Revision as of 10:33, 15 August 2011 view sourceEhud Lesar (talk | contribs)313 edits →History: rm massive WP:COAT← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 12:35, 17 November 2024 view source Mellk (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users59,039 edits →top: move literal translation | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|Geopolitical region in Azerbaijan}} | |||
{{for|the republic|Nagorno-Karabakh Republic}} | |||
{{About|the geopolitical region|the former state located within the region|Republic of Artsakh}} | |||
<!-- | |||
{{pp|small=yes}} | |||
To admins: please do not remove the semiprotection without the explicit permission of either Moreschi or Golbez, this is a long-term troublespot.-->{{semiprotected|small=yes}} | |||
{{pp-move}} | |||
{{Infobox Country <!----Non-political information----> | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}} | |||
|native_name = Լեռնային Ղարաբաղ , ]<small>{{hy icon}}</small><br />Dağlıq Qarabağ / Yuxarı Qarabağ <small>{{az icon}}</small><br />Нагорный Карабах, ]<small>{{ru icon}}</small> | |||
<!---- | |||
|conventional_long_name = Nagorno-Karabakh | |||
To admins: Please do not remove the semiprotection without consulting with either Moreschi or Golbez, as this is a long-term troublespot. | |||
|common_name = Nagorno-Karabakh | |||
-----> | |||
|continent = Asia | |||
{{Infobox country <!----Non-political information----> | |||
|region = Caucasus | |||
|conventional_long_name = Nagorno-Karabakh | |||
|image_map = | |||
|common_name = Nagorno-Karabakh<!--Commented out the following as this parameter used to create links: or Upper Karabakh--> | |||
|image_map2 = Location Nagorno-Karabakh2.png | |||
|image_map = Location Nagorno-Karabakh2.png | |||
|map_caption2 = The borders of the former ] | |||
|map_caption = Location and extent of the former ] (lighter color) | |||
|area_rank = | |||
|area_km2 = 4,400 | |||
|area_magnitude = | |||
|area_sq_mi = 1,700 | |||
|area_km2 = 4,400 | |||
|percent_water = negligible | |||
|area_sq_mi = 1,700 | |||
|population_estimate = 146,573<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gov.nkr.am/en/regions/ |title=Population of NKR as of 01.01.2013 |publisher=NKR |date=1 January 2013 |access-date=20 February 2014 |archive-date=23 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023134823/http://gov.nkr.am/en/regions/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|percent_water = negligible | |||
|population_census = 141,400<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.president.nkr.am/en/nkr/statePower/ |title=Official Statistics of the NKR. Official site of the President of the NKR |publisher=President.nkr.am |date=1 January 2010 |access-date=6 May 2012 |archive-date=22 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110122035106/http://www.president.nkr.am/en/nkr/statePower/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|population_estimate = 138,000 | |||
|population_estimate_year = 2013 | |||
|population_estimate_rank = | |||
|population_census_year = 2010 | |||
|population_estimate_year = 2006 | |||
|population_density_km2 = 29 | |||
|population_census = | |||
|population_density_sq_mi = 43 | |||
|population_census_year = 2003 | |||
|utc_offset = +4 | |||
|population_density_km2 = 29 | |||
|coordinates = {{coord|39|48|55|N|46|45|7|E|region:AZ<!--NKR-->|display=inline,title}} | |||
|population_density_sq_mi = 43 | |||
|population_density_rank = | |||
|time_zone = | |||
|utc_offset = +4 | |||
|time_zone_DST = +5 | |||
|utc_offset_DST = | |||
|drives_on = right | |||
}} | }} | ||
'''Nagorno-Karabakh''' is a ] region in the ], lying between ] and ] and covering the southeastern range of the ] mountains, which corresponds to the eastern part of the ].<ref> article «Armenian Highland»:"''mountainous region of Transcaucasia. It lies mainly in Turkey, occupies all of Armenia, and includes southern Georgia, western Azerbaijan, and northwestern Iran. ''"</ref> | |||
'''Nagorno-Karabakh''' ({{IPAc-en|n|ə|ˌ|ɡ|ɔːr|n|oʊ|_|k|ər|ə|ˈ|b|ɑː|k|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Persent101-Nagorno-Karabakh.wav}}, {{respell|nə|GOR|noh|_|kər|ə|BAHK}};<ref>{{cite web|title=Nagorno-Karabakh|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/nagorno-karabakh|website=]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902032428/http://www.dictionary.com/browse/nagorno-karabakh|archive-date=2 September 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> {{lit|Upper Karabakh}}) is a region in ], covering the southeastern stretch of the ] mountain range. Part of the greater region of ], it spans the area between Lower Karabakh and ]. Its terrain mostly consists of mountains and forestland. | |||
Most of the region is governed by the ] (usually abbreviated as NKR), a ''de facto'' independent but ] state established on the basis of the ] of the ]'s ] and populated mainly by ethnic ]. Nagorno-Karabakh is internationally recognized as part of ],<ref>]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osce.org/mg/49564|title=Statement of the Co-Chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group|publisher =]|accessdate=June 25, 2011}}</ref> although it has not exercised power over most of the region since 1991. | |||
Most of Nagorno-Karabakh was governed by ] under the breakaway ] — also known as the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (NKR) — from the end of the ] between ] and Azerbaijan in 1994 to the announcement of the dissolution of the republic in September 2023. Representatives from the two sides held numerous inconclusive peace talks mediated by the ] regarding the region's disputed status, with its majority-Armenian population over time variously advocating either for Artsakh's independence from both states or for its integration into Armenia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-29 |title=Tensions mount as Armenia and Azerbaijan continue fighting |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1582307 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017180507/https://www.dawn.com/news/1582307 |archive-date=2020-10-17 |website=], ]}}</ref> | |||
The region is usually equated with the administrative borders of the former ] within the ] comprising an area of {{convert|4,400|km2}}. The historical area of the region, however, encompasses approximately {{convert|8,223|km2}}.<ref>Robert H. Hewsen. The Meliks of Eastern Armenia: A Preliminary Study. Revue des etudes Arméniennes. NS: IX, 1972, pp. 288.</ref><ref>Robert H. Hewsen, Armenia: A Historical Atlas. The University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 264. ISBN: 978-0-226-33228-4</ref> | |||
The region is usually equated with the administrative borders of the former ], comprising {{convert|4,400|km2}}; however, the region's historical extent encompasses approximately {{convert|8,223|km2}}.<ref>Robert H. Hewsen. "The Meliks of Eastern Armenia: A Preliminary Study". ''Revue des etudes Arméniennes''. NS: IX, 1972, pp. 288.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Robert H. Hewsen |title=Armenia: A Historical Atlas |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |page=264 |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-226-33228-4}}</ref> | |||
At present, the constitution of the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh has a territorial definition based on the total area that is under ''de facto'' control of the republic until a future settlement of the conflict.<ref>Constitution of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Publishing House of the NKR Government, Stepanakert, 2007, Article 142 </ref> This area does not include the district of ] and the rural community of ], but includes some territories of Azerbaijan that NKR presently controls, often referred to as the ], which link Nagorno-Karabakh and Armenia.<ref>BBC. </ref> | |||
On 27 September 2020, the ] broke out with an Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding territories.<ref name="aljaz">{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/27/heavy-fighting-erupts-in-disputed-nagorno-karabakh-region|title=Fighting erupts between Armenia, Azerbaijan over disputed region|publisher=]|date=27 September 2020|access-date=27 September 2020|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927083518/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/27/heavy-fighting-erupts-in-disputed-nagorno-karabakh-region|url-status=live}}</ref> Azerbaijan made significant gains during the war, regaining all of the ] and capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh, including ] and ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-07-19 |title=Armenia and Azerbaijan: A blockade that never ended and a peace deal hanging by a thread |url=https://globalvoices.org/2023/07/19/armenia-and-azerbaijan-a-blockade-that-never-ended-and-a-peace-deal-hanging-by-a-thread/ |access-date=2023-07-24 |website=Global Voices |language=en |archive-date=27 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727133925/https://globalvoices.org/2023/07/19/armenia-and-azerbaijan-a-blockade-that-never-ended-and-a-peace-deal-hanging-by-a-thread/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Violence and Politics in Armenia-Azerbaijan Relations |url=https://bakuresearchinstitute.org/en/violence-and-politics-in-armenia-azerbaijan-relations/ |access-date=2023-06-27 |website=Baku Research Institute |date=14 October 2022 |language=en-US |quote=As a result of the 2020 war, however, Azerbaijan received all territories around Soviet-era Nagorno Karabakh that were occupied by Armenian forces during the first Karabakh war, plus the two regions of Nagorno Karabakh proper: Shushi/Shusha and Hadrut. |archive-date=8 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608203222/https://bakuresearchinstitute.org/en/violence-and-politics-in-armenia-azerbaijan-relations/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Cheterian |first=Vicken |date=2022-10-20 |title=Technological determinism or strategic advantage? Comparing the two Karabakh Wars between Armenia and Azerbaijan |journal=Journal of Strategic Studies |volume=47 |issue=2 |language=en |pages=214–237 |doi=10.1080/01402390.2022.2127093 |issn=0140-2390 |s2cid=253061240 |quote=The Armenian side also lost territories within the former NKAO, namely the district of Hadrut and the strategic town of Shusha/Shushi, areas that were not even considered for handover to Azerbaijan during the long years of diplomatic negotiations between the two wars.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Lynch |first=Ian J. |date=2020-11-18 |title=A cold winter for peace in Nagorno-Karabakh? |language=en |work=Ahval |url=https://ahvalnews.com/nagorno-karabakh/cold-winter-peace-nagorno-karabakh |access-date=2023-06-27 |quote=The new agreement allows Azerbaijan to keep the territory it took by force, including Shusha and Hadrut, within the historic boundaries of Nagorno-Karabakh. It also requires Armenian forces to turn over other territories they have occupied for the last 26 years, including the so-called Lachin corridor, which is Nagorno-Karabakh’s primary link to Armenia proper. |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202214529/https://ahvalnews.com/nagorno-karabakh/cold-winter-peace-nagorno-karabakh |url-status=live }}</ref> The war ended on 10 November 2020 when ] was signed between Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia, under which all the remaining occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh were formally returned to Azerbaijani control. The Republic of Artsakh became an isolated ] connected with Armenia only by a narrow ]. | |||
==Name== | |||
The original, historical and most enduring name for Nagorno-Karabakh is ] (Armenian: {{lang|hy|Արցախ}}), which is used mostly by ] and designates the 10th province of the ancient ].<ref name="Robert H 2001, pp. 119">], ''Armenia: a Historical Atlas.'' ], 2001, pp. 119–120.</ref> As a political and geographical term Artsakh was used continuously throughout the Middle Ages and modern times.<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 60, 61, 67</ref><ref>see references to ''Artsakh'' in Bishop Barkhudarian, Makar. Artsakh. Baku, 1885</ref><ref>Bournoutian, George A. Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, p. 254. An example of the "Arstakh" mentioned instead of Karabakh in 1777.</ref> In ] inscriptions (9th–7th centuries BC), the name ''Urtekhini'' is used for the region.<ref>PanArmenian Network. . PanArmenian.net. June 9, 2003. Retrieved November 21, 2007.</ref> ] sources called the area ''Orkhistene''.<ref>] (ed. H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A.) . . The Perseus Digital Library. 11.14.4. Retrieved November 21, 2007.</ref> Both Urtekhini and Orkhistene are thought to be phonetic variants of the word Artsakh.<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 52</ref> In the high Middle Ages, the entire region was often called ], after the name of Artsakh's largest and most politically significant district.<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 65, 67</ref> The name “Khachen” originated from Armenian word ''khach'' which means “cross”.<ref name="Christopher Walker 1995, p. 93">Christopher Walker. The Armenian presence in Mountainous Karabakh, in John F. R. Wright et al.: ''Transcaucasian Boundaries'' (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics). 1995, p. 93</ref> | |||
On 19 September 2023, after ] lasting several months, Azerbaijan launched a fresh large-scale ] in Nagorno-Karabakh.<ref name="offensive-radiofreeurope">{{Cite news |title=Azerbaijan Launches Offensive in Breakaway Nagorno-Karabakh, Children Among Casualties |newspaper=Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/azerbaijan-armenia-karabakh-mine-explosions/32599318.html |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919124810/https://www.rferl.org/a/azerbaijan-armenia-karabakh-mine-explosions/32599318.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="offensive-reuters">{{Cite news |date=19 September 2023 |title=Azerbaijani forces strike Armenian-controlled Karabakh, raising risk of new Caucasus war |newspaper=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/azerbaijan-says-six-its-citizens-were-killed-by-land-mines-karabakh-2023-09-19/ |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919114910/https://www.reuters.com/world/azerbaijan-says-six-its-citizens-were-killed-by-land-mines-karabakh-2023-09-19/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="offensive-politico">{{Cite web |date=19 September 2023 |title=Azerbaijan launches attack in Nagorno-Karabakh, announces 'evacuation' of Armenian population |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/azerbaijan-launch-anti-terror-operation-nagorno-karabakh-armenia/ |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919100027/https://www.politico.eu/article/azerbaijan-launch-anti-terror-operation-nagorno-karabakh-armenia/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="offensive-media">{{Cite web |date=2023-09-19 |title=Live updates {{!}} Stepanakert under fire as Azerbaijan launches assault on Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://oc-media.org/live-updates-stepanakert-under-fire-as-war-breaks-out-in-nagorno-karabakh/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=OC Media |language=en-US |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919111339/https://oc-media.org/live-updates-stepanakert-under-fire-as-war-breaks-out-in-nagorno-karabakh/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="offensive-france24">{{Cite web |date=2023-09-19 |title=Azerbaijan says it has begun 'anti-terrorist' operations in Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20230919-azerbaijan-says-it-has-begun-anti-terrorist-operations-in-nagorno-karabakh |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=France 24 |language=en |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919112626/https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20230919-azerbaijan-says-it-has-begun-anti-terrorist-operations-in-nagorno-karabakh |url-status=live }}</ref> The Artsakh forces collapsed rapidly, resulting in an Azerbaijani victory, the dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh,<ref name="inter_2024"/> the ] from the region<ref name="The Guardian">{{Cite news |last= |date=2023-09-23 |title=Nagorno-Karabakh talks: separatists lay down arms amid fears of refugee crisis |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/sep/23/nagorno-karabakh-talks-separatists-lay-down-arms-amid-fears-of-refugee-crisis |access-date=2023-09-24 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and the entry of Azerbaijani security forces into the former Artsakh capital of ], known as Khankendi by Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite news|date=2023-09-29 |language=AZ | work=Publika.AZ | url=https://publika.az/news/qarabag/475324.html |title=Azərbaycan polisi Xankəndidə - VİDEO |access-date=2023-09-30}}</ref> On 1 January 2024, the Republic of Artsakh was formally dissolved.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sauer |first=Pjotr |date=2023-09-28 |title=Nagorno-Karabakh's breakaway government says it will dissolve itself |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/sep/28/nagorno-karabakh-separatist-government-says-dissolve-azerbaijan-armenia |access-date=2024-01-01 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="inter_2024"/> | |||
], founded in Nagorno-Karabakh in the 1st century BC by ], King of ] (95–55 BC), is the oldest historical monument in the region with which the ] Artsakh has been associated. ] built four cities named ] in different parts of the ].<ref>John Noble, Michael Kohn, Danielle Systermans. Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Lonely Planet; 3 edition (May 1, 2008), p. 306</ref><ref name="Hewsen 2001 73, map 62">{{cite book | |||
|last = Hewsen | |||
|first= Robert H. | |||
|authorlink = Robert Hewsen | |||
|title = Armenia: A Historical Atlas | |||
|location= Chicago | |||
|year=2001 | |||
|publisher = University of Chicago Press | |||
|isbn= 0-2263-3228-4 | |||
|page = 73, map 62}}</ref>]] | |||
== Etymology == | |||
The term Nagorno-Karabakh is a modern construct.<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 7</ref> The word ''Nagorno-'' is a ] ], derived from the adjective ''nagorny'' (]), which means "highland". The ] name of the region includes similar adjectives "dağlıq" (mountainous) or "yuxarı" (upper). Such words are not used in ] name, but appeared in the official name of the region during the ] era as ]. Other languages apply their own wording for ''mountainous'', ''upper'', or ''highland''; for example, the official name used by the ] in France is ''Haut-Karabakh'', meaning "Upper Karabakh". | |||
] was based in the southeast corner of the Lesser Caucasus. It extended east into the lowlands, hence the name ''Nagorno-'' or "Highland-" Karabagh for the western part.]]{{For|the etymology of Karabakh|Karabakh#Etymology}} | |||
The prefix ''Nagorno-'' derives from the Russian ] {{lang|ru-Latn|nagorny}} ({{wikt-lang|ru|нагорный}}), which means "highland". The ] names of the region include the similar adjectives {{lang|az|dağlıq}} (mountainous) or {{lang|az|yuxarı}} (upper). Such words are not used in the ] name, but appeared in the region's official name during the ] era as ]. Other languages apply their own wording for ''mountainous'', ''upper'', or ''highland''; for example, the official name used for the ] in French is {{lang|fr|Haut-Karabakh}}, meaning "Upper Karabakh". | |||
The word '']'' is generally held to originate from ] and ], and literally means "black garden".<ref name="bbc2005">The BBC World News. , '']''. Last updated October 3, 2007. Retrieved November 21, 2007.</ref><ref name="SovArm2">{{hy icon}} Ulubabyan, Bagrat. ''Karabagh'' (Ղարաբաղ). The ], vol. vii, Yerevan, Armenian SSR, 1981 p. 26</ref> The name first appears in ] and Persian sources of the 13th and 14th centuries.<ref name="SovArm2"/> ''Karabagh'' is an acceptable alternate spelling of ''Karabakh'', and also denotes a kind of patterned ] originally produced in the area.<ref>C. G. Ellis, "Oriental Carpets", 1988. p133.</ref> | |||
In an alternative theory proposed by ] the name Karabakh has a Turkic-Armenian origin, meaning "Greater Baghk" ({{lang-hy|Մեծ Բաղք}}), a reference to Ktish-Baghk (later: ]), one of the principalities of Artsakh under the rule of the Aranshahik dynasty, which held the throne of the Kingdom of Syunik in the 11th–13th centuries and called itself the "Kingdom of Baghk".<ref name="Robert H 2001, pp. 119"/> | |||
The names for the region in the various local languages all translate to "mountainous Karabakh", or "mountainous black garden": | The names for the region in the various local languages all translate to "mountainous Karabakh", or "mountainous black garden": | ||
* {{langx|hy|]}}, ] {{transliteration|hy|Leṙnayin Ġarabaġ}}, {{IPA-hy|lɛrnɑˈjin ʁɑɾɑˈbɑʁ|pron}} {{Audio|Nagorno-Karabakh AM.ogg|listen}} | |||
* {{langx|az|]}}, {{lang|az-Cyrl|Дағлыг Гарабағ}}, {{lit.|mountainous Karabakh}}, {{IPA|az|dɑɣˈlɯɣ ɡɑˈɾɑbɑɣ|pron}} {{Audio|Az-NagornoKarabakh.ogg|listen}}{{br}}or {{lang|az|Yuxarı Qarabağ}}, {{lang|az-Cyrl|Јухары Гарабағ}}, {{lit.|upper Karabakh}}, {{IPA|az|juxɑˈɾɯ ɡɑˈɾɑbɑɣ|pron}} {{Audio|Az-YukhariKarabakh.ogg|listen}} | |||
* {{langx|ru|]}}, ] {{transliteration|ru|Nagorny Karabakh}}, {{IPA|ru|nɐˈɡornɨj kərɐˈbax|pron}} | |||
Armenians living in the area often call Nagorno-Karabakh ''Artsakh'' ({{langx|hy|Արցախ}}), the name of the 10th province of the ancient ]. ] inscriptions (9th–7th centuries BC) use the name {{lang|xur|Urtekhini}} for the region. ] sources called the area {{Lang|grc-Latn|Orkhistene}}.<ref>] (ed. H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A.) . {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061928/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198&redirect=true |date=23 September 2023 }}. The Perseus Digital Library. 11.14.4. Retrieved 21 November 2007.</ref> | |||
* {{lang-hy|]}}, ] ''Leṙnayin Ġarabaġ'' | |||
* {{lang-az|]}} (mountainous Karabakh) or ''Yuxarı Qarabağ'' (upper Karabakh) | |||
* {{lang-ru|]}}, ] ''Nagornyy Karabakh'' or ''Nagornyi Karabah'' | |||
==History== | == History == | ||
===Early history=== | |||
{{main|History of Nagorno-Karabakh}} | {{main|History of Nagorno-Karabakh}} | ||
], founded in the 4th century by ]. In the 5th century, ], inventor of the ], established at Amaras the first school to use his script.<ref>Viviano, Frank. "The Rebirth of Armenia", National Geographic Magazine, March 2004</ref><ref>John Noble, Michael Kohn, Danielle Systermans. Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Lonely Planet; 3 edition (May 1, 2008), p. 307</ref>]] | |||
] was commissioned by the ] and completed in 1238]] | |||
], built by the ] ruler ] in the 18th century]] | |||
Nagorno-Karabakh falls within the lands occupied by peoples known to modern archaeologists as the ], who lived between the two rivers ] and ]. | |||
===Antiquity and Early Middle Ages=== | |||
It is thought that the original population of the region consisted of various ] and migrant tribes.<ref name="Hewsen">Robert H. Hewsen. "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians," in: Samuelian, Thomas J. (Hg.), ''Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity'', Chicago: 1982, 27–40.</ref> According to the American scholar ], these primordial tribes were "certainly not of Armenian origin", and "although certain Iranian peoples must have settled here during the long period of Persian and Median rule, most of the natives were not even Indo-Europeans".<ref name="Hewsen"/> | |||
], founded in the 4th century by St ]. In the 5th century, ], inventor of the ], established at Amaras the first school to use his script.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Viviano |first=Frank |title=The Rebirth of Armenia |journal=National Geographic Magazine |date=March 2004 }}</ref><ref>John Noble, Michael Kohn, Danielle Systermans. ''Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan''. Lonely Planet; 3 edition (1 May 2008), p. 307</ref>]] | |||
] was commissioned by the ] and completed in 1238]] | |||
Nagorno-Karabakh falls within the lands occupied by peoples known to modern archaeologists as the ] who lived between the two rivers ] and ].<ref name="Edens">{{cite journal |last=Edens |first=Christoper |date=Aug–Nov 1995 |title=Transcaucasia at the End of the Early Bronze Age |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |publisher=The American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=299/300 |issue=The Archaeology of Empire in Ancient Anatolia |pages=53, pp. 53–64 |doi=10.2307/1357345 |jstor=1357345 |s2cid=163585471| issn = 0003-097X}}</ref> | |||
However, relying on information provided by the 5th century Armenian historian ], other Western authors argued—and Hewsen himself indicated later—that these peoples could have been added to the ] much earlier, in the 4th century BC.<ref>Hewsen, Robert H. ''Armenia: a Historical Atlas''. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 32–33, map 19 (shows the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the ]' Kingdom of Armenia)</ref> | |||
