U.S.) well-paid professorial positions are rarer, replaced with poorly paid ] positions and graduate-student labor. People with doctorates in the sciences, and to a lesser extent mathematics, often find jobs outside of academia (or use part-time work in industry to supplement their incomes), but a Ph.D. in the humanities and many social sciences prepares the student primarily for academic employment. However, in recent years a large proportion of such Ph.D.s—ranging from 30 percent to 60 percent—have been unable to obtain tenure-track jobs. They must choose between adjunct positions, which are poorly paid and lack job security; teaching jobs in community colleges or in high schools, where little research is done; the non-academic job market, where they will tend to be overqualified; or some other course of study, such as law or business. |
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Indeed, with academic institutions producing Ph.D.s in greater numbers than the number of tenure-track professorial positions they intend to create, there is little question that administrators are cognizant of the economic effects of this arrangement. The sociologist ] wrote: "Basking in the plenitude of qualified and credentialed instructors, many university administrators see the time when they can once again make tenure a rare privilege, awarded only to the most faithful and to those whose services are in great demand".<ref>Aronowitz, Stanley. ''The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate University and Creating True Higher Learning'', p. 76. ISBN 0-8070-3123-2.</ref> |
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Most people who are knowledgeable of the academic job market advise prospective graduate students not to attend graduate school if they must pay for it; graduate students who are admitted without tuition remission and a reasonable stipend are forced to incur large debts that they will be unlikely to repay quickly. In addition, most people recommend that students obtain full and accurate information about the placement record of the programs they are considering. At some programs, most Ph.D.s get multiple tenure-track offers, whereas at others few obtain any; such information is clearly very useful in deciding what to do with the next 5–7 years of one's life. |
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Some believe that, as a number of ] professors retire, the ] will rebound. However, others predict that this will not result in an appreciable growth of tenure-track positions, as universities will merely fill their needs with low-paid adjunct positions. Aronowitz ascribed this problem to the economic restructuring of academia as a whole: |
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:In fact, the program of restructuring on university campuses, which entails reducing full-time tenure-track positions in favor of part-time, temporary, and contingent jobs, has literally "fabricated" this situation. The idea of an academic "job market" based on the balance of supply and demand in an open competitive arena is a fiction whose effect is to persuade the candidate that (he or she) simply lost out because of bad luck or lack of talent. The truth is otherwise.<ref>Aronowitz, ''The Knowledge Factory'' 75-76.</ref> |
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The effects of a growing pool of unemployed, underemployed, and undesirably employed Ph.D.s on many countries' economies as a whole is undetermined. |
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==Academic publishing== |
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{{Main|Academic publishing}} |
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===History of academic journals=== |
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Among the earliest ]s were the Proceedings of meetings of the ] in the 17th century. At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry was controversial, and widely ridiculed. It was not at all unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an ], reserving priority for the discoverer, but indecipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both ] and ] used this approach. However, this method did not work well. ], a sociologist, found that 92 percent of cases of simultaneous discovery in the 17th century ended in dispute. The number of disputes dropped to 72 percent in the 18th century, 59 percent by the latter half of the 19th century, and 33 percent by the first half of the 20th century. The decline in contested claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited to the increasing acceptance of the publication of papers in modern academic journals. |
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The Royal Society was steadfast in its unpopular belief that science could only move forward through a transparent and open exchange of ideas backed by experimental evidence. Many of the experiments were ones that we would not recognize as scientific today — nor were the questions they answered. For example, when the ] was admitted as a ] on June 5, 1661, he presented the Society with a vial of powdered "] horn". It was a well-accepted 'fact' that a circle of unicorn's horn would act as an invisible cage for any ]. ], the chief experimenter of the Royal Society, emptied the Duke's vial into a circle on a table and dropped a spider in the centre of the circle. The spider promptly walked out of the circle and off the table. In its day, this was cutting-edge research. |
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===Current status and development=== |
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Research journals have been so successful that the number of journals and of papers has proliferated over the past few decades, and the credo of the modern academic has become "]". Except for generalist journals like '']'' or '']'', the topics covered in any single journal have tended to be narrow, and readership and citation have declined. A variety of methods for reviewing submissions exist. The most common involves initial approval by the journal, ] by two or three researchers working in similar or closely related subjects who recommend approval or rejection as well as request error correction, clarification or additions before publishing. Controversial topics may receive additional levels of review. Journals have developed a hierarchy, partly based on reputation but also on the strictness of the review policy. More prestigious journals are more likely to receive and publish more important work. Submitters try to submit their work to the most prestigious journal likely to publish it to bolster their reputation and ]. |
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], an academician with a large number of published research papers, has argued that research journals will evolve into something akin to ] forums over the coming decade, by extending the interactivity of current Internet ]s. This change may open them up to a wider range of ideas, some more developed than others. Whether this will be a positive evolution remains to be seen. Some claim that forums, like markets, tend to thrive or fail based on their ability to attract talent. Some believe that highly restrictive and tightly monitored forums may be the least likely to thrive. |
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==Academic dress== |
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{{Main|Academic dress}} |
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Gowns have been associated with academia since the birth of the university in the 14th and 15th centuries, perhaps because most early scholars were ]s or church officials. Over time, the gowns worn by degree-holders have become standardized to some extent, although traditions in individual countries and even institutions have established a diverse range of gown styles, and some have ended the custom entirely, even for graduation ceremonies. |