The ancient population of the region consisted of various ] local and migrant tribes who were mostly non-Indo-Europeans.<ref name="Ethno-History">{{cite book |first=Robert H. |last=Hewsen |chapter=Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians |editor-last=Samuelian |editor-first=Thomas J. |title=Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity |location=Chicago |publisher=Scholars Press |year=1982 |pages=27–40 |isbn=0-89130-565-3}}</ref> According to the prevailing western theory, these natives intermarried with Armenians who came to the region after its inclusion into Armenia in the 2nd (or possibly earlier, the 4th) century BC.<ref>Hewsen, Robert H. ''Armenia: a Historical Atlas''. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 32–33, map 19 (shows the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the ]' Kingdom of Armenia)</ref> Other scholars suggest that the Armenians settled in the region as early as the 7th century BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f4/v2f4a071a.html |title=Armenia and Iran |author=R. Schmitt, M. L. Chaumont |publisher=] |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-date=21 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121173617/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f4/v2f4a071a.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Overall, from around 180 BC and up until the 4th century AD — before becoming part of the Armenian Kingdom again, in 855 — the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh remained part of the united ] as the province of ].<ref>Hewsen, Robert. "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians," in Samuelian, Thomas J. (Ed.) ''Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity'', Chicago: 1982, pp. 27-40.</ref><ref>Hewsen, Robert H. “The Kingdom of Artsakh,” in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. ''Medieval Armenian Culture''. Chico, CA, 1983.</ref> | |||
Around 180 BC, Artsakh became one of the 15 provinces of the ] and remained so until the 4th century.<ref>Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh", in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. ''Medieval Armenian Culture''. Chico, CA, 1983.</ref> While formally having the status of a province (''nahang''), Artsakh possibly formed a ] on its own — like Armenia's province of Syunik. Other theories suggest that Artsakh was a ], belonging directly to the king of Armenia.<ref>Hewsen. Armenia, pp. 100–103.</ref> King ] of Armenia (who ruled from 95 to 55 BC) founded in Artsakh one of four cities named "Tigranakert" after himself.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/sebeos/0326.html|title=ИСТОРИЯ ИМПЕРАТОРА ИРАКЛА. Сочинене епископа Себеоса, писателя VII века. Пер. с армянского К.Патканяна.|website=vehi.net|access-date=25 December 2008|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330014746/http://vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/sebeos/0326.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The ruins of the ancient ], located {{convert|30|mi|-1|abbr=on|order=flip}} north-east of ], are being studied by a group of international scholars. | |||
Armenians have lived in the Karabakh region since ] times: ] states that, by the second or first century BC, the entire population of ]—] and ] included—spoke Armenian,<ref name="Geography">] (ed. H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A.) . . The Perseus Digital Library. 11.14.4. Retrieved November 21, 2007, book XI, chapters 14–15 (Bude, vol. VIII, p. 123)</ref><ref name="Svante E. Cornell 2001, p. 64">Svante E. Cornell. ''Small Nations and Great Powers''. 2001, p. 64</ref> though this does not mean that its population consisted exclusively of ethnic Armenians.<ref name="ReferenceA">V. A. Shnirelman. Memory wars. Myths, identity and politics in Transcaucasia. Academkniga, Moscow, 2003 ISBN 5-94628-118-6</ref> | |||
In 387 AD, after the partition of Armenia between the Roman Empire and ], two Armenian provinces — Artsakh and ] — became part of the Sassanid ], which in turn came under strong Armenian religious and cultural influence.<ref>{{cite web |title=Azerbaijan |author=Evgeny Dmitrievich Silaev |date=13 June 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Azerbaijan |publisher=] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=18 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118105319/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-129462/Azerbaijan |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Walker, Christopher J. |title=Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity |publisher=Minority Rights Group Publications |page=10 |date=1991 |url= https://archive.org/details/armeniaandkarabagh }}</ref> At the time the population of Artsakh and Utik consisted of Armenians and several Armenized tribes.<ref name="Ethno-History"/> | |||
], King of Armenia, (ruled 95–55 BC), founded in Artsakh one of four cities named “Tigranakert” after himself.<ref name="Hewsen 2001 73, map 62"/><ref></ref> | |||
The ruins of the ancient ], located 30 miles north-east of ], are being studied by a group of international scholars. | |||
Armenian culture and civilization flourished in the early medieval Nagorno-Karabakh. In the 5th century, the first-ever Armenian school was opened on the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh at ] through the efforts of St. ], the inventor of the ].<ref>Viviano, Frank. "The Rebirth of Armenia", ''National Geographic Magazine'', March 2004, p. 18,</ref> St. Mesrop was very active in preaching the Gospel in Artsakh and Utik. Overall, Mesrop Mashtots made three trips to Artsakh and Utik, ultimately reaching pagan territories at the foothills of the ].<ref>Movses Kalankatuatsi. ''History of the Land of Aluank'', Book I, chapters 27, 28 and 29; Book II, chapter 3.</ref> The 7th-century Armenian linguist and grammarian Stephanos Syunetsi stated in his work that Armenians of Artsakh had their own dialect, and encouraged his readers to learn it.<ref>Н.Адонц. «Дионисий Фракийский и армянские толкователи», Пг., 1915, 181—219</ref> | |||
After the partition of Armenia between ] and ], in 387 AD, ] became part of ], which, in turn, came under strong Armenian religious and cultural influence.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica. Article: Azerbaijan</ref><ref name="Walker, Christopher J 1991, p. 10">Walker, Christopher J. Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity. Minority Rights Group Publications, 1991, p. 10</ref><ref name="kulichki.com"> Moskva, «Vostochnaya Literatura», 2002. ISBN 5-02-017711-3</ref><ref>Robert H. Hewsen. "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians," in: Samuelian, Thomas J. (Hg.), Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity, Chicago: 1982</ref><ref></ref> The Armenian medieval atlas Ashkharatsuits (Աշխարացույց), compiled in the 7th century by ] (Անանիա Շիրակացի, but sometimes attributed to ] as well), categorizes ] and ] as provinces of ] despite their presumed detachment from the ] and their political association with Caucasian Albania and Persia at the time of his writing.<ref>Hewsen, Robert H. ''Armenia: a Historical Atlas''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001, map “Armenia according to Anania of Shirak’</ref> ] specifies that ] and ] are “now detached” from ] and included in “Aghvank,” and he takes care to distinguish this new entity from the old “Aghvank strictly speaking” (Բուն Աղվանք) situated north of the river Kura. Because the Armenian element was more homogeneous and more developed than the tribes living to the north of the ], Armenians took over Caucasian Albania’s political life and was progressively able to impose its language and culture.<ref name="Robert H. Hewsen 1982">Robert H. Hewsen, “Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians,” in Classical Armenian Culture: Influences and Creativity, ed. Thomas J. Samuelian (Philadelphia: Scholars Press, 1982)</ref><ref>Hewsen, Robert H. “The Kingdom of Artsakh,” in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. ''Medieval Armenian Culture''. Chico, CA, 1983</ref> | |||
=== High Middle Ages === | |||
Whatever little is known about Nagorno-Karabakh and other eastern Armenian-peopled territories in the early Middle Ages comes from the text ''History of the Land of Aghvank'' (Պատմություն Աղվանից Աշխարհի) attributed to two Armenian authors: ] and Movses Daskhurantsi.<ref name="Movsēs Dasxuranc'i 1961, pp. 3-4">The History of the Caucasian Albanians by Movsēs Dasxuranc'i. Translated by Charles Dowsett. London: Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 3-4 “Introduction”</ref> This text, written in Old Armenian, in essence represents the history of Armenia’s provinces of ] and ].<ref name="Robert H. Hewsen 1982"/> ], repeating ], mentions that the very name “Aghvank”/“Albania” is of Armenian origin, and relates it to the Armenian word “aghu” (աղու, meaning “kind,” “benevolent”.<ref>Moses Khorenatsi. History of the Armenians, translated from Old Armenian by Robert W. Thomson. Harvard University Press, 1978, p.</ref> Khorenatsi states that “aghu” was a nickname given to Prince Arran, whom the Armenian king Vagharshak I appointed as governor of northeastern provinces bordering on Armenia. According to a legendary tradition reported by ], Arran was a descendant of Sisak, the ancestor of the Siunids of Armenia’s province of ], and thus a great-grandson of the ancestral eponym of the Armenians, the ].<ref>Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, translated from Old Armenian by Sh. V. Smbatian. Yerevan: Matenadaran (Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), 1984, p. 43</ref> Kaghankatvatsi and another Armenian author, ], confirm Arran’s belonging to Hayk’s blood line by calling Arranshahiks “a Haykazian dynasty.”<ref>Kirakos Gandzaketsi. “Kirakos Gandzaketsi’s history of the Armenians,” Sources of the Armenian Tradition. New York, 1986, p. 67</ref> | |||
{{main|Principality of Khachen}} | |||
Around the mid 7th century, the region was conquered by the invading Muslim Arabs through the ]. Subsequently, it was ruled by local governors endorsed by the ]. According to some sources, in 821 the Armenian<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061953/https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC |date=23 September 2023 }}. — ], 1975. — vol. 4. — p. 506 "''He was handed to Afshin's troops by Sahl b. Sunbadh, an Armenian prince in 222/836-7, and executed in Samarra (223/837) while his brother and assistant 'Abd-Allah was delivered to the prince of Tabaristan, Ibn Sharvin, who had him put to death in Baghdad.''"</ref> prince ] revolted in Artsakh and established the ], which ruled Artsakh as a ] until the early 19th century.<ref name="Atlas">], ''Armenia: A Historical Atlas''. The University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 119, 155, 163, 264–65.</ref> According to other sources, Sahl Smbatian "was of the Zamirhakan family of kings," and in the year 837–838 he acquired sovereignty over Armenia, Georgia, and Albania.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/Binder1_201404/Binder1_djvu.txt|title=The History of the Caucasian Albanians By Movses Dasxuranci|last=Movses Dasxuranci translated by C. J. F. Dowsett|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1961|location=London|pages=217}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Тер-Григорян Т.И. Неизданные страницы "Истории Албанской страны"Моисея Каланкайтукского. Архив Ин-та истории АН Азерб. ССР, № 1386, л.18}}</ref> The name "Khachen" originated from Armenian word "khach," which means "cross".<ref>Christopher Walker. The Armenian presence in Mountainous Karabakh, in John F. R. Wright et al.: ''Transcaucasian Boundaries'' (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics). 1995, p. 93</ref> By 1000 the House of Khachen proclaimed the ] with ] as its first ruler.<ref>Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh", in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. ''Medieval Armenian Culture''. Chico, CA, 1983</ref> Initially ] in southern Artsakh also formed a kingdom ruled by the ancient ], descended from the earliest Kings of Caucasian Albania. In 1261, after the daughter of the last king of Dizak married the king of Artsakh, Armenian<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517001944/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/argun-aqa-a-mongol-administrator-in-iran-d-1275 |date=17 May 2012 }} ] "''It can only have caused resentment among the Muslims, and the Christian author Kirakos, in stark contrast with Jovaynī, has nothing favorable to say concerning Arḡūn’s exactions: his harsh treatment of certain Armenian princes, such as Jalāl of Ḵačen, whom he had executed in 659/1261, made him especially hateful.''"</ref> prince ], the two states merged into one<ref name="Atlas"/> Armenian<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Armenia/Administration-and-social-conditions |title=Armenia {{!}} Geography, Population, Map, Religion, & History |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=13 June 2023 |publisher=] |quote=A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori, the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan, and the principates of Khachen (Artzakh) and Sasun." |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428164747/https://www.britannica.com/place/Armenia |url-status=live }}</ref> ]. Subsequently, Artsakh continued to exist as a de facto independent principality. | |||
=== Late Middle Ages === | |||
By the early ], the non-Armenian elements of Caucasian Albanian population of upper Karabakh had completed their merger into the Armenian population, and forever disappeared as identifiable groups.<ref>Rutland, Peter. "Democracy and Nationalism in Armenia". ''Europe-Asia Studies''''' 46''':841</ref><ref>К. В. Тревер. Очерки По Истории и Культуре Кавказской Албании IV В. до Н. Э. — VII В. н. э. (источники и литература). Изданиe Академии Наук СССР, М.-Л., 1959, стр. 81 ], living far from Artsakh or Utik, are perhaps the only exception.</ref> | |||
{{main|Karabakh Khanate|Melikdoms of Karabakh}} | |||
], built by the ] ruler ] in the 18th century]] | |||
] (Armenian: Խամսայի Մելիքություններ) of Karabakh (Gyulistan, Jraberd, Khachen, Varanda, and Dizak), widely considered to be the last relic of Armenian statehood (15th–19th century).<ref>Robert H. Hewsen. Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=George A. Bournoutian |title=A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-e Qarabagh |publisher=Mazda Publishers |date=1994 |isbn=1-56859-011-3}}</ref>]] | |||
In the 15th century, the territory of Karabakh was part of the states ruled subsequently by the ] and ] ] tribal confederations. According to ], during the period of ] (1438–1468), the ruler of Kara Koyunlu, Piri bey Karamanli held the governorship of Karabakh.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/KitabEDiyarbakriya-AbuBakrTehraniFarsi|title=(original) کتاب دیاربکریه: از تواریخ قراقوینلو و چغاتای. ویسنده: ابوبکر طهرانی. به تصحیح و اهتمام: نجاتی لوغال، فاروق سومه. تهران : کتابخانه طهوری،۱۳۵۶.|last=Abū Bakr Ṭihrānī. Kitāb-i Diyārbakriyya|pages=138}}</ref> However, according to ], the ] lord ] (1437–67) assigned the governorship of upper Karabakh to local Armenian princes, allowing a native Armenian leadership to emerge consisting of five noble families led by princes who held the titles of '']s''.<ref name="Atlas"/> These dynasties represented the branches of the earlier House of Khachen and were the descendants of the medieval kings of Artsakh. Their lands were often referred to as the Country of ] (''five'' in Arabic). In a Charter (2 June 1799) of the Emperor ] titled "About their admission to Russian suzerainty, land allocation, rights and privileges", it was noted that the Christian heritage of the Karabakh region and all their people were admitted to the Russian suzerainty.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Полное Собрание Законов Российской Империи c 1649 года. Том XXV. 1798–1799. СПб.: Печатано в Типографии II Отделения Собственной Его Императорского Величества Канцелярии, 1830, № 18.990, c.674–675. (Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire since 1649. Volume XXV. 1798–1799. SPb .: Printed at the Printing House of the II Branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Office, 1830, No. 18.990, p.674-675)}}</ref> However, according to ], the ] recognized the ] status of the five princes in their domains by the charter of Emperor Paul I dated 2 June 1799.<ref name="Relations">Robert H. Hewsen. ''Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828''. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37.</ref> | |||
Armenian culture and civilization flourished in the early medieval Nagorno-Karabakh — in ] and ]. In the 5th century, the first-ever Armenian school was opened on the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh — at the ]— by the efforts of St. ], the inventor of the ].<ref>Viviano, Frank. “The Rebirth of Armenia,” National Geographic Magazine, March 2004, p. 18,</ref> St. Mesrob was very active in preaching Gospel in ] and ]. Four chapters of ]’s “History...” amply describe St. Mesrob’s mission, referring to him as “enlightener,” “evangelizer” and “saint”.<ref name="movses">Movses Kalankatuatsi. ''History of the Land of Aluank'', Book I, chapters 27, 28 and 29; Book II, chapter 3.</ref> Overall, ] made three trips to ] and ], ultimately reaching pagan territories at the foothills of the ].<ref name="movses"/> It was at that time when the foremost Armenian historian ] confirmed that the ] formed "the boundary of Armenian speech."<ref name="Moses Khorenatsi 1978">Moses Khorenatsi. History of the Armenians, translated from Old Armenian by Robert W. Thomson. Harvard University Press, 1978, Book II</ref> The 7th-century Armenian linguist and grammarian Stephanos Syunetsi stated in his work that Armenians of Artsakh had their own dialect, and encouraged his readers to learn it.<ref name="ReferenceB">Н.Адонц. «Дионисий Фракийский и армянские толкователи», Пг., 1915, 181—219</ref> The same advice to study the Armenian dialect of ] was repeated by Essayi Nchetsi in the 14th century, the founder of the University of ].<ref name="Christophe J. Walker 1991, p. 76">Christophe J. Walker. Armenia and Karabagh: the Struggle for Unity. Minority Right Publications, 1991, p. 76</ref> In the same 7th century, Armenian poet ] writes his ''Elegy on the Death of Grand Prince Juansher'', where each passage begins with a letter of Armenian script in alphabetical order.<ref>Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, translated from Old Armenian by Sh. V. Smbatian. Yerevan: Matenadaran (Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), 1984, ''Elegy on the Death of Prince Juansher''</ref><ref name="Hacikyan, Basmajian, Franchuk 94-99">Agop Jack Hacikyan, Gabriel Basmajian, Edward S. Franchuk. ''The Heritage of Armenian Literature''. Wayne State University Press (December 2002), pp. 94–99</ref> | |||
The Armenian meliks were granted supreme command over neighbouring Armenian principalities and Muslim khans in the Caucasus by the Iranian king ], in return for the meliks' victories over the invading ] in the 1720s.<ref>Walker, Christopher J. ''Armenia: Survival of a Nation''. London: Routledge, 1990 p. 40 {{ISBN|0-415-04684-X}}</ref> These five principalities<ref>Raffi, The History of Karabagh's Meliks, Vienna, 1906, in Armenian</ref><ref>In English, Raffi, ''The Five Melikdoms of Karabagh'' translated by Ara Stepan Melkonian, Garod Books Ltd. 2010, London. {{ISBN|9781903656570}}</ref> in Karabakh were ruled by Armenian families who had received the title Melik (prince) and were the following: | |||
In the 5th century’s Nagorno Karabakh Vachagan II the Pious, ruler of Aghvank, adopted the so-called ''Constitution of Aghven'' (Սահմանք Կանոնական)—a code of civil regulations consisting of 21 articles and composed after a series of talks with leading clerical and civil figures of Armenia and Aghvank (e.g. Bishop of ]).<ref>The History of the Caucasian Albanians by Movsēs Dasxuranc'i. Translated by Charles Dowsett. London: Oxford University Press, 1961, “Constitution.”</ref> In 728 AD, the ''Constitution of Aghven'' was included in the ''Armenian Book of Laws'' (Կանոնագիրք Հայոց) by the head of the ] ] Hovhan III Odznetsi, thus laying out a blueprint for later-era Armenian legal texts, such as ''Lawcode'' written in the 12th century by ]’s under the sponsorship of ].<ref> Mkhitar Gosh. The Lawcode, translated from Old Armenian by Robert W. Thomson. NJ: Rodopi, 2000</ref> The ''Constitution of Aghven'' usually features as an inclusion in ]’s ''History of the Land of Aghvank''.<ref> Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, translated from Old Armenian by Sh. V. Smbatian. Yerevan: Matenadaran (Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), 1984, “Constitution”</ref> | |||
* '''Principality of ''Gulistan''''' – under the leadership of the Melik-Beglarian family | |||
* '''Principality of ''Jraberd''''' – under the leadership of the Melik-Israelian family | |||
* '''Principality of '']''''' – under the leadership of the ] family | |||
* '''Principality of ''Varanda''''' – under the leadership of the Melik-Shahnazarian family | |||
* '''Principality of '']''''' – under the leadership of the Melik-Avanian family | |||
From 1501 to 1736, during the existence of the ], the province of Karabakh was governed by the ] dynasty, until ] took over Karabakh from their rule.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Павлова И.К. Хроника времен Сефевидов. Соч. Мухаммад-Масума Исфахани "Хуласат ас-сийар". М.:Наука, 1993, c.59–61.}}</ref> The Armenian meliks maintained full control over the region until the mid-18th century.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} In the early 18th century, Iran's Nader Shah took Karabakh out of control of the Ganja khans in punishment for their support of the ]s, and placed it under his own control<ref>{{in lang|ru}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220125707/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/frametext5.htm |date=20 February 2007 }}; according to an 18th-century local Turkic-Muslim writer Mirza Adigezal bey, Nadir shah placed Karabakh under his own control, while a 19th-century local Turkic Muslim writer Abbas-gulu Aga Bakikhanov states that the shah placed Karabakh under the control of the governor of Tabriz.</ref><ref name="Adigezal">{{Cite web|url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus14/Karabag_name/text1.phtml?id=945|title=МИРЗА АДИГЕЗАЛЬ-БЕК->КАРАБАГ-НАМЕ->ГЛАВЫ 1–6|website=www.vostlit.info|access-date=26 December 2006|archive-date=21 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821124203/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus14/Karabag_name/text1.phtml?id=945|url-status=live}}</ref> In the mid-18th century, as internal conflicts between the meliks led to their weakening, the Karabakh Khanate was formed. The ], one of the largest ] under ]ian suzerainty,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George A.|title=The 1820 Russian Survey of the Khanate of Shirvan: A Primary Source on the Demography and Economy of an Iranian Province prior to its Annexation by Russia|date=2016|publisher=Gibb Memorial Trust|page=xvii|quote=''Serious historians and geographers agree that after the fall of the Safavids, and especially from the mid-eighteenth century, the territory of the South Caucasus was composed of the khanates of Ganja, Kuba, Shirvan, Baku, Talesh, Sheki, Karabagh, Nakhchivan and Yerevan, all of which were under Iranian suzerainty.'' |isbn=978-1909724808}}</ref> was headed by ]. For the reinforcement of the power of Karabakh khanate, Khan of Karabakh, Panah-Ali khan Javanshir, built up “] (today Shusha)” in 1751. During that time, Otuziki, ], Kebirli, and other Turkic tribes constituted the majority of the overall population. | |||
===Middle Ages=== | |||
In the 7th and 8th centuries, during the Arab conquest of the Caucasus, the region was ruled by ]-appointed local governors selected among local dynasts. In 821 the Armenian prince ] revolted in ] and established the ], which ruled parts of Artsakh as a ] until the early 19th century.<ref name="Atlas">], ''Armenia: A Historical Atlas''. The University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 119, 155, 163, 264–65.</ref> The name “Khachen” originated from Armenian word “khach,” which means “cross”.<ref name="Christopher Walker 1995, p. 93"/> In 1000, the ] proclaimed the ] with Hovhannes (John) Senecherib as its first ruler.<ref>Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh", in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. ''Medieval Armenian Culture''. Chico, CA, 1983</ref> Initially, the province of ], in southern part of modern Nagorno-Karabakh, also formed a kingdom ruled by the ancient House of Aranshahik, which descended from the region's earliest monarchs. | |||
=== Modern era === | |||
After the invasion of the ] and ] by ] in the 11th century, some Armenian noble families from ] chose to flee westward to the province of ] on the ], joining their fellow countrymen from other provinces of ].<ref>Der Nersessian, Sirarpie. "The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia." in A History of the Crusades, vol. II. Kenneth M. Setton (ed.) Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962, pp. 630–631</ref> Among them was ], Lord of Parisos, who left ] in 1071 and established the ] dynasty that ruled the ] in the 13th and 14th centuries.<ref>Bournoutian, Ani Atamian. "Cilician Armenia" in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 283–290. ISBN 1-4039-6421-1</ref> | |||
] of the former ruler (khan) of ]. Taken from a postcard from the late 19th–early 20th century.]] | |||
]: Armenian half of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920, with the defiled ] in the background.]] | |||
] (including modern-day Nagorno-Karabakh), became a ] of the ] by the ], signed between ] of Karabakh and general ] on behalf of Tsar ] in 1805, according to which the Russian monarch recognized Ibrahim Khalil Khan and his descendants as the sole hereditary rulers of the region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.km.ru/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030613014623/http://hronos.km.ru/dokum/azer1805.html|url-status=dead|title=KM.RU – новости, экономика, автомобили, наука и техника, кино, музыка, спорт, игры, анекдоты, курсы валют | KM.RU|archive-date=13 June 2003|website=www.km.ru}}</ref><ref>Muriel Atkin. ''The Strange Death of Ibrahim Khalil Khan of Qarabagh''. Iranian Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Winter – Spring, 1979), pp. 79–107</ref><ref>George A. Bournoutian. ''A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-e Qarabagh''. Mazda Publishers, 1994. {{ISBN|1-56859-011-3}}, 978-1-568-59011-0</ref> However, its new status was only confirmed following the outcome of the ], when through the loss in the war, Persia formally ceded Karabakh to the Russian Empire per the ] (1813),<ref>Tim Potier. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121408/https://books.google.com/books?id=JL9N4F1SgyYC&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh&pg=PA1 |date=9 September 2023 }}. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001, p. 2. {{ISBN|90-411-1477-7}}.</ref><ref>Leonidas Themistocles Chrysanthopoulos. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121409/https://books.google.com/books?id=cELfINDAH0oC&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh&pg=PA8 |date=9 September 2023 }}. ], 2002, p. 8. {{ISBN|1-884630-05-7}}.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909121408/https://books.google.com/books?id=LyhdAAAAMAAJ&dq=treaty+of+Gulistan+Karabakh+The+British+and+Foreign+Review&pg=RA1-PA422 |date=9 September 2023 }}. J. Ridgeway and sons, 1838, p. 422.</ref><ref>Taru Bahl, M.H. Syed. {{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Anmol Publications PVT, 2003 p. 34. {{ISBN|81-261-1419-3}}.</ref> before the rest of ] was incorporated into the Empire in 1828 by the ], which came as an outcome of the ]. | |||
In 1822, 9 years after it passed from Iranian to Russian control, the Karabakh Khanate was dissolved and the area became part of the ] within the Russian Empire. In 1823 the five districts corresponding roughly to modern-day Nagorno-Karabakh were 90.8% Armenian-populated.<ref name="Tbilisi 1866">''Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd'' ({{langx|ru-Latn|Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2-m}}), Tbilisi, 1866.</ref><ref name="Bournoutian, George A. 1994, page 18">Bournoutian, George A. ''A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh''. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18</ref> | |||
In 1216, when the daughter of Dizak's last king, Mamkan, married ], the king of ], ] and ] merged into one, which expanded of the territory of the ] further still.<ref name="Atlas"/> After the death of ], ] continued to exist as a principality. | |||
=== Soviet era === | |||
In the 15th century, the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh was part of the area ruled or influenced by ] and ] tribal confederations. The ] lord ] (1437–67) assigned the governorship of upper Karabakh to local Armenian princes - five noble families who held the title of '']s''.<ref name="Atlas"/> These dynasties represented the branches of the earlier ] and were the descendants of the medieval ]. Their lands were often referred to as the Country of ] (''five'' in ]). The ] recognized the ] status of the five Armenian princes in their domains by a charter of the Emperor ] dated 2 June 1799.<ref name="Relations">Robert H. Hewsen. ''Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828''. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37.</ref> | |||
{{main|Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast}} | |||
]'' (prince) David Melik-Shahnazarian of Nagorno Karabakh, ]'s envoy to Persia.<ref>Mir Davoud Zadour Mélik Schanazar, Détails sur la situation actuelle du royaume de Perse (...et par Jacques Chahan de Cirbied), Paris 1816</ref><ref>An Armenian Diplomat in the Service of Napoleon a Hundred Years Ago, by G. Thoumaian, Ararat, vol. 4, London, 1917 </ref>]] | |||
] | |||
These five Armenian principalities (]doms) in Karabakh<ref>Raffi, The History of Karabagh's Meliks, Vienna, 1906, in Armenian</ref> were as following: | |||
] | |||
After the ], Karabakh became part of the ], but this soon dissolved into separate ], ], and ] states. Over the next two years (1918–1920), there were a series of ] between Armenia and Azerbaijan over several regions, including Nagorno-Karabakh. Between 1918 and 1920, Nagorno-Karabakh's ] affiliation with Armenia or Azerbaijan was disputed and not adjudicated by the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krüger |first=Heiko |date=June 2014 |title=Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3811/chapter/145283746 |access-date=2023-08-02 |website=academic.oup.com |pages=214–232 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198702375.003.0011 |isbn=978-0-19-870237-5 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061927/https://academic.oup.com/book/3811/chapter-abstract/145283746?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Gardner |first=Anne-Marie |title=Nagorno-Karabakh: Balancing Standards? |date=2011 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1057/9780230117600_4 |work=Democratic Governance and Non-State Actors |pages=71–103 |access-date=2023-08-02 |place=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |language=en |doi=10.1057/9780230117600_4 |isbn=978-1-349-29153-3 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923061933/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230117600_4 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In July 1918, the First Armenian Assembly of Nagorno-Karabakh declared the region self-governing and created a National Council and government.<ref name="nesl.edu">{{cite web |url= http://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf |title= ''The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution'' |access-date= 16 February 2006 |archive-date= 30 March 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190330205744/https://www.nesl.edu/center/pubs/nagorno.pdf |url-status= live }}, New England Center for International Law & Policy</ref> Later, Ottoman troops entered Karabakh, meeting armed resistance by Armenians. | |||
* '''Principality of ''Gulistan''''' - under the leadership of the Melik Beglarian family | |||
* '''Principality of ''Jraberd''''' - under the leadership of the Melik Israelian family | |||
* '''Principality of '']''''' - under the leadership of the ] family | |||
* '''Principality of ''Varanda''''' - under the leadership of the Melik Shahnazarian family | |||
* '''Principality of ''Dizak''''' - under the leadership of the Melik Avanian family. | |||
After the defeat of the ] in World War I, British troops occupied Karabakh. The British command provisionally affirmed ] (appointed by the Azerbaijani government) as the governor-general of Karabakh and ], pending a final decision by the ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/3.html |title=Circular by colonel D. I. Shuttleworth of the British Command |access-date=5 September 2006 |archive-date=7 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060507144914/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/3.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The decision was opposed by Karabakh Armenians. In February 1920, the Karabakh National Council preliminarily agreed to Azerbaijani jurisdiction, while Armenians elsewhere in Karabakh continued guerrilla fighting, never accepting the agreement.<ref name="nesl.edu" /> The agreement itself was soon annulled by the Ninth Karabagh Assembly, which declared union with Armenia in April.<ref name="nesl.edu" /><ref>''Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal'' by Tim Potier. {{ISBN|90-411-1477-7}}</ref> | |||
The principalities of Nagorno Karabakh considered themselves direct descendants of the ], and were recognized as such by foreign powers<ref>Bournoutian, George A. Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, p. 330, See: "Letter of Meliks of Karabagh to Prince Petemkin, January 23, 1790"</ref> | |||
In April 1920, while the Azerbaijani army was locked in Karabakh fighting local Armenian forces, Azerbaijan was ] by ]s. On 10 August 1920, Armenia signed a preliminary agreement with the Bolsheviks, agreeing to a temporary Bolshevik occupation of these areas until final settlement would be reached.<ref>Walker. ''The Survival of a Nation''. pp. 285–90</ref> In 1921, ] and ] were also taken over by the Bolsheviks. After the ] of Armenia and Azerbaijan, the ] (Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the ]) decided that Karabakh would remain within ] with broad regional autonomy, with the administrative centre in the city of ] (the administrative center was later moved to ]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://armenian.usc.edu/qa-with-arsene-saparov-no-evidence-that-stalin-gave-karabakh-to-azerbaijan/ |title=Q&A with Arsène Saparov: No Evidence that Stalin "gave" Karabakh to Azerbaijan |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=10 December 2018 |website=armenian.usc.edu |quote=Of all the documents I have seen, there is no direct evidence of Stalin doing or saying something in those 12 days in the summer of 1921 that . A lot of people just assume that since Stalin was an evil person, it would be typical of someone evil to take a decision like that. |access-date=31 October 2020 |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215061933/https://armenian.usc.edu/qa-with-arsene-saparov-no-evidence-that-stalin-gave-karabakh-to-azerbaijan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The oblast's borders were drawn to include Armenian villages and to exclude as much as possible Azerbaijani villages.<ref>{{cite book |last=Potier |first=Tim |author-link= |date=2001 |title=Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, A Legal Appraisal|location=The Hague, Netherlands |publisher=Kluwer Law International |page=5 |isbn=9041114777}}</ref> The resulting district ensured an Armenian majority. | |||
In the early 16th century, after the fall of the Ak Koyunlu state, control of the region passed to the ], which created the Karabakh Beylerbeylik. Despite these conquests, the population of Upper Karabakh remained largely Armenian.<ref name="Cornell">Cornell, Svante E. {{PDFlink||1.05 MB}}. Uppsala: Department of East European Studies, April 1999.</ref> Initially under the control of the ] of the Persian Empire, wide autonomy of local Armenian princes over the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh and adjacent lands was confirmed by the Safavid Empire over. | |||
With the Soviet Union firmly in control of the region, the ] over the region died down for several decades until the beginning of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the question of Nagorno-Karabakh re-emerged. Accusing the Azerbaijani SSR government of conducting forced Azerification of the region, the majority Armenian population, with ideological and material support from the ], started a movement to have the autonomous oblast transferred to the Armenian SSR.<ref>Audrey L. Altstadt. ''The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule''. Hoover Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0817991824}}, 9780817991821</ref> In August 1987, Karabakh Armenians sent a petition for union with Armenia with tens of thousands of signatures to Moscow.<ref>Black Garden, Thomas de Waal, page 292</ref> | |||
The Armenian '']s'' maintained full control over the region until the mid-18th century.<ref name="Cornell"/> In the early 18th century, Persia's ] took Karabakh out of control of the Ganja khans in punishment for their support of the ]s, and placed it under his own control<ref>{{ru icon}} ; according to a 18th c. local Turkic-Muslim writer Mirza Adigezal bey, Nadir shah placed Karabakh under his own control, while a 19th-century local Turkic Muslim writer Abbas-gulu Aga Bakikhanov states that the shah placed Karabakh under the control of the governor of Tabriz.</ref><ref name="Adigezal">{{ru icon}} </ref> At the same time, the Armenian meliks were granted supreme command over neighboring Armenian principalities and Muslim khans in the Caucasus, in return for the ]s' victories over the invading ] ] in the 1720s.<ref>Walker, Christopher J. ''Armenia: Survival of a Nation''. London: Routledge, 1990 p. 40 ISBN 0-415-04684-X</ref> | |||
=== War and secession === | |||
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Nagorno Karabakh became an epicenter of the rebirth of the idea of Armenian independence.<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 72</ref><ref>George A. Bournoutian. ''A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-e Qarabagh''. Mazda Publishers, 1994. p. 17. ISBN 1-56859-011-3, 978-1-568-59011-0</ref> This state, centered on semi-independent Armenian principalities of ] and ], would be allied with Georgia and protected by Russia.<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 72</ref> Armenian ] ], who served in the armies of ], was trying to convince ] (1658-1716), ] and ] to liberate ] from foreign yoke.<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 73</ref> Another prominent patriot from Nagorno Karabakh who worked to establish an independent Armenian entity in his homeland was ].<ref>Life and Adventures of Emin Joseph Emin 1726-1809 Written by himself. Second edition with Portrait, Correspondence, Reproductions of original Letters and Map*. Calcutta 1918. </ref> ] accompanied the Armenian patriot ] (1726-1809), and tried to secure the help of Karabakh's Armenian ].<ref>A.R. Ioannisian. Joseph Emin. Yerevan, 1989, link to full text: </ref> | |||
{{main|First Nagorno-Karabakh War}} | |||
], knocked out of commission while attacking Azeri positions in ], serves as a war memorial on the outskirts of Stepanakert.]] | |||
On 13 February 1988, Karabakh Armenians began demonstrating in ], in favour of unification with the Armenian republic. Six days later they were joined by mass marches in ]. On 20 February, the Soviet of People's Deputies in Karabakh voted 110 to 17 to request the transfer of the region to Armenia. This unprecedented action by a regional Soviet brought out tens of thousands of demonstrations both in Stepanakert and Yerevan, but Moscow rejected the Armenians' demands. On 20 February 1988, 2 Azeri girls were raped in Stepanakert.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} This caused widespread outrage in the Azeri town of ]. The first direct confrontation of the conflict occurred as a large group of Azeris marched from ] to the Armenian populated town of Askeran.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} The confrontation between the Azeris and the police near Askeran degenerated into the ], which left two Azeris dead, one of them allegedly killed by an Azeri police officer. Fifty Armenian villagers and an unknown number of Azeris and police officers were injured.<ref>Black Garden Thomas de Waal, p.15</ref><ref>Elizabeth Fuller, ''Nagorno-Karabakh: The Death and Casualty Toll to Date'', RL 531/88, 14 December 1988, pp. 1–2</ref><ref name="dewaal">{{cite book| last =de Waal | first = Thomas | author-link = Thomas de Waal| title = Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War| publisher = ]| year = 2003 | location = New York| isbn = 0-8147-1945-7}}</ref> Large numbers of refugees left Armenia and Azerbaijan as violence began against the minority populations of the respective republics.<ref>{{cite book |last = Lieberman |first = Benjamin |title = Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |publisher = Ivan R. Dee |year = 2006 |location = Chicago |pages = 284–92 |isbn = 1-5666-3646-9}}</ref> On 7 July 1988, the European Parliament passed a resolution that condemned the violence employed against Armenian demonstrators in Azerbaijan, and supported the demand of the Armenians for reunification with the Soviet Republic of Armenia.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608140305/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:JOC_1988_235_R_0080_01 |date=8 June 2022 }} page 21</ref> | |||
On 29 November 1989, direct rule in Nagorno-Karabakh was ended and the region was returned to Azerbaijani administration.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Encyclopedia of World History| publisher =Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | year = 2001 | page = 906 }}</ref> The Soviet policy backfired, however, when a joint session of the Armenian ] and the National Council, the legislative body of Nagorno-Karabakh, proclaimed the unification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} On 26 November 1991 Azerbaijan ], rearranging the ] and bringing the territory under direct control of Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite book |title=Where nation-states come from: institutional change in the age of nationalism |last1=Roeder |first1=Philip G. |year=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13467-3 |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAItI5C_JPUC&q=Nagorno-Karabakh+Autonomous+Oblast+was+created&pg=PA51 |access-date=10 October 2011 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923062214/https://books.google.com/books?id=XAItI5C_JPUC&q=Nagorno-Karabakh+Autonomous+Oblast+was+created&pg=PA51 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In the mid-18th century, as internal conflicts between the '']s'' led to their weakening,<ref name="Cornell"/> the ] was formed.<ref>, azer.org</ref> | |||
On 10 December 1991, in a referendum boycotted by local Azerbaijanis,<ref name="dewaal"/> Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh approved the creation of an independent state. A Soviet proposal for enhanced autonomy for Nagorno-Karabakh within Azerbaijan satisfied neither side and ] subsequently erupted between Azerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh, with the latter receiving support from Armenia.<ref>]. '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011042435/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/communal/ |date=11 October 2012 }}'': "By early 1992 full-scale fighting broke out between Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijani authorities." / "...Karabakh Armenian forces—often with the support of forces from the Republic of Armenia—conducted large-scale operations..." / "Because 1993 witnessed unrelenting Karabakh Armenian offensives against the Azerbaijani provinces surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh..." / "Since late 1993, the conflict has also clearly become internationalized: in addition to Azerbaijani and Karabakh Armenian forces, troops from the Republic of Armenia participate on the Karabakh side in fighting inside Azerbaijan and in Nagorno-Karabakh."</ref><ref>]. '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218230025/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/WR93/Hsw-07.htm |date=18 February 2015 }}'': "In 1992 the conflict grew far more lethal as both sides—the Azerbaijani National Army and free-lance militias fighting along with it, and ethnic Armenians and mercenaries fighting in the Popular Liberation Army of Artsakh—began."</ref><ref>]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202233445/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks25/forewrd25.html |date=2 December 2008 }}: "Nagorno-Karabakh’s armed forces have not only fortified their region but have also occupied a large swath of surrounding Azeri territory in the hopes of linking the enclave to Armenia."</ref><ref>]. '' {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201052200/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks19/chap3_19.html |date=1 December 2008 }}'' "Meanwhile, the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh was gradually transforming into a full-scale war between Azeri and Karabakh irregulars, the latter receiving support from Armenia." / "Azerbaijan's objective advantage in terms of human and economic potential has so far been offset by the superior fighting skills and discipline of Nagorno-Karabakh's forces. After a series of offensives, retreats, and counteroffensives, Nagorno-Karabakh now controls a sizable portion of Azerbaijan proper ... including the Lachin corridor."</ref> According to Armenia's former president, ], the Karabakh leadership approach was maximalist and "they thought they could get more."<ref>{{cite news|title=By Giving Karabakh Lands to Azerbaijan, Conflict Would Have Ended in '97, Says Ter-Petrosian|url=http://asbarez.com/95222/by-giving-karabakh-lands-to-azerbaijan-conflict-would-have-ended-in-%E2%80%9997-says-ter-petrosian/comment-page-1/|newspaper=Asbarez|date=19 April 2011|agency=Asbarez|access-date=21 May 2011|archive-date=1 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001083625/http://asbarez.com/95222/by-giving-karabakh-lands-to-azerbaijan-conflict-would-have-ended-in-%E2%80%9997-says-ter-petrosian/comment-page-1/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ter-Petrosyan on the BBC: Karabakh conflict could have been resolved by giving certain territories to Azerbaijan|url=http://www.armenianow.com/news/29088/terpetrosyan_bbc_interview|newspaper=ArmeniaNow|date=19 April 2011|agency=ArmeniaNow|access-date=21 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519030034/http://www.armenianow.com/news/29088/terpetrosyan_bbc_interview|archive-date=19 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Первый президент Армении о распаде СССР и Карабахе|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/multimedia/2011/04/110415_v_terpetrosyan_int.shtml|newspaper=BBC|date=18 April 2011|agency=BBC|access-date=21 May 2011|archive-date=3 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903075448/http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/multimedia/2011/04/110415_v_terpetrosyan_int.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Karabakh became a ] of the ] by the ], signed between ] of Karabakh and general ] on behalf of ] ] in 1805, according to which the Russian monarch recognized Ibrahim Khalil Khan and his descendants as the sole hereditary rulers of the region.<ref>{{ru icon}} </ref><ref>Muriel Atkin. ''The Strange Death of Ibrahim Khalil Khan of Qarabagh''. Iranian Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Winter – Spring, 1979), pp. 79–107</ref><ref>George A. Bournoutian. ''A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-e Qarabagh''. Mazda Publishers, 1994. ISBN 1-56859-011-3, 978-1-568-59011-0</ref> Its new status was confirmed under the terms of the ] (1823), when Persia formally ceded Karabakh to the Russian Empire,<ref>Tim Potier. . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001, p. 2. ISBN 90-411-1477-7.</ref><ref>Leonidas Themistocles Chrysanthopoulos. . Gomidas Institute, 2002, p. 8. ISBN 1-884630-05-7.</ref><ref>. J. Ridgeway and sons, 1838, p. 422.</ref><ref>Taru Bahl, M.H. Syed. . Anmol Publications PVT, 2003 p. 34. ISBN 81-261-1419-3.</ref> before the rest of ] was incorporated into the Empire in 1828 by the ]. | |||
The struggle over Nagorno-Karabakh escalated after both Armenia and Azerbaijan attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. In the post-Soviet ], military action between Azerbaijan and Armenia was heavily influenced by the ]. Furthermore, both the Armenian and Azerbaijani military employed a large number of mercenaries from ] and Russia.<ref name="ratios">]. ''Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh''. December 1994, p. xiii, {{ISBN|1-56432-142-8}}, citing: Natsional'nyi Sostav Naseleniya SSSR, po dannym Vsesoyuznyi Perepisi Naseleniya 1989 g., Moskva, "Finansy i Statistika"</ref> Between fifteen and twenty-five hundred ] ], along with fighters from ], participated in the fighting on Azerbaijan's side.<ref name="dewaal"/> Russia provided Armenia with heavy artillery and tanks.<ref name="dewaal"/> Many survivors from the Azerbaijani side found shelter in 12 emergency camps set up in other parts of Azerbaijan to cope with the growing number of internally displaced people due to the first Nagorno-Karabakh war.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124113352/http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/47aaf6734.html |date=24 November 2020 }}, '']''</ref> | |||
In 1822, the Karabakh khanate was dissolved, and the area became part of the ] within the ]. After the transfer of the Karabakh khanate to Russia, many Muslim families emigrated to Persia, while many Armenians were induced by the Russian government to emigrate from Persia to Karabakh.<ref></ref> | |||
By the end of 1993, the conflict had caused about 30,000 casualties<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-12 |title=Armenia, Azerbaijan clash as ceasefire fails to stick |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1584677 |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=], ] |language=en |archive-date=8 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608112150/https://www.dawn.com/news/1584677 |url-status=live }}</ref> and created hundreds of thousands of refugees on both sides.{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}}<!-- The source cited at the end of the next sentence supports the claim of there having been thousands of Azeri refugees but does not appear to support the other claims in the preceding sentence. --> By May 1994, the Armenians were in control of 14% of the territory of Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=de Waal |date=2003 |title=Black Garden |page=3 |publisher=New York University Press |url=https://raufray.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/0814719449.pdf |access-date=6 May 2020 |archive-date=26 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226124838/https://raufray.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/0814719449.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> At that stage, for the first time during the conflict, the Azerbaijani government recognized Nagorno-Karabakh as a third party in the war and started direct negotiations with the Karabakh authorities. As a result, a ] was reached on 12 May 1994 through Russian mediation. | |||