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At some universities, such as the Universities of ] and ], undergraduates may be required to wear gowns on formal occasions and on graduation. Undergraduate gowns are usually a shortened version of a bachelor's gown. At other universities, for example, outside the UK or U.S., the custom is entirely absent. Students at the University of Trinity College at the University of Toronto wear gowns to formal dinner, debates, to student government, and to many other places. |
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In general, in the U.S. and UK recipients of a bachelor's degree are entitled to wear a simple full-length robe without adornment and a ] cap with a tassel. In addition, holders of a bachelor's degree may be entitled to wear a ceremonial hood at some schools. In the U.S., bachelor's hoods are rarely seen. Bachelor's hoods are generally smaller versions of those worn by recipients of master's and doctoral degrees. |
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Recipients of a master's degree in the U.S. or UK wear a similar cap and gown but closed sleeves with slits, and usually receive a ceremonial hood that hangs down the back of the gown. In the U.S. the hood is traditionally edged with a silk or velvet strip displaying the disciplinary color, and is lined with the university's colors. |
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According to The American Council on Education “six-year specialist degrees (], etc.) and other degrees that are intermediate between the master's and the doctor's degree may have hoods specially designed (1) intermediate in length between the master's and doctor's hood, (2) with a four-inch velvet border (also intermediate between the widths of the borders of master's and doctor's hoods), and (3) with color distributed in the usual fashion and according to the usual rules. Cap tassels should be uniformly black.”<ref name="ACE">{{cite web|url= http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=10625#6-year|title= Six-Year Specialist Degrees|accessdate=2006-12-03}}</ref> |
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Recipients of a doctoral degree tend to have the most elaborate academic dress, and hence there is the greatest diversity at this level. In the U.S., doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by master's graduates, with the addition of velvet stripes across the sleeves and running down the front of the gown which may be tinted with the disciplinary color for the degree received. Holders of a doctoral degree may be entitled or obliged to wear ''scarlet'' (a special gown in scarlet) on high days and special occasions. While some doctoral graduates wear the mortarboard cap traditional to the lower degree levels, most wear a cap or ''Tudor bonnet'' that resembles a ], from which a colored tassel is suspended. |
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In modern times in the U.S. and UK, gowns are normally only worn at graduation ceremonies, although some colleges still demand the wearing of academic dress on formal occasions (official banquets and other similar affairs). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was more common to see the dress worn in the classroom, a practice which has now all but disappeared. Two notable exceptions are ] and a society at ], where students are required to wear formal academic dress in the examination room. |
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== Political views == |
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Several older studies have found that US professors were more ] than the general population. Those in natural sciences, engineering, and business were less liberal than those in the social sciences and humanities. A 2005 study found that liberal views had increased compared to the older studies. Only 15% in the survey described themselves as right of center. While humanities and the social sciences are still the most left leaning, 67% of those in other fields combined described themselves as left of center. Even in business and engineering, traditionally considered ] leaning fields, those with views left the center now outnumber those with views right of center. The study also found that women, practicing Christians, and Republicans taught at lower quality schools than would be expected from objectively measured professional accomplishments, a result consistent with these characteristics being a disadvantage for professional advancement.<ref>{{cite doi|10.2202/1540-8884.1067}}</ref> |
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] has been suggested as explaining why liberals are overrepresented.<ref>"Groupthink in Academia: Majoritarian Departmental Politics and the Professional Pyramid." Pp. 79–98 in The Politically Correct University: Problems, Scope, and Reforms, edited by Robert Maranto, Richard Redding, and Frederick Hess. Washington, DC: AEI Press.</ref> Another explanation is self-selection by liberals into academia.<ref>Diversity in American Higher Education: Toward a More Comprehensive Approach, Lisa Stulberg and Sharon Weinberg, eds, 2011, Routledge. Explaining professor's politics: An indirect text of the self-selection hypothesis,Neil Gross and Catherine Cheng</ref><ref>Maranto, Robert. 2009. "Why Political Science Is Left but Not Quite PC." Pp. 209–24 in The Politically Correct University: Problems, Scope, and Reforms, edited by Robert Maranto, Richard Redding, and Frederick Hess. Washington, DC: AEI Press.</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{col-begin}} |
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{{col-3}} |
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* ] |
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==Bibliography== |
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* A. Leight DeNeef and Craufurd D. Goodwin, eds. ''The Academic's Handbook''. 2nd ed. Durham and London: ], 1995. |
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* Christopher J. Lucas and John W. Murry, Jr. ''New Faculty A practical Guide for Academic Beginners''. New York: Modern Language Association, 1992. |
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* John A. Goldsmith, John Komlosk and Penny Schine Gold. ''The Chicago Guide to Your Academic Career''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. |
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* William Germano. ''Getting it Published: A Guide for Scholars (And Anyone Else)Serious about Serious Books''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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2.^ a b c Gerald Bechtle, Bryn Mawr Classical Review of Rainer Thiel, Simplikios und das Ende der neuplatonischen Schule in Athen. Stuttgart, 1999 (in English). |
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3.^ a b Richard Sorabji, (2005), The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200–600 AD: Psychology (with Ethics and Religion), page 11. Cornell University Press |
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==External links== |
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{{Sister project links|Academia}} |
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* - Online community of academic scholars |
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* and web 2.0 |
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* , provided by , a web site from the ] |
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Jupiter (unnecessary parenthetical qualifier)