===Soviet era (1917-1991)=== | |||
{{main|Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast}} | |||
] dedicated to the region's legendary long-livers]] | |||
]'s secession from Azerbaijani SSR]] | |||
The present-day conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh has its roots in the decisions made by ] and the Caucasian Bureau (''{{lang|ru-Latn|Kavburo}}'') during the ] of ]. Stalin was the acting ] for the Soviet Union during the early 1920s, the branch of the government under which the Kavburo was created. After the ], Karabakh became part of the ], but this soon dissolved into separate ]n, ]i, and ] states. Over the next two years (1918–20), there were a series of short ] between Armenia and Azerbaijan over several regions, including Karabakh. | |||
In July 1918, the First Armenian Assembly of Nagorno-Karabakh declared the region self-governing and created a National Council and government.<ref name="nesl.edu">{{PDFlink|}}, New England Center for International Law & Policy</ref> Later, Ottoman troops entered Karabakh, meeting armed resistance by Armenians. | |||
=== Post-1994 ceasefire === | |||
After the defeat of ] in ], ] troops occupied Karabakh.<ref name="Cornell"/> The British command provisionally affirmed ] (appointed by the Azerbaijani government) as the governor-general of Karabakh and ], pending final decision by the ].<ref></ref> The decision was opposed by Karabakh Armenians. In February 1920, the Karabakh National Council preliminarily agreed to Azerbaijani jurisdiction, while Armenians elsewhere in Karabakh continued guerrilla fighting, never accepting the agreement.<ref name="Cornell"/><ref name="nesl.edu"/> The agreement itself was soon annulled by the Ninth Karabagh Assembly, which declared union with Armenia in April.<ref name="Cornell"/><ref name="nesl.edu"/><ref>''Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal'' by Tim Potier. ISBN 90-411-1477-7</ref> | |||
{{Further|Madrid Principles|Prague Process (Armenian–Azerbaijani negotiations)|Nagorno-Karabakh Declaration|Astrakhan Declaration|Land mine situation in Nagorno-Karabakh|2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict|Second Nagorno-Karabakh War}} | |||
]. Armenian forces of Nagorno-Karabakh controlled almost 9% of Azerbaijan's territory outside the former Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast,<ref name="dewaal"/> while Azerbaijani forces control ] and the eastern parts of ] and ].]] | |||
In April 1920, while the Azerbaijani army was locked in Karabakh fighting local Armenian forces, Azerbaijan was taken over by ]s.<ref name="Cornell"/> On August 10, 1920, Armenia signed a preliminary agreement with the Bolsheviks, agreeing to a temporary Bolshevik occupation of these areas until final settlement would be reached.<ref>Walker. ''The Survival of a Nation''. pp. 285–90</ref> In 1921, Armenia and Georgia were also taken over by the ] who, in order to attract public support, promised they would allot Karabakh to Armenia, along with ] and Zangezur (the strip of land separating Nakhchivan from Azerbaijan proper). However, the Soviet Union also had far-reaching plans concerning ], hoping that it would, with a little help from them, develop along ] lines. Needing to placate Turkey, the Soviet Union agreed to a division under which Zangezur would fall under the control of Armenia, while Karabakh and Nakhchivan would be under the control of Azerbaijan. Had Turkey not been an issue, Stalin would likely have left Karabakh under Armenian control.<ref>]. ''Stalin: A Biography''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006 p. 204 ISBN 0-674-02258-0</ref> As a result, the ] was established within the ] on July 7, 1923. | |||
], ] and ] in ] on 2 November 2008]] | |||
Despite the ceasefire, fatalities due to armed conflicts between Armenian and Azerbaijani soldiers continued.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216073814/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5357869 |date=16 December 2018 }} by Ivan Watson/National Public Radio. ''Weekend Edition'' Sunday, 23 April 2006.</ref> On 25 January 2005, the ] (PACE) adopted ], which condemned ethnic cleansing against Azerbaijanis.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/caucas1/msg/2005/02/m38005.htm |title=Проект заявления по Нагорному Карабаху ожидает одобрения парламентских сил Армении<!-- Заголовок добавлен ботом --> |access-date=10 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914021543/http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/caucas1/msg/2005/02/m38005.htm |archive-date=14 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325022435/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/in_depth/newsid_4236000/4236153.stm |date=25 March 2012 }}. BBC Russian.</ref> On 15–17 May 2007 the 34th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the ] adopted resolution No. 7/34-P, considering the occupation of Azerbaijani territory as the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan and recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a ], and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural and religious monuments in the occupied territories.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012122448/http://www.oic-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM-POL-07-RES-FINAL-ENG.pdf |date=12 October 2007 }}. The Thirty-Fourth Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers.</ref> The 11th session of the summit of the ] held on 13–14 March 2008 in ] adopted resolution No. 10/11-P (IS). In the resolution, OIC member states condemned the occupation of Azerbaijani lands by Armenian forces and Armenian aggression against Azerbaijan, ethnic cleansing against the Azeri population, and charged Armenia with the "destruction of cultural monuments in the occupied Azerbaijani territories".<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012122448/http://www.oic-oci.org/34icfm/english/resolution/34ICFM-POL-07-RES-FINAL-ENG.pdf |date=12 October 2007 }}. Islamic Summit Conference. 13–14 May 2008</ref> On 14 March of the same year the ] adopted ] which "demands the immediate, complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undocs.org/A/RES/62/243|title=A/RES/62/243 – E – A/RES/62/243 -Desktop|website=undocs.org|access-date=3 January 2021|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101140443/http://undocs.org/A/RES/62/243|url-status=live}}</ref> On 18–20 May 2010, the 37th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Organization of Islamic Conference in ] adopted another resolution condemning the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan, recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a crime against humanity and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural, and religious monuments in occupied territories.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oic-oci.org/37cfm/en/documents/res/37-CFM-POL-RES-ENGLISH-FINAL.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202414/http://www.oic-oci.org/37cfm/en/documents/res/37-CFM-POL-RES-ENGLISH-FINAL.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Resolutions on Political Issues Adopted by the Council of Foreign Ministers (Session of Shared Vision of a More Secure and Prosperous Islamic World) Dushanbe, Republic of Tajikistan 4–6 Jamadul Thani 1431H (18–20 May 2010)|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> On 20 May of the same year, the ] in ] adopted the resolution on "The need for an EU Strategy for the South Caucasus" on the basis of the report by ], the Bulgarian member of the Parliament.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719181653/http://en.trend.az/news/politics/foreign/1692167.html |date=19 July 2011 }}." ''Trend.az''. 21 May 2010.</ref><ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507194752/http://www.rferl.org/content/EU_Foreign_Policy_Chief_Says_NagornoKarabakh_Elections_Illegal/2049465.html |date=7 May 2016 }}." ''RFE/RL''. 21 May 2010.</ref> The resolution states in particular that "the occupied Azerbaijani regions around Nagorno-Karabakh must be cleared as soon as possible".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210232405/http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=116403 |date=10 December 2017 }}.</ref> On 26 January 2016, the ] (PACE) adopted ], which deplored the fact that the occupation by Armenia of Nagorno-Karabakh and other adjacent areas of Azerbaijan creates humanitarian and environmental problems for the citizens of Azerbaijan, condemned ethnic cleansing against Azerbaijanis and Assembly requested immediate withdrawal of Armenian armed forces from the region concerned.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-EN.asp?fileid=22429&lang=en|title=Inhabitants of frontier regions of Azerbaijan are deliberately deprived of water|work=Parliamentary Assembly of Council of Europe|access-date=14 March 2017|archive-date=18 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918205203/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-EN.asp?fileid=22429&lang=en|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://armenianweekly.com/2016/01/26/pace-adopts-rejects1/|title=PACE Adopts Anti-Armenian Measure, Rejects Another|work=Armenian Weekly|access-date=14 March 2017|archive-date=31 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831183232/https://armenianweekly.com/2016/01/26/pace-adopts-rejects1/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sarsang.org/en/sarsang/842-resolution-inhabitants-of-frontier-regions-of-azerbaijan-are-deliberately-deprived-of-water.html|title=Resolution: Inhabitants of frontier regions of Azerbaijan are deliberately deprived of water|website=sarsang.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315002423/http://sarsang.org/en/sarsang/842-resolution-inhabitants-of-frontier-regions-of-azerbaijan-are-deliberately-deprived-of-water.html|archive-date=15 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
With the Soviet Union firmly in control of the region, the conflict over the region died down for several decades. With the beginning of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the question of Nagorno-Karabakh re-emerged. Accusing the Azerbaijani SSR government of conducting forced azerification of the region, the majority Armenian population, with ideological and material support from the ], started a movement to have the autonomous oblast transferred to the Armenian SSR. The oblast's borders were drawn to include Armenian villages and to exclude as much as possible Azerbaijani villages. The resulting district ensured an Armenian majority.<ref>Audrey L. Altstadt. The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule. Hoover Press, 1992. ISBN 0817991824, 9780817991821</ref> | |||
Several{{quantify|date=May 2016}} world ]s have met with the presidents of Armenia and Azerbaijan over the years, but efforts to maintain the ceasefire have failed.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625062958/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/azerbaijan/6631572/Azerbaijan-military-threat-to-Armenia.html |date=25 June 2018 }}." '']''. 22 November 2009. Retrieved 23 November 2009.</ref> | |||
===Nagorno-Karabakh War=== | |||
{{main|Nagorno-Karabakh War}} | |||
], knocked out of commission while attacking Azeri positions in ], serves as a war memorial on the outskirts of Stepanakert.]] | |||
Suddenly, and unexpectedly, on February 13, 1988, Karabakh Armenians began demonstrating in their capital, Stepanakert, in favour of unification with the Armenian republic. Six days later they were joined by mass marches in Yerevan. On February 20 the Soviet of People's Deputies in Karabakh voted 110 to 17 to request the transfer of the region to Armenia. This unprecedented action by a regional soviet brought out tens of thousands of demonstrations both in Stepanakert and Yerevan, but Moscow rejected the Armenians' demands. On February 22, 1988, the first direct confrontation of the conflict occurred as a large group of Azeris marched from ] against the Armenian populated town of ], "wreaking destruction en route." The confrontation between the Azeris and the police near ] degenerated into the ], which left two Azeris dead, one of them reportedly killed by an Azeri police officer, as well as 50 Armenian villagers, and an unknown number of Azerbaijanis and police, injured.<ref>Elizabeth Fuller, ''Nagorno-Karabakh: The Death and Casualty Toll to Date'', RL 531/88, Dec. 14, 1988, pp. 1–2</ref><ref name="dewaal"/> Large numbers of refugees left Armenia and Azerbaijan as violence began against the minority populations of the respective countries.<ref>{{cite book |last = Lieberman |first = Benjamin |title = Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |publisher = Ivan R. Dee |year = 2006 |location = Chicago |pages = 284–92 |isbn = 1-5666-3646-9}}</ref> In the fall of 1989, intensified inter-ethnic conflict in and around Nagorno-Karabakh led the Soviet Union to grant Azerbaijani authorities greater leeway in controlling the region.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} On November 29, 1989 direct rule in Nagorno-Karabakh was ended and the region was returned to Azerbaijani administration.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Encyclopedia of World History| publisher =Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | year = 2001 | page = 906 }}</ref> The Soviet policy backfired, however, when a joint session of the Armenian ] and the National Council, the legislative body of Nagorno-Karabakh, proclaimed the unification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} In 1989, Nagorno-Karabakh had a population of 192,000.<ref name=populaton>Miller, Donald E. and Lorna Touryan Miller. ''Armenia: Portraits of Survival and Hope''. Berkley: ], 2003 p. 7 ISBN 0-520-23492-8</ref> The population at that time was 76% Armenian and 23% ], with ]n and ] minorities.<ref name=populaton/> | |||
On 2 April 2016 Azerbaijani and Armenian forces again clashed in the region.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} The ] alleged that Azerbaijan launched an offensive to seize territory in the region. At least 30 soldiers were killed during the fighting and a ] helicopter and tank were also destroyed, with 12 of the fallen soldiers belonging to the Azerbaijani forces and the other 18 belonging to the Armenian forces, as well as an additional 35 Armenian soldiers reportedly wounded.<ref name="wsjapril2">{{cite news|last1= Hodge|first1= Nathan|title= A Dozen Dead in Heavy Fighting Reported in Nagorno-Karabakh|url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/heavy-fighting-reported-in-nagorno-karabakh-1459597114|access-date= 2 April 2016|work= ]|date= 2 April 2016|archive-date= 2 April 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402123801/http://www.wsj.com/articles/heavy-fighting-reported-in-nagorno-karabakh-1459597114|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | |||
On December 10, 1991 in a referendum boycotted by local Azerbaijanis,<ref name="dewaal"/> Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh approved the creation of an independent state. A Soviet proposal for enhanced autonomy for Nagorno-Karabakh within Azerbaijan satisfied neither side, and ] subsequently erupted between Azerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh, the latter receiving support from Armenia.<ref>]. '''': "By early 1992 full-scale fighting broke out between Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijani authorities." / "...Karabakh Armenian forces—often with the support of forces from the Republic of Armenia—conducted large-scale operations..." / "Because 1993 witnessed unrelenting Karabakh Armenian offensives against the Azerbaijani provinces surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh..." / "Since late 1993, the conflict has also clearly become internationalized: in addition to Azerbaijani and Karabakh Armenian forces, troops from the Republic of Armenia participate on the Karabakh side in fighting inside Azerbaijan and in Nagorno-Karabakh."</ref><ref>]. '''': "In 1992 the conflict grew far more lethal as both sides—the Azerbaijani National Army and free-lance militias fighting along with it, and ethnic Armenians and mercenaries fighting in the Popular Liberation Army of Artsakh—began."</ref><ref>]. : "Nagorno-Karabakh’s armed forces have not only fortified their region, but have also occupied a large swath of surrounding Azeri territory in the hopes of linking the enclave to Armenia."</ref><ref>]. '''' "Meanwhile, the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh was gradually transforming into a full-scale war between Azeri and Karabakh irregulars, the latter receiving support from Armenia." / "Azerbaijan's objective advantage in terms of human and economic potential has so far been offset by the superior fighting skills and discipline of Nagorno-Karabakh's forces. After a series of offensives, retreats, and counteroffensives, Nagorno-Karabakh now controls a sizable portion of Azerbaijan proper ... including the Lachin corridor."</ref> According to Armenia's former president, ], the Karabakh leadership approach was maximalist and “they thought they could get more.”<ref>{{cite news|title=By Giving Karabakh Lands to Azerbaijan, Conflict Would Have Ended in ’97, Says Ter-Petrosian|url=http://asbarez.com/95222/by-giving-karabakh-lands-to-azerbaijan-conflict-would-have-ended-in-%E2%80%9997-says-ter-petrosian/comment-page-1/|newspaper=Asbarez|date=April 19, 2011|agency=Asbarez}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ter-Petrosyan on the BBC: Karabakh conflict could have been resolved by giving certain territories to Azerbaijan|url=http://www.armenianow.com/news/29088/terpetrosyan_bbc_interview|newspaper=ArmeniaNow|date=April 19, 2011|agency=ArmeniaNow}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Первый президент Армении о распаде СССР и Карабахе|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/multimedia/2011/04/110415_v_terpetrosyan_int.shtml|newspaper=BBC|date=April 18, 2011|agency=BBC}}</ref> | |||
|url= http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/heavy-fighting-erupts-armenian-azeri-border-160402084508361.html | |||
|title= Dozens killed in Nagorno-Karabakh clashes | |||
|website= www.aljazeera.com | |||
|access-date= 3 April 2016 | |||
|archive-date= 2 April 2016 | |||
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160402213013/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/heavy-fighting-erupts-armenian-azeri-border-160402084508361.html | |||
|url-status= live | |||
}}</ref> | |||
=== 2020 war and ceasefire agreement === | |||
The struggle over Nagorno-Karabakh escalated after both Armenia and Azerbaijan attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. In the post-Soviet ], military action between Azerbaijan and Armenia was heavily influenced by the ]. Furthermore, both the Armenian and Azerbaijani military employed a large number of mercenaries from ] and ].<ref name=ratios/> As many as one thousand ] ] participated in the fighting on Azerbaijan's side.<ref name="dewaal"/> There were also fighters from ] fighting on the side of Azerbaijan.<ref name="dewaal"/> Many survivors from the Azerbaijani side found shelter in 12 emergency camps set up in other parts of Azerbaijan to cope with the growing number of internally displaced people due to the Nagorno-Karabakh war.<ref>, '']''</ref> | |||
{{main|Second Nagorno-Karabakh War|2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement}} | |||
On 27 September 2020, a ] erupted in Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding territories.<ref name="aljaz"/> The United Nations strongly condemned the conflict and called on both sides to deescalate tensions and resume meaningful negotiations without delay.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=30 September 2020|title=UN Security Council calls for immediate end to fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200930-un-security-council-calls-for-immediate-end-to-fighting-in-nagorno-karabakh|access-date=30 September 2020|website=France 24|language=en|archive-date=9 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009133111/https://www.france24.com/en/20200930-un-security-council-calls-for-immediate-end-to-fighting-in-nagorno-karabakh|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
By the end of 1993, the conflict had caused thousands of casualties and created hundreds of thousands of refugees on both sides.{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} By May 1994, the Armenians were in control of 14% of the territory of Azerbaijan. At that stage, for the first time during the conflict, the Azerbaijani government recognized Nagorno-Karabakh as a third party in the war, and started direct negotiations with the Karabakh authorities.<ref name="Cornell"/> As a result, a cease-fire was reached on May 12, 1994 through Russian negotiation. | |||
The war ended on 10 November 2020, when ] was signed among Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia Steps In To End War Between 2 Former Soviet Republics|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/11/10/933343100/russia-steps-in-to-end-war-between-2-former-soviet-republics|access-date=10 November 2020|website=NPR.org|language=en|archive-date=10 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110111758/https://www.npr.org/2020/11/10/933343100/russia-steps-in-to-end-war-between-2-former-soviet-republics|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the ceasefire agreement, Azerbaijan regained all of the ] and capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh proper, including ] and ].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=9 November 2020 |title=Ethnic Armenian forces confirm loss of Karabakh's second city, say enemy nearing capital |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/armenia-azerbaijan-shushi-int-idUSKBN27P1WY |access-date=9 November 2020 |archive-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201129194316/https://www.reuters.com/article/armenia-azerbaijan-shushi-int-idUSKBN27P1WY |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
===Contemporary situation (since 1994)=== | |||
{{see|Madrid Principles|Prague Process|Nagorno-Karabakh Declaration|Astrakhan Declaration|Landmine situation in Nagorno-Karabakh}} | |||
]. Armenian forces of Nagorno-Karabakh currently control almost 9% of Azerbaijan's territory outside the former Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast.,<ref name="dewaal"/> while Azerbaijani forces control ] and the eastern parts of ] and ].]] | |||
] with ] and ] in ] on 2 November 2008]] | |||
], ]]] | |||
Despite the ceasefire, fatalities due to armed conflicts between Armenian and Azerbaijani soldiers continued.<ref> by Ivan Watson/National Public Radio. ''Weekend Edition'' Sunday, April 23, 2006.</ref> On January 25, 2005 ] adopted ], which condemns the use of ethnic cleansing against the Azerbaijani population, and supporting the occupation of Azerbaijani territory.<ref></ref><ref>. BBC Russian.</ref> On 15–17 May 2007 the 34th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the ] adopted resolution № 7/34-P, considering the occupation of Azerbaijani territory as the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan and recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a crime against humanity, and condemns the destruction of archaeological, cultural and religious monuments in the occupied territories.<ref>. The Thirty-Fourth Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers.</ref> | |||
=== Blockade (2022–2023) === | |||
At the 11th session of the summit of the ] held on March 13–14, 2008 in ], resolution № 10/11-P (IS) was adopted. According to the resolution, OIC member states condemned the occupation of Azerbaijani lands by Armenian forces and Armenian aggression against Azerbaijan, alleged ethnic cleansing against the Azeri population, and charged Armenia with the "destruction of cultural monuments in the occupied Azerbaijani territories."<ref>. Islamic Summit Conference. 13–14 May 2008</ref> On March 14 of the same year the ] adopted non-binding ] which "demands the immediate, complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan".<ref></ref> In August 2008, the United States, France, and Russia (the co-chairs of the ]) were mediating efforts to negotiate a full settlement of the conflict, proposing a "a referendum or a plebiscite, at a time to be determined later," to determine the final status of the area, return for some territories under Karabakh's control, and security guarantees.<ref>{{cite web | |||
{{Main|Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh}} | |||
|first = Tatul | |||
|last = Hakobyan | |||
|title = Mediators play down prospects of early Karabakh settlement | |||
|url = http://www.reporter.am/go/article/2008-11-21-mediators-play-down-prospects-of-early-karabakh-settlement | |||
|publisher = Armenian Reporter | |||
|date = 2008-11-21 | |||
|accessdate = 2009-06-16 | |||
}} | |||
</ref> ] and ] traveled to ] for talks with ] on 2 November 2008. The talks ended in the three Presidents signing a declaration confirming their commitment to continue talks.<ref> | |||
{{cite web | |||
|title = Document: Full text of the declaration adopted by presidents of Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia at Meiendorf Castle near Moscow on November 2, 2008 | |||
|url = http://www.reporter.am/go/article/2008-11-02-document-full-text-of-the-declaration-adopted-by-presidents-of-azerbaijan-armenia-and-russia-at-meiendorf-castle-near-moscow-on-november-2-2008 | |||
|publisher = Armenian Reporter | |||
|date = 2008-11-02 | |||
|accessdate = 2009-06-16 | |||
}} | |||
</ref> The two presidents have met again since then, most recently in ].<ref>{{cite web | |||
|title = Armenia, Azerbaijan Satisfied With Fresh Summit | |||
|url = http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/1747096.html | |||
|publisher = RFE/RL | |||
|date = 2008-06-04 | |||
|accessdate = 2009-06-16 | |||
}} | |||
</ref> | |||
In December 2022, Azerbaijanis claiming to be environmental activists blocked the ], the sole road connecting Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia and the outside world.<ref name="BBC2">{{Cite news |title=Азербайджанские "активисты" блокируют дорогу из Карабаха в Армению. Одновременно в Карабахе пропал газ |language=ru |trans-title=Azerbaijani "activists" are blocking the road from Karabakh to Armenia. At the same time, gas disappeared in Karabakh |work=BBC News Русская Служба |url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/news-63975080 |access-date=13 September 2023 |archive-date=12 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412122434/https://www.bbc.com/russian/news-63975080 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 23 April 2023, Azerbaijani forces installed a checkpoint on the Lachin corridor.<ref name=":129">{{Cite web |last=Loe |first=Catherine |date=2023-04-27 |title=Azerbaijan sets up checkpoints on the Lachin corridor |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/azerbaijan-sets-up-checkpoints-on-the-lachin-corridor/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=Economist Intelligence Unit |language=en-GB |quote=The move has increased the blockade of Nagorny Karabakh...A checkpoint on the border would give Azerbaijan the ability to stop any cars travelling between Armenia and Nagorny Karabakh. |archive-date=2 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802113859/https://www.eiu.com/n/azerbaijan-sets-up-checkpoints-on-the-lachin-corridor/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The blockade led to a humanitarian crisis for the population in Artsakh and imports of essential goods were blocked, as well as humanitarian convoys of the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers, trapping the 120,000 residents of the region.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hauer |first=Neil |date=2023-07-31 |title=Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low |url=https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh-blockade-reaches-critical-point-as-food-supplies-run-low-286173/ |access-date=2023-08-01 |website=www.intellinews.com |language=en |quote=Occasional ICRC and Russian traffic continued to pass until June 15, at which point Azerbaijan halted all humanitarian deliveries. No food, medicine or fuel has entered Nagorno-Karabakh since. |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814123838/https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh-blockade-reaches-critical-point-as-food-supplies-run-low-286173/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite web |last=Gavin |first=Gabriel |date=Dec 19, 2022 |title=Supplies begin to run low as Nagorno-Karabakh blockade continues |url=https://eurasianet.org/supplies-begin-to-run-low-as-nagorno-karabakh-blockade-continues |access-date=2022-12-22 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201151350/https://eurasianet.org/supplies-begin-to-run-low-as-nagorno-karabakh-blockade-continues |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":310">{{Cite web |last=Kitachayev |first=Bashir |date=16 December 2022 |title=Azerbaijani roadblock cuts tens of thousands off from food, fuel and medicine |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/nagorno-karabakh-azerbaijan-armenia-roadblock/ |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=] |archive-date=26 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226154334/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/nagorno-karabakh-azerbaijan-armenia-roadblock/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":97">{{Cite web |date=2023-05-22 |title=New Troubles in Nagorno-Karabakh: Understanding the Lachin Corridor Crisis |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/caucasus/nagorno-karabakh-conflict/new-troubles-nagorno-karabakh-understanding-lachin-corridor-crisis |access-date=2023-05-23 |website=www.crisisgroup.org |language=en |quote=While travellers were already few due to the blockade, the ICRC reports that its ability to get people across has been curtailed , leaving only the Russian peacekeepers to facilitate trips to Armenia for medical care. |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816185256/https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/caucasus/nagorno-karabakh-conflict/new-troubles-nagorno-karabakh-understanding-lachin-corridor-crisis |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":134">{{Cite web |date=2023-05-31 |title=June Alerts and May Trends 2023 |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/june-alerts-and-may-trends-2023 |access-date=2023-06-19 |website=www.crisisgroup.org |language=en |quote=Checkpoint on Lachin corridor faced fierce opposition amid humanitarian crisis....Azerbaijani military consolidated blockade, however, leading to even fewer crossings and reduced transportation of goods. |archive-date=22 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622120300/https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/june-alerts-and-may-trends-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> Limited traffic had been conducted by Russian peacekeepers and the ] to transport patients in need of medical care and provide humanitarian supplies.<ref name="BlackoutsRationing">{{cite news |last=Shahverdyan |first=Lilit |date=12 January 2023 |title=Blackouts and food rationing as Karabakh blockade enters second month |language=en |work=Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/blackouts-and-food-rationing-as-karabakh-blockade-enters-second-month |access-date=17 January 2023 |quote=But the supplies are meager compared to the pre-blockade delivery of 12,000 tons of goods monthly, and barely meet the needs of the local population, which Armenian sources estimate at around 120,000. |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423091733/https://eurasianet.org/blackouts-and-food-rationing-as-karabakh-blockade-enters-second-month |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":22">{{cite news |date=17 January 2023 |title=Nagorno-Karabakh reports gas cut for second time since start of blockade |work=OC Media |url=https://oc-media.org/nagorno-karabakh-reports-gas-cut-for-second-time-since-start-of-blockade/ |access-date=18 January 2023 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316072358/https://oc-media.org/nagorno-karabakh-reports-gas-cut-for-second-time-since-start-of-blockade/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, starting on 15 June 2023, Azerbaijan intensified the blockade, blocking all passage of food, fuel, and medicine from the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers through the Lachin corridor.<ref name=":175">{{Cite web |date=2023-06-20 |title=Nagorno-Karabakh again faces shortages as Azerbaijan closes Lachin Corridor |url=https://oc-media.org/nagorno-karabakh-again-faces-shortages-as-azerbaijan-closes-lachin-corridor/ |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=OC Media |language=en-US |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719153306/https://oc-media.org/nagorno-karabakh-again-faces-shortages-as-azerbaijan-closes-lachin-corridor/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":176">{{Cite web |title=Food shortages and fear as peacekeepers refused entry to Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://oc-media.org/features/food-shortages-and-fear-as-peacekeepers-refused-entry-to-nagorno-karabakh/ |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=OC Media |language=en-US |archive-date=22 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722145151/https://oc-media.org/features/food-shortages-and-fear-as-peacekeepers-refused-entry-to-nagorno-karabakh/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":178">{{Cite web |date=2023-07-31 |title=Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low |url=https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh-blockade-reaches-critical-point-as-food-supplies-run-low-286173/ |access-date=2023-08-01 |website=www.intellinews.com |language=en |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814123838/https://www.intellinews.com/karabakh-blockade-reaches-critical-point-as-food-supplies-run-low-286173/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On 19 September, Azerbaijan ]. | |||
On November 22, 2009, several world leaders, among them the heads of state from Azerbaijan and Armenia, met in ] in the hopes of renewing efforts to reach a peaceful settlement on the status of Nagorno-Karabakh. Prior to the meeting, President Aliyev once more threatened to resort to military force to reestablish control over the region if the two sides did not reach an agreeable settlement at the summit.<ref>"." '']''. November 22, 2009. Retrieved November 23, 2009.</ref> | |||
=== Azerbaijani offensive (2023) === | |||
On February 18, 2010 three Azerbaijani soldiers were killed and one wounded as a result of the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.trend.az/news/karabakh/1641806.html|title=Defense Ministry: Armenian sniper kills three and wounds one Azerbaijani soldier |publisher =]|accessdate=2010-11-27}}</ref> On November 20 of the same year an Armenian sniper opened fire on Azerbaijani positions in ], killing one Azerbaijani soldier.<ref name="PressTV">{{cite web|url=http://www.presstv.ir/detail/151760.html|title=Armenian sniper kills Azeri soldier|publisher =Press TV|accessdate=2010-11-27}}</ref> This incident brought the number of soldiers killed from both sides in August—November, 2010 to twelve.<ref name="PressTV"/> On September 25, 2010 the ] ] supported the withdrawal of ]s from the contact line.<ref name="News.az">{{cite news|url=http://www.news.az/articles/politics/23442|title=Withdrawing snipers would not end conflict, says Baku|publisher =News.az|date=27 September 2010|accessdate=2010-11-29}}</ref> The spokesman of Azerbaijani Defence Ministry Lt-Col Eldar Sabiroglu, however, commented that Armenian servicemen used to fire on opposite positions across the contact line from ]- and ]s, as well as from ]s, and that these weapons have even been used against civilians.<ref name="News.az"/> On May 18–20, 2010 at the 37th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Organisation of Islamic Conference in ], another resolution condemning the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan, recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a crime against humanity and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural and religious monuments in occupied territories was adopted.<ref></ref> On May 20 of the same year the ] in ] adopted the resolution on "The need for an EU Strategy for the South Caucasus" on the basis of the report by ], Bulgarian member of the Parliament.<ref>"." ''Trend.az''. May 21, 2010.</ref><ref>"." ''RFE/RL''. May 21, 2010.</ref> The resolution states in particular that "the occupied Azerbaijani regions around Nagorno-Karabakh must be cleared as soon as possible".<ref>.</ref> | |||
{{main|2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh}} | |||
On 19 September 2023, Azerbaijan ] on Nagorno-Karabakh.<ref name="offensive-radiofreeurope" /><ref name="offensive-reuters" /><ref name="offensive-politico" /><ref name="offensive-media" /><ref name="offensive-france24" /> One day after the offensive started, on 20 September, an agreement on establishing a complete cessation of hostilities in Nagorno-Karabakh was reached at the mediation of the ] in Nagorno-Karabakh.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2023-09-20 |title=Russian-mediated ceasefire announced in Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/1120051.html |access-date=2023-09-24 |website=Armenpress}}</ref><ref name="offensive-CNN">{{cite news |author1=Tim Lister |author2=Anna Chernova |author3=Christian Edwards |author4=Radina Gigova |date=21 September 2023 |title=Azerbaijan says it has retaken breakaway Armenian enclave after separatists surrender |work=CNN.com |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno-karabakh-russia-ceasefire-intl/index.html |url-status=live |access-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921214424/https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno-karabakh-russia-ceasefire-intl/index.html |archive-date=21 September 2023}}</ref> Azerbaijan held a meeting with representatives of the Artsakh Armenian community on 21 September in ] to start the process of re-integrating the region into Azerbaijan.<ref name=":6">{{cite news |date=20 September 2023 |title=Ethnic Armenians accept Russia ceasefire plan after Azerbaijan offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh |language=en |work=] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno-karabakh-russia-ceasefire-intl/index.html |url-status=live |access-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920132915/https://edition.cnn.com/2023/09/20/asia/nagorno-karabakh-russia-ceasefire-intl/index.html |archive-date=20 September 2023}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite news |date=20 September 2023 |title=BREAKING: Stepanakert to disband army in ceasefire deal |work=CIVILNET |url=https://www.civilnet.am/en/news/751112/breaking-stepanakert-to-disband-army-in-ceasefire-deal/ |url-status=live |access-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920132923/https://www.civilnet.am/en/news/751112/breaking-stepanakert-to-disband-army-in-ceasefire-deal/ |archive-date=20 September 2023}}</ref> Ceasefire violations by Azerbaijan were nonetheless reported by both Artsakh and local residents in ] on 21 September.<ref name="ceasefirevio12">{{Cite web |title=МВД Нагорного Карабаха обвинило Азербайджан в нарушении договора о прекращении огня |url=https://meduza.io/news/2023/09/21/mvd-nagornogo-karabaha-obvinilo-azerbaydzhan-v-narushenii-dogovora-o-prekraschenii-ognya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921113954/https://meduza.io/news/2023/09/21/mvd-nagornogo-karabaha-obvinilo-azerbaydzhan-v-narushenii-dogovora-o-prekraschenii-ognya |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=]}}</ref><ref name="ceasefirevio22">{{Cite web |date=21 September 2023 |title=Aserbaidschan soll Waffenruhe gebrochen haben |url=https://rp-online.de/politik/ausland/berg-karabach-aserbaidschan-soll-waffenruhe-gebrochen-haben_aid-98086627 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921114231/https://rp-online.de/politik/ausland/berg-karabach-aliyev-entschuldigt-sich-fuer-tod-russischer-soldaten_aid-98086627 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=]}}</ref> In the aftermath of the offensive, an ] from the region started.<ref name="The Guardian"/> On 28 September 2023, the Republic of Artsakh agreed to dissolve itself by 1 January 2024.<ref name="inter_2024">{{cite news|title=Нагорно-Карабахская республика прекратила существование|trans-title=The Nagorno–Karabakh Republic Ceased to Exist|url=https://www.interfax.ru/world/938736|date=1 January 2024|language=ru}}</ref> | |||
== Geography == | |||
Russia, in conjunction with France and the United States, convened talks in June 2011 with the hope that pressure applied to the leaders of Armenia and Azerbaijan could lead to an agreement over the fate of Nagorno-Karabakh. But no resolution of the dispute over the enclave was achieved.<ref>{{cite news | last = Barry | first = Ellen | title = Azerbaijan and Armenia Fail to End Enclave Dispute | publisher = ] | date = 24 June 2011 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/25/world/asia/25karabakh.html | accessdate = 2011-06-26 }}</ref> | |||
]]] | |||
] | |||
==Geography== | |||
].]] | |||
<!-- Does this information apply for all of the NKR, or only the former NKAO? i.e. does it include Shahumian or not? --> | <!-- Does this information apply for all of the NKR, or only the former NKAO? i.e. does it include Shahumian or not? --> | ||
Nagorno-Karabakh |
Nagorno-Karabakh has a total area of {{convert|4400|km2|0|abbr=out}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nkrusa.org/country_profile/overview.shtml|title=Nagorno Karabakh Republic – Country Overview|website=www.nkrusa.org|access-date=21 June 2006|archive-date=19 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419102410/http://www.nkrusa.org/country_profile/overview.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> Approximately half of Nagorno-Karabakh terrain is over {{convert|950|m}} ].<ref name="Zurcher">{{cite book |last = Zürcher |first = Christoph |title = The post-Soviet wars: rebellion, ethnic conflict, and nationhood in the Caucasus|publisher = NYU Press|year = 2007 |page = 184 |isbn = 978-0814797099}}</ref> The borders of Nagorno-Karabakh resemble a kidney bean with the indentation on the east side. It has tall mountain ridges along the northern edge and along the west and mountainous south. The part near the indentation of the kidney bean itself is a relatively flat valley, with the two edges of the bean, the districts of ] and ], having flatlands as well. Other flatter valleys exist around the ], ], and the south. The entire region lies, on average, {{convert|1,100|m}} ].<ref name="Zurcher"/> Notable peaks include the border mountain ] and the ] mountain chain in the junction of ] and Hadrut districts. The territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh forms a portion of the historic region of Karabakh, which lies between the rivers ] and ], and the modern Armenia-Azerbaijan border. Nagorno-Karabakh in its modern borders is part of the larger region of Upper Karabakh. | ||
Nagorno-Karabakh does not directly border Armenia but is connected to the latter through the ], a mountain pass under the control of the ]. | |||
Nagorno-Karabakh’s environment vary from ] on the Kura lowland through dense forests of ], ] and ] on the lower mountain slopes to ] and ]s higher up. The region possesses numerous ]s and deposits of ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last = DeRouen |first = Karl R. (ed.)|title = Civil wars of the world: major conflicts since World War II, Volume 2|publisher = ABC-CLIO|year = 2007 |page = 150 |isbn = 1851099190}}</ref> The major cities of the region are ], which serves as the capital of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, and ], which lies partially in ruins. Vineyards, orchards and mulberry groves for silkworms are developed in the valleys.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/401669/Nagorno-Karabakh|title=Nagorno-Karabakh|publisher =]|accessdate=2010-11-30}}</ref> | |||
The major cities of the region are ], which serves as the capital of the unrecognised Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, and ], which lies partially in ruins. Vineyards, orchards, and mulberry groves for silkworms are developed in the valleys.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/401669/Nagorno-Karabakh|title=Nagorno-Karabakh|encyclopedia=]|access-date=30 November 2010|archive-date=29 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629083551/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/401669/Nagorno-Karabakh|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==Culture of Nagorno-Karabakh== | |||
{{Main|Culture of Nagorno-Karabakh}} | |||
== |
== Environment == | ||
The majority of the population in Nagorno-Karabakh speaks an ancient '']'' dialect of ], which was first described in the 7th century by the grammarian and philosopher Stephanos Syunetsi.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The continued existence of this dialect was noted in the writings of Yessayi Nchetsi, a 14th century author and founder of Armenia’s University of Gladzor.<ref name="Christophe J. Walker 1991, p. 76"/> The ] dialect is also spoken in the provinces of ] and ] of the ].<ref>Bert Vaux. The Phonology of Armenian (Phonology of the World's Languages), Oxford University Press, USA (June 4, 1998)</ref> Due to its unique ] and archaic ] developed in relative isolation from other Armenian vernaculars, the Artsakh dialect is not entirely intelligible by other Armenian speakers.<ref>Thomas de Waal. The Caucasus: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, USA (September 9, 2010), p. 102</ref> | |||
Nagorno-Karabakh's environment vary from ] on the Kura lowland through dense forests of ], ], and ] on the lower mountain slopes to ]wood and ]s higher up. The region possesses numerous ]s and deposits of ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last = DeRouen |editor-first = Karl R. |title = Civil wars of the world: major conflicts since World War II, Volume 2|publisher = ABC-CLIO|year = 2007 |page = 150 |isbn = 978-1851099191}}</ref> | |||
==Demographics and ethnic composition== | |||
===Antiquity and the Middle Ages=== | |||
] codifying military draft obligations of Armenian ] dynasties before the King. According to ''Zoranamak,'' provinces of ] and ] were responsible for providing 3000 soldiers.<ref>], ''Chronicles''. As described in: Hovhannes Shahatuniants. Description of the Cathedral of Echmiadzin and the ancient Ayrarat districts. Echmiadzin, 1842 , volume 2, p. 58</ref>]] | |||
Armenians have lived in the Karabakh region since ] times: ] states that, by the second or first century BC, the entire population of ]—] and ] included—spoke Armenian,<ref name="Geography"/><ref name="Svante E. Cornell 2001, p. 64"/> though this may not necessarily mean that its population consisted exclusively of ethnic Armenians.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some indirect demographic data on early medieval ] are mentioned by ] in Armenia's military register known as ''Zoranamak'' (''List of Armies''), which required ] houses of ], ''Uteatsi'' and ''Tzavdeatsi'' in the provinces of ] and ] to supply Armenia's royal army with no less than 3000 foot soldiers combined.<ref>Hovhannes Shahatuniants. ''Description of the Cathedral of Echmiadzin and the ancient Ayrarat districts.'' Echmiadzin, 1842 , volume 2, p. 58. The manuscript of Zoranamak is stored in the Mesrop Mashtots Institute of Ancient Manuscripts [Matenadaran) in Yerevan.</ref> | |||
== Demographics == | |||
The Armenian population of ] and ] remained in place after the partition of the Kingdom of Armenia in 387, as did the entire political, social, cultural and military structure of the provinces.<ref name="Walker, Christopher J 1991, p. 10"/><ref name="kulichki.com"/> In the 5th century, Armenia’s foremost early medieval historian ] (Մովսես Խորենացի) testifies that the population of ] and ] spoke Armenian, with the River Kura, in his words, marking the “boundary of Armenian speech” (… զեզերս հայկական խօսիցս).<ref name="Svante E. Cornell 2001, p. 64"/><ref name="Moses Khorenatsi 1978"/><ref>Strabo, ''op. cit.'', book XI, chapters 14–15 (Bude, vol. VIII, p. 123)</ref> | |||
)</small>]] | |||
=== Antiquity – 1918 === | |||
The population of Nagorno Karabakh was Armenian throughout the Middle Ages.<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 76</ref>In his description about the ] and neighboring regions, Iranian geographer ] noted in his 10th century work ''Book of Climates'' that the road from ] to ] lies through the lands of ] that belong to ], i.e. to ], Prince of ], and that "population of ] is Armenian."<ref></ref><ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 76</ref> | |||
Historically, the inhabitants of Nagorno-Karabakh — then part of the ] — were confirmed by ] and ] sources "long before our era" to be Armenian.<ref name="beglaryan">{{Cite web |last=Beglaryan |first=Ashot |title=The population of Nagorno-Karabakh for a year. Union of Armenians of Russia - Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Excursion into history |url=https://losevskaya.ru/en/zdorove/chislennost-naseleniya-nagornogo-karabaha-na-god-soyuz-armyan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031102313/https://losevskaya.ru/en/zdorove/chislennost-naseleniya-nagornogo-karabaha-na-god-soyuz-armyan.html |archive-date=31 October 2022 |access-date=31 October 2022 |website=losevskaya.ru |location=Stepanakert}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (]).|date=January 2023}} In the early 15th century, German traveller ] after visiting the region stated that "although the ] had taken possession of Karabagh, there were still Armenian villages in the region".<ref name="twochroniclesonthehistoryofkarabagh">{{Cite book |last1=Javanshir |first1=Mirza Jamal |url=https://ia802207.us.archive.org/25/items/bournoutian-2004-2-karabagh-chronicles/Bournoutian_2004_2Karabagh_Chronicles.pdf |title=Two Chronicles On The History of Karabagh |last2=Adigözal Beg |first2=Mirza |publisher=Mazda Publishers |others=Introduction and annotated translation by ] |year=2004 |isbn=1-56859-179-9 |location=Costa Mesa, California |pages=6, 21 & 24 |author-link=Mirza Jamal Javanshir |author-link2=Mirza Adigozal bey}}</ref> Historian ] writes that "In the mid-18th century, … ] … gained access to the highland territories and began to settle in Shusha … by the end of the 18th century, a substantial number of its former Armenian inhabitants had left Nagorny Karabagh. Just at the turn of the 19th century, the Turkic population significantly outnumbered the local Armenians, but this only lasted … end of the 1820s, the Armenians began to come back to Karabagh, and they accounted for the majority of its population by the mid-19th century".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shnirelman |first=Victor A. |author-link=Victor Schnirelmann |year=2001 |title=The Value of the Past: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia |url=https://abkhazworld.com/aw/Pdf/Shnirelman_V_A_The_Value_of_the_Past_Myths_Identity_and_Politics_in_Transcaucasia_2001.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Senri Ethnological Studies |location=Osaka |publisher=] |issue=57 |pages=153 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325072843/https://abkhazworld.com/aw/Pdf/Shnirelman_V_A_The_Value_of_the_Past_Myths_Identity_and_Politics_in_Transcaucasia_2001.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2022}}</ref> ] and Marina Kurkchiyan present an alternative view that "Armenians had already been a majority in some areas such as mountainous Karabagh", compared to the ] which had "regained an Armenian majority for the first time in several hundred years."<ref name="thearmenianspastandpresent" /> | |||
According to an 1823 ] survey published in Tiflis (present-day ]) in 1866,<ref name="twochroniclesonthehistoryofkarabagh" /> Armenians made up 97 percent of the population in the ] (]) of Nagorno-Karabakh,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bournoutian |first=George |author-link=George Bournoutian |date=2017 |title=The Population of the South Caucasus according to the 1897 General Census of the Russian Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26548902 |journal=Iran & the Caucasus |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=330 |doi=10.1163/1573384X-20170307 |issn=1609-8498 |jstor=26548902 |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621121535/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26548902 |url-status=live }}</ref> thus proving, contrary to claims in ], that Armenians formed an overwhelming majority of Nagorno-Karabakh prior to 1828. Historian ] writes that Russian statistics from 1810 show that Armenians made up 21 percent of the Karabakh region's population; In 1823, the Armenian population of Karabakh had increased by 30 percent "after the return of those who had fled the region", and by 1832, the Armenian population had increased to one-third of Karabakh. Moreover, the "one-third" of the population of Karabakh composed of Armenians resided in one-third of the territory of Karabakh, the mountainous territory (i.e. Nagorno-Karabakh), where they "constituted an overwhelming majority of the population."<ref name="twochroniclesonthehistoryofkarabagh" /> | |||
] (1380–c. 1440), a German traveler and writer, observed in the beginning of the 15th century that Karabakh's lowlands divided by the ] are populated by Armenians and mentioned Karabakh as part of Armenia.<ref>Путешествие Ивана Шильтбергера по Европе, Азии и Африке с 1394 по 1427 г. Перевел с немецкого и снабдил примечаниями Ф. Брун, Одесса, 1866, p. 110</ref><ref>The Bondage And Travels Of Johann Schiltberger, A Native Of Bavaria, In Europe, Asia And Africa, 1396-1427. J. Buchan Telfer (Translator), Kessinger Publishing, LLC (September 10, 2010), p. 86</ref> | |||
=== |
=== 1918–1920 === | ||
According to Armenian sources, the "historical Nagorno-Karabakh" region had a population of 300,000–330,000 in 1918–1920, rising to 700,000–800,000 by 1988. As a result of "]-] aggression", the region's population declined by 20 percent in 1918–1920.<ref name="thepursuitofinternationalcriminaljustice">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/497573622 |title=The Pursuit of International Criminal Justice A World Study on Conflicts, Victimization, and Post-conflict Justice |date=2010 |publisher=Intersentia |isbn=978-94-000-0017-9 |editor-last=Bassiouni |editor-first=M. Cherif |volume=2 |location=Antwerp |pages=839 |oclc=497573622 |access-date=22 November 2022 |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113132242/https://worldcat.org/title/497573622 |url-status=live }}</ref> In this period, ] carried out massacres against Armenians in ] (600–700 dead<ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=John F. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Cj9Xiu3OyUC&dq=Khaibalikend&pg=PA99 |title=Transcaucasian Boundaries |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780203214473 |page=99 |access-date=22 November 2022 |archive-date=15 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115230115/https://books.google.com/books?id=-Cj9Xiu3OyUC&dq=Khaibalikend&pg=PA99 |url-status=live }}</ref>), ] (several hundred dead<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/03/Karabagh-File.pdf |title=The Karabagh File |publisher=Cambridge |year=1988 |isbn=0-916431-26-6 |editor-last=Libaridian |editor-first=Gerard J. |editor-link=Gerard Libaridian |edition=1st |location=Toronto |pages=29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220200213/http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/03/Karabagh-File.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>), and ] (several hundred<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cory D. |first=Welt |url=https://home.gwu.edu/~cwelt/ExplainingEthnicConflict_Welt.pdf |title=Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia |publisher=] |year=2004 |pages=77 |oclc=59823134 |quote=Out of a population of approximately 20,000, at least several hundred were killed; the rest were forced to flee. In the fighting that followed, several nearby villages were also razed. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911110408/https://home.gwu.edu/~cwelt/ExplainingEthnicConflict_Welt.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> to 12,000 dead<ref name="lazarevsky">{{Cite web |date=13 March 2020 |title=Шушинская резня 1920 года |trans-title=Shusha massacre of 1920 |url=https://lazarevsky.club/aktualno/shushinskaya-reznya-1920-goda/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114221124/https://lazarevsky.club/aktualno/shushinskaya-reznya-1920-goda/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=15 November 2022 |website=lazarevsky.club}}</ref>). As a result of the Shusha massacre, 5,000–6,000 Armenians were displaced to the regions of ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bagdasaryan |first=Gegam |date=March 2015 |title=Три нераскрытых обстоятельства резни армян в Шуши |trans-title=Three unsolved circumstances of the massacre of Armenians in Shushi |url=https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%be%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b8/%d1%82%d1%80%d0%b8-%d0%bd%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b0%d1%81%d0%ba%d1%80%d1%8b%d1%82%d1%8b%d1%85-%d0%be%d0%b1%d1%81%d1%82%d0%be%d1%8f%d1%82%d0%b5%d0%bb%d1%8c%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b2%d0%b0-%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b7%d0%bd/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114224058/https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8/%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%85-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=15 November 2022 |website=theanalyticon.com |location=Stepanakert |language=ru}}</ref> By 11 April 1920, some thirty villages in Nagorno-Karabakh had been "devastated" by Azerbaijani forces as a result of the uprising, leaving 25,000 homeless (including nearly 6,000 refugees from Shusha).<ref>{{cite book |last=Hovannisian |first=Richard G. |author-link=Richard G. Hovannisian |title=The Republic of Armenia |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-520-01805-2 |volume=3 |location=Berkeley |pages=157–158}}</ref> | |||
=== 1921–1987 === | |||
Concrete numbers about the demographic situation in Nagorno-Karabakh appear since the 18th century. Archimandrite Minas Tigranian, after completing his secret mission to Persian Armenia ordered by the Russian Tsar ] stated in a report dated March 14, 1717 that the patriarch of the ], in Nagorno-Karabakh, had under his authority 900 Armenian villages.<ref>Bournoutian, George A. Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, p. 120–21</ref> Nagorno-Karabakh's Armenian military commander Tarkhan suggests in his letter to Russia's Collegium of Foreign Affairs dated October 1729 that the four military districts of his land - the ''seghnakhs'' - had 30,000 Armenian soldiers, in addition to merchants and other civilians.<ref>Bournoutian, George A. Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, p. 145, 146</ref> | |||
1923 statistics indicate that the NKAO was 94.8 percent Armenian, numbering 149,600, whilst the Azerbaijani population numbered 7,700. Historian Cory Welt writes of a "discrepancy" of the Armenian population jumping by over 25,000 individuals between the 1921 and 1923 censuses, also pointing out that the Armenian population declined to 111,700 in 1926, thus indicating an "unexplained drop" of 38,000 individuals.<ref name="welt">{{Cite book |last=Cory D. |first=Welt |url=https://home.gwu.edu/~cwelt/ExplainingEthnicConflict_Welt.pdf |title=Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia |publisher=] |year=2004 |pages=116 |oclc=59823134 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911110408/https://home.gwu.edu/~cwelt/ExplainingEthnicConflict_Welt.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> In the 1920s, the NKAO had a population of 131,500 people, 94.4 percent (124,136) of whom were ethnic Armenians and only 5.6 percent (7,364) of whom were ethnic Azerbaijanis.<ref name="thearmenianspastandpresent">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/229988654 |title=The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |date=2005 |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |first1=Edmund |last1=Herzig |first2=Marina |last2=Kurkchiyan |isbn=0-203-00493-0 |location=London |pages=66 & 121 |oclc=229988654}}</ref> In 1933, Nagorno-Karabakh had a population of 147,308, 10,751 (7.3 percent) of whom were urban dwellers, and 136,557 (92.7 percent) of whom were rural residents.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://rusneb.ru/catalog/000200_000018_rc_2682917/ |title=Административное деление АССР... 1. Районы, сельсоветы, списки, населенных мест с указанием численности населения, национального состава числа хозяйств по состоянию на 1/1-1933 г. 2. Список колхозов, совхозов, МТС и МТФ. 3. Карты, районов на тюрк. и рус. яз. (отдельно) - Азербайджанская ССР Управление народно-хозяйственного учета |date=1933 |language=ru |access-date=22 November 2022 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228083343/https://rusneb.ru/catalog/000200_000018_rc_2682917/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On 1 January 1973, the oblast had a population of 153,000.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatsovietencyc0017unse |title=Great Soviet Encyclopedia |publisher=] |year=1973 |volume=17 |location=New York |pages=301}}</ref> | |||
==== Discrimination and stagnation ==== | |||
In his letter of 1769 to Russia’s ], the Georgian king ], in his description of Nagorno-Karabakh, suggests: "Seven families rule the region of Khamse. Its population is totally ]."<ref>Цагарели А. А. Грамота и гругие исторические документы XVIII столетия, относяшиеся к Грузии, Том 1. СПб 1891, ц. 434-435. This book is available online from Google Books</ref><ref>Bournoutian, George A. Armenians and Russia, 1626-1796: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2001, page 246</ref> | |||
Whilst the region was a part of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian share of the population dropped from 94.7 to 76.9 percent, whilst the Azerbaijani share of the population quadrupled from 5.1 to 21.5 percent<ref name="thearmenianspastandpresent" /> as a result of "migratory influx"<ref name="thepursuitofinternationalcriminaljustice" /> — indicative of the socio-economic difficulties local Armenians experienced under Soviet Azerbaijani leadership which led them to emigrate from Karabakh.<ref name="thearmenianspastandpresent" /> Emeritus professor of law ] writes of the stagnation of the Armenian population "due to the discriminatory policies of Azerbaijani authorities that compelled Armenians to emigrate"; also adding that 600,000 Armenians from Karabakh reside in Armenia and the countries of the ].<ref name="thepursuitofinternationalcriminaljustice" /> According to historian Deon Geldenhuys, "his was due to Baku's deliberate promotion of Azerbaijani settlement in Karabagh as part of a policy of 'cultural de-Armenization' of the region"; further adding that Azerbaijan "neglected the economic needs of the territory".<ref>{{cite book |last=Geldenhuys |first=Deon|title= Contested States in World Politics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=2009 |isbn= 9780230234185 |volume=3 |location=Berkeley |page=97}}</ref> Stuart J. Kaufman, a professor of political science and international relations,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stuart Kaufman |url=https://www.udel.edu/faculty-staff/experts/stuart-kaufman/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020085939/https://www.udel.edu/faculty-staff/experts/stuart-kaufman/ |archive-date=20 October 2022 |access-date=22 November 2022 |website=]}}</ref> writes of the difficulties of Karabakh Armenians:<blockquote>… Armenian-language education was not easily available, Armenian history was not taught at all, and those who went to Armenia for training were discriminated against in competing for jobs in the province, … Underinvestment in the region—also blamed on Baku—meant less economic development and poor infrastructure even by Soviet standards, and therefore fewer jobs overall, especially for Armenians. Cultural ties with Armenia were strangled in red tape in Baku, and a decision to make Armenian-language television available in the region was left unimplemented. One result of these policies was a continuing exodus of Armenians from Karabagh in search of greener pastures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaufman |first=Stuart J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1160511946 |title=Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War |date=2001 |isbn=978-1-5017-0199-3 |location=Ithaca, New York |pages=58–59 |oclc=1160511946}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
When discussing Karabakh and ] in the 18th century, the Russian diplomat and historian S. M. Bronevskiy (Russian: С. М. Броневский) indicated in his ''Historical Notes'' that Karabakh, which he said "is located in ]" had as many as 30–40,000 armed Armenian men in 1796.<ref>S.M.Bronesvskiy. St. Petersburg. 1996. Исторические выписки о сношениях России с Персиею, Грузиею и вообще с горскими народами, в Кавказе обитающими, со времён Ивана Васильевича доныне». СПб. 1996, секция "'''Карабаг'''"</ref> | |||
=== 1988–present === | |||
Close to 30,000 Armenians left Nagorno-Karabakh in the late 18th century as a result of famine and persecution of Armenian nobility by the Karabakh khan.<ref>Bournoutian, George A. Russia and the Armenians of Transcaucasia, 1797-1889: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers. 1998, p. 20 and ref. 6</ref> In 1797, Russian Tsar ] in his letter to General ] mentioned that the number of Armenians who had to flee Nagorno-Karabakh for Georgia was close to 11,000 families.<ref>Bournoutian, George A. Russia and the Armenians of Transcaucasia, 1797-1889: A Documentary Record. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers. 1998, p. 22.</ref><ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 77</ref> | |||
Following the ] and the exodus of ], Azerbaijanis in Stepanakert and Armenians in Shusha were ] in September 1988. As ] gained possession of Nagorno-Karabakh and ] (amounting to 14 percent of the internationally recognised territory of Azerbaijan) during the ], hundreds of thousands of Azerbaijanis were expelled from their lands.<ref name="dewaal"/> During the ], Azerbaijan regained control over the surrounding districts and southern parts of the former NKAO, thus displacing approximately 70,000 Armenians.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-10-10 |title=Nagorno-Karabakh: Armenia and Azerbaijan shaky ceasefire in force |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-54488386 |url-status=live |access-date=2020-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010002202/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-54488386 |archive-date=10 October 2020}}</ref> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
===Russian Rule (1805-1918)=== | |||
|+Historical ethnic composition of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast in 1921–1989 | |||
! rowspan="2" |Ethnic group | |||
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="welt" /><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Перепись населения АзССР в 1921 г. |trans-title=Census of the population of the AzSSR in 1921 |url=http://www.karabagh.am/6DokiSvid/Perepis21.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526195503/http://www.karabagh.am/6DokiSvid/Perepis21.htm |archive-date=26 May 2011 |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=karabagh.am}}</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1923<ref name="beglaryan" /><ref name="welt" /> | |||
! colspan="2" |1925<ref name="beglaryan" /> | |||
! colspan="2" |1926<ref name="beglaryan" /><ref name="этно1926"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605115531/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_26.php?reg=2304 |date=5 June 2016 }} Демоскоп</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1939<ref name="beglaryan" /><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605115645/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rer_nac_39_gs.php?reg=25&gor=3&Submit=OK |date=5 June 2016 }} Демоскоп</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1959<ref name="beglaryan" /><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605120901/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/resp_nac_59.php?reg=67 |date=5 June 2016 }} Демоскоп</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1970<ref name="beglaryan" /><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605122710/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/resp_nac_70.php?reg=74 |date=5 June 2016 }} Демоскоп</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1979<ref name="beglaryan" /><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605120319/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/resp_nac_79.php?reg=77 |date=5 June 2016 }} Демоскоп</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1989<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605113511/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/resp_nac_89.php?reg=71 |date=5 June 2016 }} Демоскоп</ref> | |||
|- | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
!Number | |||
!% | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
| align="right" |122,426 | |||
| align="right" |94.73 | |||
| align="right" |149,600 | |||
| align="right" |94.8 | |||
| align="right" |142,470 | |||
| align="right" |90.28 | |||
| align="right" |111,694 | |||
| align="right" |89.24 | |||
| align="right" |132,800 | |||
| align="right" |88.04 | |||
| align="right" |110,053 | |||
| align="right" |84.39 | |||
| align="right" |121,068 | |||
| align="right" |80.54 | |||
| align="right" |123,076 | |||
| align="right" |75.89 | |||
| align="right" |145,450 | |||
| align="right" |76.92 | |||
|- | |||
|]{{efn|Until 1936, Azerbaijanis were known as "Tatars" or "Turkish-Tatars".}} | |||
| align="right" |6,550 | |||
| align="right" |5.07 | |||
| align="right" |7,700 | |||
| align="right" |4.9 | |||
| align="right" |15,261 | |||
| align="right" |9.67 | |||
| align="right" |12,592 | |||
| align="right" |10.06 | |||
| align="right" |14,053 | |||
| align="right" |9.32 | |||
| align="right" |17,995 | |||
| align="right" |13.80 | |||
| align="right" |27,179 | |||
| align="right" |18.08 | |||
| align="right" |37,264 | |||
| align="right" |22.98 | |||
| align="right" |40,688 | |||
| align="right" |21.52 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
| rowspan="7" |267 | |||
| rowspan="7" |0.21 | |||
| rowspan="7" |500 | |||
| rowspan="7" |0.3 | |||
| align="right" |46 | |||
| align="right" |0.03 | |||
| align="right" |596 | |||
| align="right" |0.48 | |||
| align="right" |3,174 | |||
| align="right" |2.10 | |||
| align="right" |1,790 | |||
| align="right" |1.37 | |||
| align="right" |1,310 | |||
| align="right" |0.87 | |||
| align="right" |1,265 | |||
| align="right" |0.78 | |||
| align="right" |1,922 | |||
| align="right" |1.02 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
| rowspan="6" |30 | |||
| rowspan="6" |0.02 | |||
| align="right" |35 | |||
| align="right" |0.03 | |||
| align="right" |436 | |||
| align="right" |0.29 | |||
| align="right" |238 | |||
| align="right" |0.18 | |||
| align="right" |193 | |||
| align="right" |0.13 | |||
| align="right" |140 | |||
| align="right" |0.09 | |||
| align="right" |416 | |||
| align="right" |0.22 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
| align="right" |12 | |||
| align="right" |0.01 | |||
| align="right" |11 | |||
| align="right" |0.01 | |||
| align="right" |32 | |||
| align="right" |0.02 | |||
| align="right" |35 | |||
| align="right" |0.02 | |||
| align="right" |37 | |||
| align="right" |0.02 | |||
| align="right" |79 | |||
| align="right" |0.04 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
| align="right" |68 | |||
| align="right" |0.05 | |||
| align="right" |74 | |||
| align="right" |0.05 | |||
| align="right" |67 | |||
| align="right" |0.05 | |||
| align="right" |33 | |||
| align="right" |0.02 | |||
| align="right" |56 | |||
| align="right" |0.03 | |||
| align="right" |72 | |||
| align="right" |0.04 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
| align="right" |6 | |||
| align="right" |0.00 | |||
| align="right" |29 | |||
| align="right" |0.02 | |||
| align="right" |36 | |||
| align="right" |0.03 | |||
| align="right" |25 | |||
| align="right" |0.02 | |||
| align="right" |41 | |||
| align="right" |0.03 | |||
| align="right" |64 | |||
| align="right" |0.03 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
| align="right" |5 | |||
| align="right" |0.00 | |||
| align="right" |25 | |||
| align="right" |0.02 | |||
| align="right" |16 | |||
| align="right" |0.01 | |||
| align="right" |22 | |||
| align="right" |0.01 | |||
| align="right" |17 | |||
| align="right" |0.01 | |||
| align="right" |57 | |||
| align="right" |0.03 | |||
|- | |||
|Others | |||
| align="right" |151 | |||
| align="right" |0.12 | |||
| align="right" |235 | |||
| align="right" |0.16 | |||
| align="right" |179 | |||
| align="right" |0.14 | |||
| align="right" |448 | |||
| align="right" |0.30 | |||
| align="right" |285 | |||
| align="right" |0.18 | |||
| align="right" |337 | |||
| align="right" |0.18 | |||
|- | |||
!Total | |||
!129,243{{Efn|With the city of Shusha included, the NKAO's total population was 138,466, the adjusted ethnic composition is as follows:{{bulleted list|Armenians – 122,715 (88.62%)|Azerbaijanis – 15,444 (11.15%)|Others – 307 (0.22%)}}}} | |||
!100.00 | |||
!157,800 | |||
!100.0 | |||
!157,807 | |||
!100.00 | |||
!125,159 | |||
!100.00 | |||
!150,837 | |||
!100.00 | |||
!130,406 | |||
!100.00 | |||
!150,313 | |||
!100.00 | |||
!162,181 | |||
!100.00 | |||
!189,085 | |||
!100.00 | |||
|} | |||
== Transport == | |||
A survey prepared by the Russian imperial authorities in 1823, several years before the 1828 Armenian migration from Persia to the newly established Armenian Province, shows that all Armenians of Karabakh (5107 boroughs) compactly resided in its highland portion, i.e. on the territory of the five traditional Armenian principalities in Nagorno-Karabakh, and constituted an absolute demographic majority on those lands. The survey's more than 260 pages recorded that the district of Khachen had twelve Armenian villages and no Tatar (Muslim) villages; Jalapert (Jraberd) had eight Armenian villages and no Tatar villages; Dizak had fourteen Armenian villages and one Tatar village; Gulistan had twelve Armenian and five Tatar villages; and Varanda had twenty-three Armenian villages and one Tatar village.<ref>''Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd'' ({{lang-ru|''Описание Карабахской провинции, составленное в 1823 г. действительным статским советником Могилевским и полковником Ермоловым 2-ым. Тифлис, 1866''}}), Tbilisi, 1866.</ref><ref>Bournoutian, George A. ''A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh''. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18</ref> | |||
{| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
|- style="font-weight:bold; background:#ddd;" | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| Airport name | |||
| Coordinates | |||
|- valign=top | |||
| ] | |||
| UBBS | |||
| UB13 | |||
| | |||
| ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldaerodata.com/countries/Azerbaijan.php |title=Airports in Azerbaijan |publisher=Worldaerodata.com |access-date=13 August 2013 |archive-date=4 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130804190457/http://worldaerodata.com/countries/Azerbaijan.php |url-status=usurped }}</ref> | |||
| <small>{{coord|39|54|05|N|46|47|13|E|type:airport|name=Stepanakert Air Base}}</small> | |||
|} | |||
During the rule of the Soviet Union, the ]–]–] line connected the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region with the main part of Azerbaijan. After the Nagorno-Karabakh war and the abandonment of Ağdam, the line's service was cut back to service only between Yevlax and ], without any present section at the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. The former railway line between Kətəlparaq and Stepanakert has been almost completely destroyed. | |||
According to a Russian census, in 1897 there were 106,363 ] in Nagorno Karabakh, and they made up 94 percent of the rural population within the boundaries of the ].<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 77</ref> In 1914, the Karabakh Diocese of the ], whose jurisdiction covered Nagorno Karabakh and all adjacent Armenian-populated territories, had 206,768 parishioners living in 224 Armenian villages, with 222 functioning Armenian churches and monasteries, and 188 priests.<ref>Ararat magazine, 1914, Vagharshapat, p. 637</ref><ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 77</ref> | |||
The (]–]–)]–]–]–](–]) main railway was also dismantled from the NKR between ] and ], as well as a by-line from ] to the Armenian city of ]. Currently, the Azerbaijani trains only travel to Horadiz. The Ordubad–Horadiz section has been demolished, leaving the NKR with no intact, active railway line in their territory. The railway at the ] still operates, but it is separated from the main Azerbaijani lines, and only has a connection to ]. | |||
] and ] in 1921-1989, and 2007<ref>Сельскохозяйственная перепись Азербайджана 1921 г. in: "Известия Аз. ЦСУ", 1923, № 1 (7), с. 106-111), and М. Авдеева. "Численность и племенной состав сельского населения Азербайджана по данным переписи 1921 г.; Население СССР: По данным Всесоюз. переписей населения в 1926-89 гг., М.: Политиздат, январь 1991; NKR Census, 2005 as seen on http://census.stat-nkr.am</ref>]] | |||
== |
== See also == | ||
{{Portal|Geography|Europe}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] – the hiking trail across Nagorno-Karabakh | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
==Notes== | |||
In the Soviet times, Azerbaijan tried to change demographic balance in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region (NKAO) in favor of Azerbaijanis and to the detriment of its Armenian majority by sending Azerbaijanis from other parts of Azerbaijani SSR to NKAO. In 2002, Azerbaijan’s President ] made a public confession that he personally conceived and directed a policy of squeezing out Armenians from the province and replacing them with Azerbaijanis.<ref name="echo-az.com">See: «Гейдар Алиев: Государство с оппозицией лучше», газета «Эхо» (Азербайджан), Номер 138 (383) CP, 24 июля 2002) </ref> Adding an Azerbaijani sector to a local university and sending Azerbaijani workers to a newly-commissioned shoe factory were mentioned by ] among the tools of his demographic policy. | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
==References== | |||
{{Cquote|''<big>]: By doing this, I tried to increase the number of Azerbaijanis and to reduce the number of Armenians.</big>''<ref name="echo-az.com"/><ref>{{ru icon}} Anon. "Кто на стыке интересов? США, Россия и новая реальность на границе с Ираном" (""). '']''. April 4, 2006</ref>}} | |||
{{reflist}} | |||
==Bibliography== | |||
Heydar Aliyev's commentary was supported by his colleagues and subordinates, such as Ramil Usubov - Azerbaijan's long-served Minister of the Interior.<ref>Usubov, Ramil. Nagorniy Karabakh: the Mission of Salvation Began the in the 70s, Panorama, May 12, 1999 (in Russian).</ref> | |||
{{Refbegin}} | |||
* {{cite book|last1=Ali|last2=Ekinciel|title=Karabakh Diary|date=1 August 2015|publisher=Sage|location=Russia|isbn=9786059932196|edition=1|url=http://www.aliekinciel.com/|access-date=3 August 2015|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302103309/http://aliekinciel.com/|url-status=dead}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
== Further reading == | |||
Nearing the collapse of the ] in 1989, the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast boasted a population of 145,593 Armenians (76.4%), 42,871 Azerbaijanis (22.4%),<ref name=ratios>]. ''Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh''. December 1994, p. xiii, ISBN 1-56432-142-8, citing: Natsional'nyi Sostav Naseleniya SSSR, po dannym Vsesoyuznyi Perepisi Naseleniya 1989 g., Moskva, "Finansy i Statistika"</ref> and several thousand ], ], ], and ]. Most of the Azerbaijani and Kurdish populations fled the region during the heaviest years of fighting in the war from 1992 to 1993. The main language spoken in Nagorno-Karabakh is ]; however, Karabakh Armenians speak a dialect of Armenian which is considerably different from that which is spoken in Armenia as it is layered with ], ] and ] words.<ref name="dewaal">{{cite book| last =de Waal | first = Thomas | authorlink = Thomas de Waal| title = Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War| publisher = ]| year = 2003 | location = New York| isbn = 0-8147-1945-7}}</ref> | |||
* {{EI3|last=Tsibenko|first=Veronika|title=Karabakh, Nagorno|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/karabakh-nagorno-COM_32994?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=azerbaijan|year=2018}} | |||
*{{cite journal |last1=Torres |first1=Ricardo Juan |title=The role of Nagorno-Karabakh in the shaping of Armenian and Azeri identity |date=2022 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep40027 |publisher=Consejo Argentino para las Relaciones Internacionales (CARI)}} | |||
== External links == | |||
===Nagorno-Karabakh Republic=== | |||
{{Sister project links}} | |||
In 2001, the NKR's reported population was 95% Armenian, with the remaining total including Assyrians, Greeks, and Kurds.<ref name="NKRpop"></ref> In March 2007, the local government announced that its population had grown to 138,000. The annual birth rate was recorded at 2,200-2,300 per year, an increase from nearly 1,500 in 1999. Until 2000, the country's net migration was at a negative.<ref>Regnum News Agency. . Regnum. March 9, 2007. Retrieved March 9, 2007.</ref> For the first half of 2007, 1,010 births and 659 deaths were reported, with a net emigration of 27.<ref></ref> | |||
* | |||
* | |||
The OSCE report, released in March 2011, estimates the population of territories controlled by ethnic Armenians "adjacent to the breakaway Azerbaijani region of Nagorno-Karabakh" to be 14,000, and states "there has been no significant growth in the population since 2005."<ref name="new luanch date">{{cite news|title=Azerbaijani Party Appeals To OSCE About Armenian Resettlement | |||
|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/azerbaijani_party_appeals_to_osce_about_armenian_resettlement/24104655.html|accessdate=13 May 2011|newspaper=]|date=2011-05-13}}</ref> | |||
Most of the Armenian population is ] and belongs to the ]. Certain ] and ] denominations also exist; other religions include ].<ref name="NKRpop"/> | |||
== Gallery == | |||
<center> | |||
<gallery widths="140" heights="140px" perrow=6 caption="Nagorno Karabakh"> | |||
File:Tzitzernavank-Monastery.jpg|], 5th century. | |||
File:Mesrop Mashtots by Francesco Majotto.jpg|], inventor of the ] (406 AD), opened first Armenian school in Nagorno Karabakh's ] in c. 410 AD.<ref>Viviano, Frank. "The Rebirth of Armenia", National Geographic Magazine, March 2004</ref> | |||
File:Prince.Vahtang.of.Khachen-13th century-Nagorno-Karabakh.jpg|Prince Vahtang of ], grandson of Grand Prince ] (1214-1261). 13th century Armenian miniature from Nagorno Karabakh.<ref>Hakopian, Hravard. The Miniatures of Artsakh and Utik: Thirteenth-Fourteenth Centuries. Yerevan, 1989</ref> | |||
File:Хачкар Дадиванка 2.jpg|] at ] (1214). | |||
File:Armenian House in Shusha in Nagorno Karabakh, 1873, by Louis Figuier (1819-1894).jpg|Armenian House in ], 1873, by ] (1819-1894). | |||
File:Armenian rug-5 Artsakh Gohar.jpg|18th century Armenian-inscribed carpet "Gohar" from Nagorno Karabakh (c. 1700)<ref>Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude. The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 86</ref> | |||
File:Ruins of the Armenian part of the city of Shusha after the March 1920 pogrom by Azerbaijani armed units. In the center - church of the Holy Savior.jpg|Ruins of the Armenian half of ] after the city's ]. In the center: defaced ] "Ghazanchetsots." | |||
File:Nagorno Karabakh guerilla fighter Grigor Tumiants, early 20th century.jpg|Torgom (Grigor) Tumiants, famed Nagorno Karabakh guerrilla leader (1879-1906) | |||
File:ArmenianStamps-066-069.jpg|Postal stamp depicting prominent ] military leaders from Nagorno Karabakh: Field Marshall ], Admiral ], Field Marshall ], and Field Marshall ]. | |||
File:Damage to Stepanakert.jpg|Buildings in ] destroyed in 1991-93 by ]. | |||
</gallery> | |||
</center> | |||
==See also== | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] - the hiking trail across Nagorno-Karabakh | |||
== References == | |||
{{reflist|25em}} | |||
==External links== | |||
{{sisterlinks}} | |||
* | |||
* and from ] | * and from ] | ||
* | * | ||
* — Report by rapporteur David Atkinson presented to Political Affairs Committee of the ] | * — Report by rapporteur David Atkinson presented to Political Affairs Committee of the ] | ||
* also key texts & agreements and chronology (in English & Russian) | * also key texts & agreements and chronology (in English & Russian) | ||
* | * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202450/http://www.turkishweekly.net/comments.php?id=2886 |date=3 March 2016 }} | ||
* | * | ||
* | * | ||
* from the ] | * from the ] | ||
* , by Patricia Carley, Publication of the ] (USIP) | * , by Patricia Carley, Publication of the ] (USIP) | ||
* by ], Publication of the ] (USIP) | * by ], Publication of the ] (USIP) | ||
* Nagorno-Karabakh |
* Nagorno-Karabakh 2008–2011 – daily life, front line, mine clearance, culture, religion. | ||
* Inside Warren of Karabakh Frontline | |||
{{Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict}} | {{Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict}} | ||
{{Territorial disputes in Western Asia}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] |
Latest revision as of 12:35, 17 November 2024
Geopolitical region in Azerbaijan This article is about the geopolitical region. For the former state located within the region, see Republic of Artsakh.
Nagorno-Karabakh | |
---|---|
Location and extent of the former Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (lighter color) | |
Area | |
• Total | 4,400 km (1,700 sq mi) |
• Water (%) | negligible |
Population | |
• 2013 estimate | 146,573 |
• 2010 census | 141,400 |
• Density | 29/km (75.1/sq mi) |
Time zone | UTC+4 |
Nagorno-Karabakh (/nəˌɡɔːrnoʊ kərəˈbɑːk/ , nə-GOR-noh kər-ə-BAHK; lit. 'Upper Karabakh') is a region in Azerbaijan, covering the southeastern stretch of the Lesser Caucasus mountain range. Part of the greater region of Karabakh, it spans the area between Lower Karabakh and Syunik. Its terrain mostly consists of mountains and forestland.
Most of Nagorno-Karabakh was governed by ethnic Armenians under the breakaway Republic of Artsakh — also known as the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (NKR) — from the end of the first Nagorno-Karabakh War between Armenia and Azerbaijan in 1994 to the announcement of the dissolution of the republic in September 2023. Representatives from the two sides held numerous inconclusive peace talks mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group regarding the region's disputed status, with its majority-Armenian population over time variously advocating either for Artsakh's independence from both states or for its integration into Armenia.
The region is usually equated with the administrative borders of the former Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, comprising 4,400 square kilometres (1,700 sq mi); however, the region's historical extent encompasses approximately 8,223 square kilometres (3,175 sq mi).
On 27 September 2020, the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War broke out with an Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding territories. Azerbaijan made significant gains during the war, regaining all of the occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh and capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh, including Shusha and Hadrut. The war ended on 10 November 2020 when a trilateral ceasefire agreement was signed between Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia, under which all the remaining occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh were formally returned to Azerbaijani control. The Republic of Artsakh became an isolated rump state connected with Armenia only by a narrow Russian-controlled corridor.
On 19 September 2023, after a blockade lasting several months, Azerbaijan launched a fresh large-scale military offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh. The Artsakh forces collapsed rapidly, resulting in an Azerbaijani victory, the dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh, the exodus of almost the entire Armenian population from the region and the entry of Azerbaijani security forces into the former Artsakh capital of Stepanakert, known as Khankendi by Azerbaijan. On 1 January 2024, the Republic of Artsakh was formally dissolved.
Etymology
For the etymology of Karabakh, see Karabakh § Etymology.The prefix Nagorno- derives from the Russian attributive adjective nagorny (нагорный), which means "highland". The Azerbaijani names of the region include the similar adjectives dağlıq (mountainous) or yuxarı (upper). Such words are not used in the Armenian name, but appeared in the region's official name during the Soviet era as Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast. Other languages apply their own wording for mountainous, upper, or highland; for example, the official name used for the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic in French is Haut-Karabakh, meaning "Upper Karabakh".
The names for the region in the various local languages all translate to "mountainous Karabakh", or "mountainous black garden":
- Armenian: Լեռնային Ղարաբաղ, transliterated Leṙnayin Ġarabaġ, pronounced [lɛrnɑˈjin ʁɑɾɑˈbɑʁ] listen
- Azerbaijani: Dağlıq Qarabağ, Дағлыг Гарабағ, lit. 'mountainous Karabakh', pronounced [dɑɣˈlɯɣ ɡɑˈɾɑbɑɣ] listen
or Yuxarı Qarabağ, Јухары Гарабағ, lit. 'upper Karabakh', pronounced [juxɑˈɾɯ ɡɑˈɾɑbɑɣ] listen - Russian: Нагорный Карабах, transliterated Nagorny Karabakh, pronounced [nɐˈɡornɨj kərɐˈbax]
Armenians living in the area often call Nagorno-Karabakh Artsakh (Armenian: Արցախ), the name of the 10th province of the ancient Kingdom of Armenia. Urartian inscriptions (9th–7th centuries BC) use the name Urtekhini for the region. Ancient Greek sources called the area Orkhistene.
History
Main article: History of Nagorno-KarabakhAntiquity and Early Middle Ages
Nagorno-Karabakh falls within the lands occupied by peoples known to modern archaeologists as the Kura-Araxes culture who lived between the two rivers Kura and Araxes.
The ancient population of the region consisted of various autochthonous local and migrant tribes who were mostly non-Indo-Europeans. According to the prevailing western theory, these natives intermarried with Armenians who came to the region after its inclusion into Armenia in the 2nd (or possibly earlier, the 4th) century BC. Other scholars suggest that the Armenians settled in the region as early as the 7th century BC.
Around 180 BC, Artsakh became one of the 15 provinces of the Armenian Kingdom and remained so until the 4th century. While formally having the status of a province (nahang), Artsakh possibly formed a principality on its own — like Armenia's province of Syunik. Other theories suggest that Artsakh was a royal land, belonging directly to the king of Armenia. King Tigran the Great of Armenia (who ruled from 95 to 55 BC) founded in Artsakh one of four cities named "Tigranakert" after himself. The ruins of the ancient Tigranakert, located 50 km (30 mi) north-east of Stepanakert, are being studied by a group of international scholars.
In 387 AD, after the partition of Armenia between the Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia, two Armenian provinces — Artsakh and Utik — became part of the Sassanid satrapy of Caucasian Albania, which in turn came under strong Armenian religious and cultural influence. At the time the population of Artsakh and Utik consisted of Armenians and several Armenized tribes.
Armenian culture and civilization flourished in the early medieval Nagorno-Karabakh. In the 5th century, the first-ever Armenian school was opened on the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh at Amaras Monastery through the efforts of St. Mesrop Mashtots, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet. St. Mesrop was very active in preaching the Gospel in Artsakh and Utik. Overall, Mesrop Mashtots made three trips to Artsakh and Utik, ultimately reaching pagan territories at the foothills of the Greater Caucasus. The 7th-century Armenian linguist and grammarian Stephanos Syunetsi stated in his work that Armenians of Artsakh had their own dialect, and encouraged his readers to learn it.
High Middle Ages
Main article: Principality of KhachenAround the mid 7th century, the region was conquered by the invading Muslim Arabs through the Muslim conquest of Persia. Subsequently, it was ruled by local governors endorsed by the Caliphate. According to some sources, in 821 the Armenian prince Sahl Smbatian revolted in Artsakh and established the House of Khachen, which ruled Artsakh as a principality until the early 19th century. According to other sources, Sahl Smbatian "was of the Zamirhakan family of kings," and in the year 837–838 he acquired sovereignty over Armenia, Georgia, and Albania. The name "Khachen" originated from Armenian word "khach," which means "cross". By 1000 the House of Khachen proclaimed the Kingdom of Artsakh with John Senecherib as its first ruler. Initially Dizak in southern Artsakh also formed a kingdom ruled by the ancient House of Aranshahik, descended from the earliest Kings of Caucasian Albania. In 1261, after the daughter of the last king of Dizak married the king of Artsakh, Armenian prince Hasan Jalal Dola, the two states merged into one Armenian Principality of Khachen. Subsequently, Artsakh continued to exist as a de facto independent principality.
Late Middle Ages
Main articles: Karabakh Khanate and Melikdoms of KarabakhIn the 15th century, the territory of Karabakh was part of the states ruled subsequently by the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu Turkic tribal confederations. According to Abu Bakr Tihrani, during the period of Jahan Shah (1438–1468), the ruler of Kara Koyunlu, Piri bey Karamanli held the governorship of Karabakh. However, according to Robert H. Hewsen, the Turkoman lord Jahan Shah (1437–67) assigned the governorship of upper Karabakh to local Armenian princes, allowing a native Armenian leadership to emerge consisting of five noble families led by princes who held the titles of meliks. These dynasties represented the branches of the earlier House of Khachen and were the descendants of the medieval kings of Artsakh. Their lands were often referred to as the Country of Khamsa (five in Arabic). In a Charter (2 June 1799) of the Emperor Paul I titled "About their admission to Russian suzerainty, land allocation, rights and privileges", it was noted that the Christian heritage of the Karabakh region and all their people were admitted to the Russian suzerainty. However, according to Robert Hewsen, the Russian Empire recognized the sovereign status of the five princes in their domains by the charter of Emperor Paul I dated 2 June 1799.
The Armenian meliks were granted supreme command over neighbouring Armenian principalities and Muslim khans in the Caucasus by the Iranian king Nader Shah, in return for the meliks' victories over the invading Ottoman Turks in the 1720s. These five principalities in Karabakh were ruled by Armenian families who had received the title Melik (prince) and were the following:
- Principality of Gulistan – under the leadership of the Melik-Beglarian family
- Principality of Jraberd – under the leadership of the Melik-Israelian family
- Principality of Khachen – under the leadership of the Hasan-Jalalian family
- Principality of Varanda – under the leadership of the Melik-Shahnazarian family
- Principality of Dizak – under the leadership of the Melik-Avanian family
From 1501 to 1736, during the existence of the Safavid Empire, the province of Karabakh was governed by the Ziyadoghlu Qajar dynasty, until Nader Shah took over Karabakh from their rule. The Armenian meliks maintained full control over the region until the mid-18th century. In the early 18th century, Iran's Nader Shah took Karabakh out of control of the Ganja khans in punishment for their support of the Safavids, and placed it under his own control In the mid-18th century, as internal conflicts between the meliks led to their weakening, the Karabakh Khanate was formed. The Karabakh khanate, one of the largest khanates under Iranian suzerainty, was headed by Panah-Ali khan Javanshir. For the reinforcement of the power of Karabakh khanate, Khan of Karabakh, Panah-Ali khan Javanshir, built up “the fortress of Panahabad (today Shusha)” in 1751. During that time, Otuziki, Javanshir, Kebirli, and other Turkic tribes constituted the majority of the overall population.
Modern era
Karabakh (including modern-day Nagorno-Karabakh), became a protectorate of the Russian Empire by the Kurekchay Treaty, signed between Ibrahim Khalil Khan of Karabakh and general Pavel Tsitsianov on behalf of Tsar Alexander I in 1805, according to which the Russian monarch recognized Ibrahim Khalil Khan and his descendants as the sole hereditary rulers of the region. However, its new status was only confirmed following the outcome of the Russo-Persian War (1804-1813), when through the loss in the war, Persia formally ceded Karabakh to the Russian Empire per the Treaty of Gulistan (1813), before the rest of Transcaucasia was incorporated into the Empire in 1828 by the Treaty of Turkmenchay, which came as an outcome of the Russo-Persian War (1826-1828).
In 1822, 9 years after it passed from Iranian to Russian control, the Karabakh Khanate was dissolved and the area became part of the Elizavetpol Governorate within the Russian Empire. In 1823 the five districts corresponding roughly to modern-day Nagorno-Karabakh were 90.8% Armenian-populated.
Soviet era
Main article: Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous OblastAfter the October Revolution, Karabakh became part of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, but this soon dissolved into separate Armenian, Azerbaijani, and Georgian states. Over the next two years (1918–1920), there were a series of short wars between Armenia and Azerbaijan over several regions, including Nagorno-Karabakh. Between 1918 and 1920, Nagorno-Karabakh's de jure affiliation with Armenia or Azerbaijan was disputed and not adjudicated by the League of Nations.
In July 1918, the First Armenian Assembly of Nagorno-Karabakh declared the region self-governing and created a National Council and government. Later, Ottoman troops entered Karabakh, meeting armed resistance by Armenians.
After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, British troops occupied Karabakh. The British command provisionally affirmed Khosrov bey Sultanov (appointed by the Azerbaijani government) as the governor-general of Karabakh and Zangezur, pending a final decision by the Paris Peace Conference. The decision was opposed by Karabakh Armenians. In February 1920, the Karabakh National Council preliminarily agreed to Azerbaijani jurisdiction, while Armenians elsewhere in Karabakh continued guerrilla fighting, never accepting the agreement. The agreement itself was soon annulled by the Ninth Karabagh Assembly, which declared union with Armenia in April.
In April 1920, while the Azerbaijani army was locked in Karabakh fighting local Armenian forces, Azerbaijan was taken over by Bolsheviks. On 10 August 1920, Armenia signed a preliminary agreement with the Bolsheviks, agreeing to a temporary Bolshevik occupation of these areas until final settlement would be reached. In 1921, Armenia and Georgia were also taken over by the Bolsheviks. After the Sovietization of Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Kavbiuro (Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)) decided that Karabakh would remain within Azerbaijan SSR with broad regional autonomy, with the administrative centre in the city of Shusha (the administrative center was later moved to Stepanakert). The oblast's borders were drawn to include Armenian villages and to exclude as much as possible Azerbaijani villages. The resulting district ensured an Armenian majority.
With the Soviet Union firmly in control of the region, the conflict over the region died down for several decades until the beginning of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the question of Nagorno-Karabakh re-emerged. Accusing the Azerbaijani SSR government of conducting forced Azerification of the region, the majority Armenian population, with ideological and material support from the Armenian SSR, started a movement to have the autonomous oblast transferred to the Armenian SSR. In August 1987, Karabakh Armenians sent a petition for union with Armenia with tens of thousands of signatures to Moscow.
War and secession
Main article: First Nagorno-Karabakh WarOn 13 February 1988, Karabakh Armenians began demonstrating in Stepanakert, in favour of unification with the Armenian republic. Six days later they were joined by mass marches in Yerevan. On 20 February, the Soviet of People's Deputies in Karabakh voted 110 to 17 to request the transfer of the region to Armenia. This unprecedented action by a regional Soviet brought out tens of thousands of demonstrations both in Stepanakert and Yerevan, but Moscow rejected the Armenians' demands. On 20 February 1988, 2 Azeri girls were raped in Stepanakert. This caused widespread outrage in the Azeri town of Aghdam. The first direct confrontation of the conflict occurred as a large group of Azeris marched from Agdam to the Armenian populated town of Askeran. The confrontation between the Azeris and the police near Askeran degenerated into the Askeran clash, which left two Azeris dead, one of them allegedly killed by an Azeri police officer. Fifty Armenian villagers and an unknown number of Azeris and police officers were injured. Large numbers of refugees left Armenia and Azerbaijan as violence began against the minority populations of the respective republics. On 7 July 1988, the European Parliament passed a resolution that condemned the violence employed against Armenian demonstrators in Azerbaijan, and supported the demand of the Armenians for reunification with the Soviet Republic of Armenia.
On 29 November 1989, direct rule in Nagorno-Karabakh was ended and the region was returned to Azerbaijani administration. The Soviet policy backfired, however, when a joint session of the Armenian Supreme Soviet and the National Council, the legislative body of Nagorno-Karabakh, proclaimed the unification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia. On 26 November 1991 Azerbaijan abolished the status of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, rearranging the administrative division and bringing the territory under direct control of Azerbaijan.
On 10 December 1991, in a referendum boycotted by local Azerbaijanis, Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh approved the creation of an independent state. A Soviet proposal for enhanced autonomy for Nagorno-Karabakh within Azerbaijan satisfied neither side and a full-scale war subsequently erupted between Azerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh, with the latter receiving support from Armenia. According to Armenia's former president, Levon Ter-Petrossian, the Karabakh leadership approach was maximalist and "they thought they could get more."
The struggle over Nagorno-Karabakh escalated after both Armenia and Azerbaijan attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. In the post-Soviet power vacuum, military action between Azerbaijan and Armenia was heavily influenced by the Russian military. Furthermore, both the Armenian and Azerbaijani military employed a large number of mercenaries from Ukraine and Russia. Between fifteen and twenty-five hundred Afghan mujahideen, along with fighters from Chechnya, participated in the fighting on Azerbaijan's side. Russia provided Armenia with heavy artillery and tanks. Many survivors from the Azerbaijani side found shelter in 12 emergency camps set up in other parts of Azerbaijan to cope with the growing number of internally displaced people due to the first Nagorno-Karabakh war.
By the end of 1993, the conflict had caused about 30,000 casualties and created hundreds of thousands of refugees on both sides. By May 1994, the Armenians were in control of 14% of the territory of Azerbaijan. At that stage, for the first time during the conflict, the Azerbaijani government recognized Nagorno-Karabakh as a third party in the war and started direct negotiations with the Karabakh authorities. As a result, a ceasefire was reached on 12 May 1994 through Russian mediation.
Post-1994 ceasefire
Further information: Madrid Principles, Prague Process (Armenian–Azerbaijani negotiations), Nagorno-Karabakh Declaration, Astrakhan Declaration, Land mine situation in Nagorno-Karabakh, 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, and Second Nagorno-Karabakh WarDespite the ceasefire, fatalities due to armed conflicts between Armenian and Azerbaijani soldiers continued. On 25 January 2005, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) adopted PACE Resolution 1416, which condemned ethnic cleansing against Azerbaijanis. On 15–17 May 2007 the 34th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Organization of Islamic Conference adopted resolution No. 7/34-P, considering the occupation of Azerbaijani territory as the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan and recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a crime against humanity, and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural and religious monuments in the occupied territories. The 11th session of the summit of the Organization of the Islamic Conference held on 13–14 March 2008 in Dakar adopted resolution No. 10/11-P (IS). In the resolution, OIC member states condemned the occupation of Azerbaijani lands by Armenian forces and Armenian aggression against Azerbaijan, ethnic cleansing against the Azeri population, and charged Armenia with the "destruction of cultural monuments in the occupied Azerbaijani territories". On 14 March of the same year the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution No. 62/243 which "demands the immediate, complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan". On 18–20 May 2010, the 37th session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Organization of Islamic Conference in Dushanbe adopted another resolution condemning the aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan, recognizing the actions against Azerbaijani civilians as a crime against humanity and condemning the destruction of archaeological, cultural, and religious monuments in occupied territories. On 20 May of the same year, the European Parliament in Strasbourg adopted the resolution on "The need for an EU Strategy for the South Caucasus" on the basis of the report by Evgeni Kirilov, the Bulgarian member of the Parliament. The resolution states in particular that "the occupied Azerbaijani regions around Nagorno-Karabakh must be cleared as soon as possible". On 26 January 2016, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) adopted Resolution 2085, which deplored the fact that the occupation by Armenia of Nagorno-Karabakh and other adjacent areas of Azerbaijan creates humanitarian and environmental problems for the citizens of Azerbaijan, condemned ethnic cleansing against Azerbaijanis and Assembly requested immediate withdrawal of Armenian armed forces from the region concerned.
Several world leaders have met with the presidents of Armenia and Azerbaijan over the years, but efforts to maintain the ceasefire have failed.
On 2 April 2016 Azerbaijani and Armenian forces again clashed in the region. The Armenian Defense Ministry alleged that Azerbaijan launched an offensive to seize territory in the region. At least 30 soldiers were killed during the fighting and a Mil Mi-24 helicopter and tank were also destroyed, with 12 of the fallen soldiers belonging to the Azerbaijani forces and the other 18 belonging to the Armenian forces, as well as an additional 35 Armenian soldiers reportedly wounded.
2020 war and ceasefire agreement
Main articles: Second Nagorno-Karabakh War and 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreementOn 27 September 2020, a new war erupted in Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding territories. The United Nations strongly condemned the conflict and called on both sides to deescalate tensions and resume meaningful negotiations without delay.
The war ended on 10 November 2020, when a trilateral ceasefire agreement was signed among Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia. According to the ceasefire agreement, Azerbaijan regained all of the occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh and capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh proper, including Shusha and Hadrut.
Blockade (2022–2023)
Main article: Blockade of Nagorno-KarabakhIn December 2022, Azerbaijanis claiming to be environmental activists blocked the Lachin corridor, the sole road connecting Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia and the outside world. On 23 April 2023, Azerbaijani forces installed a checkpoint on the Lachin corridor. The blockade led to a humanitarian crisis for the population in Artsakh and imports of essential goods were blocked, as well as humanitarian convoys of the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers, trapping the 120,000 residents of the region. Limited traffic had been conducted by Russian peacekeepers and the International Committee of the Red Cross to transport patients in need of medical care and provide humanitarian supplies. However, starting on 15 June 2023, Azerbaijan intensified the blockade, blocking all passage of food, fuel, and medicine from the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers through the Lachin corridor. On 19 September, Azerbaijan launched a military operation.
Azerbaijani offensive (2023)
Main article: 2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-KarabakhOn 19 September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a military offensive on Nagorno-Karabakh. One day after the offensive started, on 20 September, an agreement on establishing a complete cessation of hostilities in Nagorno-Karabakh was reached at the mediation of the Russian peacekeeping command in Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan held a meeting with representatives of the Artsakh Armenian community on 21 September in Yevlakh to start the process of re-integrating the region into Azerbaijan. Ceasefire violations by Azerbaijan were nonetheless reported by both Artsakh and local residents in Stepanakert on 21 September. In the aftermath of the offensive, an exodus of Armenians from the region started. On 28 September 2023, the Republic of Artsakh agreed to dissolve itself by 1 January 2024.
Geography
Nagorno-Karabakh has a total area of 4,400 square kilometres (1,699 sq mi). Approximately half of Nagorno-Karabakh terrain is over 950 metres (3,120 ft) above sea level. The borders of Nagorno-Karabakh resemble a kidney bean with the indentation on the east side. It has tall mountain ridges along the northern edge and along the west and mountainous south. The part near the indentation of the kidney bean itself is a relatively flat valley, with the two edges of the bean, the districts of Martakert and Martuni, having flatlands as well. Other flatter valleys exist around the Sarsang reservoir, Hadrut, and the south. The entire region lies, on average, 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) above sea level. Notable peaks include the border mountain Murovdag and the Great Kirs mountain chain in the junction of Shusha and Hadrut districts. The territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh forms a portion of the historic region of Karabakh, which lies between the rivers Kura and Araxes, and the modern Armenia-Azerbaijan border. Nagorno-Karabakh in its modern borders is part of the larger region of Upper Karabakh.
Nagorno-Karabakh does not directly border Armenia but is connected to the latter through the Lachin corridor, a mountain pass under the control of the Russian peacekeeping forces in Nagorno-Karabakh.
The major cities of the region are Stepanakert, which serves as the capital of the unrecognised Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, and Shusha, which lies partially in ruins. Vineyards, orchards, and mulberry groves for silkworms are developed in the valleys.
Environment
Nagorno-Karabakh's environment vary from steppe on the Kura lowland through dense forests of oak, hornbeam, and beech on the lower mountain slopes to birchwood and alpine meadows higher up. The region possesses numerous mineral springs and deposits of zinc, coal, lead, gold, marble, and limestone.
Demographics
Antiquity – 1918
Historically, the inhabitants of Nagorno-Karabakh — then part of the province of Artsakh — were confirmed by Ancient Greek and Roman sources "long before our era" to be Armenian. In the early 15th century, German traveller Johann Schiltberger after visiting the region stated that "although the Muslims had taken possession of Karabagh, there were still Armenian villages in the region". Historian Victor Schnirelmann writes that "In the mid-18th century, … Turkic tribes … gained access to the highland territories and began to settle in Shusha … by the end of the 18th century, a substantial number of its former Armenian inhabitants had left Nagorny Karabagh. Just at the turn of the 19th century, the Turkic population significantly outnumbered the local Armenians, but this only lasted … end of the 1820s, the Armenians began to come back to Karabagh, and they accounted for the majority of its population by the mid-19th century". Edmund Herzig and Marina Kurkchiyan present an alternative view that "Armenians had already been a majority in some areas such as mountainous Karabagh", compared to the Yerevan province which had "regained an Armenian majority for the first time in several hundred years."
According to an 1823 Russian survey published in Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi) in 1866, Armenians made up 97 percent of the population in the five districts (mahals) of Nagorno-Karabakh, thus proving, contrary to claims in Azerbaijani historiography, that Armenians formed an overwhelming majority of Nagorno-Karabakh prior to 1828. Historian George Bournoutian writes that Russian statistics from 1810 show that Armenians made up 21 percent of the Karabakh region's population; In 1823, the Armenian population of Karabakh had increased by 30 percent "after the return of those who had fled the region", and by 1832, the Armenian population had increased to one-third of Karabakh. Moreover, the "one-third" of the population of Karabakh composed of Armenians resided in one-third of the territory of Karabakh, the mountainous territory (i.e. Nagorno-Karabakh), where they "constituted an overwhelming majority of the population."
1918–1920
According to Armenian sources, the "historical Nagorno-Karabakh" region had a population of 300,000–330,000 in 1918–1920, rising to 700,000–800,000 by 1988. As a result of "Turkish-Azerbaijani aggression", the region's population declined by 20 percent in 1918–1920. In this period, Azerbaijani forces carried out massacres against Armenians in Ghaibalishen, Jamilli, Karkijahan, and Pahlul (600–700 dead), Stepanakert (several hundred dead), and Shusha (several hundred to 12,000 dead). As a result of the Shusha massacre, 5,000–6,000 Armenians were displaced to the regions of Varanda and Dizak. By 11 April 1920, some thirty villages in Nagorno-Karabakh had been "devastated" by Azerbaijani forces as a result of the uprising, leaving 25,000 homeless (including nearly 6,000 refugees from Shusha).
1921–1987
1923 statistics indicate that the NKAO was 94.8 percent Armenian, numbering 149,600, whilst the Azerbaijani population numbered 7,700. Historian Cory Welt writes of a "discrepancy" of the Armenian population jumping by over 25,000 individuals between the 1921 and 1923 censuses, also pointing out that the Armenian population declined to 111,700 in 1926, thus indicating an "unexplained drop" of 38,000 individuals. In the 1920s, the NKAO had a population of 131,500 people, 94.4 percent (124,136) of whom were ethnic Armenians and only 5.6 percent (7,364) of whom were ethnic Azerbaijanis. In 1933, Nagorno-Karabakh had a population of 147,308, 10,751 (7.3 percent) of whom were urban dwellers, and 136,557 (92.7 percent) of whom were rural residents. On 1 January 1973, the oblast had a population of 153,000.
Discrimination and stagnation
Whilst the region was a part of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian share of the population dropped from 94.7 to 76.9 percent, whilst the Azerbaijani share of the population quadrupled from 5.1 to 21.5 percent as a result of "migratory influx" — indicative of the socio-economic difficulties local Armenians experienced under Soviet Azerbaijani leadership which led them to emigrate from Karabakh. Emeritus professor of law M. Cherif Bassiouni writes of the stagnation of the Armenian population "due to the discriminatory policies of Azerbaijani authorities that compelled Armenians to emigrate"; also adding that 600,000 Armenians from Karabakh reside in Armenia and the countries of the CIS. According to historian Deon Geldenhuys, "his was due to Baku's deliberate promotion of Azerbaijani settlement in Karabagh as part of a policy of 'cultural de-Armenization' of the region"; further adding that Azerbaijan "neglected the economic needs of the territory". Stuart J. Kaufman, a professor of political science and international relations, writes of the difficulties of Karabakh Armenians:
… Armenian-language education was not easily available, Armenian history was not taught at all, and those who went to Armenia for training were discriminated against in competing for jobs in the province, … Underinvestment in the region—also blamed on Baku—meant less economic development and poor infrastructure even by Soviet standards, and therefore fewer jobs overall, especially for Armenians. Cultural ties with Armenia were strangled in red tape in Baku, and a decision to make Armenian-language television available in the region was left unimplemented. One result of these policies was a continuing exodus of Armenians from Karabagh in search of greener pastures.
1988–present
Following the Sumgait pogrom and the exodus of Azerbaijanis from Armenia, Azerbaijanis in Stepanakert and Armenians in Shusha were expelled in September 1988. As local Armenian forces gained possession of Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding districts (amounting to 14 percent of the internationally recognised territory of Azerbaijan) during the First Nagorno-Karabakh war, hundreds of thousands of Azerbaijanis were expelled from their lands. During the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War, Azerbaijan regained control over the surrounding districts and southern parts of the former NKAO, thus displacing approximately 70,000 Armenians.
Ethnic group | 1921 | 1923 | 1925 | 1926 | 1939 | 1959 | 1970 | 1979 | 1989 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
Armenians | 122,426 | 94.73 | 149,600 | 94.8 | 142,470 | 90.28 | 111,694 | 89.24 | 132,800 | 88.04 | 110,053 | 84.39 | 121,068 | 80.54 | 123,076 | 75.89 | 145,450 | 76.92 |
Azerbaijanis | 6,550 | 5.07 | 7,700 | 4.9 | 15,261 | 9.67 | 12,592 | 10.06 | 14,053 | 9.32 | 17,995 | 13.80 | 27,179 | 18.08 | 37,264 | 22.98 | 40,688 | 21.52 |
Russians | 267 | 0.21 | 500 | 0.3 | 46 | 0.03 | 596 | 0.48 | 3,174 | 2.10 | 1,790 | 1.37 | 1,310 | 0.87 | 1,265 | 0.78 | 1,922 | 1.02 |
Ukrainians | 30 | 0.02 | 35 | 0.03 | 436 | 0.29 | 238 | 0.18 | 193 | 0.13 | 140 | 0.09 | 416 | 0.22 | ||||
Belarusians | 12 | 0.01 | 11 | 0.01 | 32 | 0.02 | 35 | 0.02 | 37 | 0.02 | 79 | 0.04 | ||||||
Greeks | 68 | 0.05 | 74 | 0.05 | 67 | 0.05 | 33 | 0.02 | 56 | 0.03 | 72 | 0.04 | ||||||
Tatars | 6 | 0.00 | 29 | 0.02 | 36 | 0.03 | 25 | 0.02 | 41 | 0.03 | 64 | 0.03 | ||||||
Georgians | 5 | 0.00 | 25 | 0.02 | 16 | 0.01 | 22 | 0.01 | 17 | 0.01 | 57 | 0.03 | ||||||
Others | 151 | 0.12 | 235 | 0.16 | 179 | 0.14 | 448 | 0.30 | 285 | 0.18 | 337 | 0.18 | ||||||
Total | 129,243 | 100.00 | 157,800 | 100.0 | 157,807 | 100.00 | 125,159 | 100.00 | 150,837 | 100.00 | 130,406 | 100.00 | 150,313 | 100.00 | 162,181 | 100.00 | 189,085 | 100.00 |
Transport
Location | ICAO | DAFIF | IATA | Airport name | Coordinates |
Stepanakert | UBBS | UB13 | Stepanakert Airport | 39°54′05″N 46°47′13″E / 39.90139°N 46.78694°E / 39.90139; 46.78694 (Stepanakert Air Base) |
During the rule of the Soviet Union, the Yevlakh–Aghdam–Stepanakert line connected the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region with the main part of Azerbaijan. After the Nagorno-Karabakh war and the abandonment of Ağdam, the line's service was cut back to service only between Yevlax and Kətəlparaq, without any present section at the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. The former railway line between Kətəlparaq and Stepanakert has been almost completely destroyed.
The (Tbilisi–Gyumri–)Yerevan–Nakhchivan–Horadiz–Shirvan(–Baku) main railway was also dismantled from the NKR between Ordubad and Horadiz, as well as a by-line from Mincivan to the Armenian city of Kapan. Currently, the Azerbaijani trains only travel to Horadiz. The Ordubad–Horadiz section has been demolished, leaving the NKR with no intact, active railway line in their territory. The railway at the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic still operates, but it is separated from the main Azerbaijani lines, and only has a connection to Iran.
See also
- Timeline of Artsakh history
- Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations
- List of active separatist movements in Europe
- Janapar – the hiking trail across Nagorno-Karabakh
- Outline of Nagorno-Karabakh
- Post-Soviet states
- Yekbûn
Notes
- Until 1936, Azerbaijanis were known as "Tatars" or "Turkish-Tatars".
- With the city of Shusha included, the NKAO's total population was 138,466, the adjusted ethnic composition is as follows:
- Armenians – 122,715 (88.62%)
- Azerbaijanis – 15,444 (11.15%)
- Others – 307 (0.22%)
References
- "Population of NKR as of 01.01.2013". NKR. 1 January 2013. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2014.
- "Official Statistics of the NKR. Official site of the President of the NKR". President.nkr.am. 1 January 2010. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
- "Nagorno-Karabakh". Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 2 September 2023.
- "Tensions mount as Armenia and Azerbaijan continue fighting". Dawn.com, Associated Press. 29 September 2020. Archived from the original on 17 October 2020.
- Robert H. Hewsen. "The Meliks of Eastern Armenia: A Preliminary Study". Revue des etudes Arméniennes. NS: IX, 1972, pp. 288.
- Robert H. Hewsen (2001). Armenia: A Historical Atlas. The University of Chicago Press. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-226-33228-4.
- ^ "Fighting erupts between Armenia, Azerbaijan over disputed region". Al Jazeera. 27 September 2020. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
- ^ "Armenia and Azerbaijan: A blockade that never ended and a peace deal hanging by a thread". Global Voices. 19 July 2023. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
- ^ "Violence and Politics in Armenia-Azerbaijan Relations". Baku Research Institute. 14 October 2022. Archived from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
As a result of the 2020 war, however, Azerbaijan received all territories around Soviet-era Nagorno Karabakh that were occupied by Armenian forces during the first Karabakh war, plus the two regions of Nagorno Karabakh proper: Shushi/Shusha and Hadrut.
- ^ Cheterian, Vicken (20 October 2022). "Technological determinism or strategic advantage? Comparing the two Karabakh Wars between Armenia and Azerbaijan". Journal of Strategic Studies. 47 (2): 214–237. doi:10.1080/01402390.2022.2127093. ISSN 0140-2390. S2CID 253061240.
The Armenian side also lost territories within the former NKAO, namely the district of Hadrut and the strategic town of Shusha/Shushi, areas that were not even considered for handover to Azerbaijan during the long years of diplomatic negotiations between the two wars.
- ^ Lynch, Ian J. (18 November 2020). "A cold winter for peace in Nagorno-Karabakh?". Ahval. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
The new agreement allows Azerbaijan to keep the territory it took by force, including Shusha and Hadrut, within the historic boundaries of Nagorno-Karabakh. It also requires Armenian forces to turn over other territories they have occupied for the last 26 years, including the so-called Lachin corridor, which is Nagorno-Karabakh's primary link to Armenia proper.
- ^ "Azerbaijan Launches Offensive in Breakaway Nagorno-Karabakh, Children Among Casualties". Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Azerbaijani forces strike Armenian-controlled Karabakh, raising risk of new Caucasus war". Reuters. 19 September 2023. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Azerbaijan launches attack in Nagorno-Karabakh, announces 'evacuation' of Armenian population". 19 September 2023. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Live updates | Stepanakert under fire as Azerbaijan launches assault on Nagorno-Karabakh". OC Media. 19 September 2023. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Azerbaijan says it has begun 'anti-terrorist' operations in Nagorno-Karabakh". France 24. 19 September 2023. Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Нагорно-Карабахская республика прекратила существование" [The Nagorno–Karabakh Republic Ceased to Exist] (in Russian). 1 January 2024.
- ^ "Nagorno-Karabakh talks: separatists lay down arms amid fears of refugee crisis". The Guardian. 23 September 2023. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
- "Azərbaycan polisi Xankəndidə - VİDEO". Publika.AZ (in Azerbaijani). 29 September 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
- Sauer, Pjotr (28 September 2023). "Nagorno-Karabakh's breakaway government says it will dissolve itself". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- Strabo (ed. H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A.) . Geography Archived 23 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine. The Perseus Digital Library. 11.14.4. Retrieved 21 November 2007.
- Viviano, Frank (March 2004). "The Rebirth of Armenia". National Geographic Magazine.
- John Noble, Michael Kohn, Danielle Systermans. Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Lonely Planet; 3 edition (1 May 2008), p. 307
- Edens, Christoper (August–November 1995). "Transcaucasia at the End of the Early Bronze Age". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 299/300 (The Archaeology of Empire in Ancient Anatolia). The American Schools of Oriental Research: 53, pp. 53–64 . doi:10.2307/1357345. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1357345. S2CID 163585471.
- ^ Hewsen, Robert H. (1982). "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians". In Samuelian, Thomas J. (ed.). Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity. Chicago: Scholars Press. pp. 27–40. ISBN 0-89130-565-3.
- Hewsen, Robert H. Armenia: a Historical Atlas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 32–33, map 19 (shows the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the Orontids' Kingdom of Armenia)
- R. Schmitt, M. L. Chaumont. "Armenia and Iran". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 21 January 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
- Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh", in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. Medieval Armenian Culture. Chico, CA, 1983.
- Hewsen. Armenia, pp. 100–103.
- "ИСТОРИЯ ИМПЕРАТОРА ИРАКЛА. Сочинене епископа Себеоса, писателя VII века. Пер. с армянского К.Патканяна". vehi.net. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 25 December 2008.
- Evgeny Dmitrievich Silaev (13 June 2023). "Azerbaijan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 November 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
- Walker, Christopher J. (1991). Armenia and Karabagh: The Struggle for Unity. Minority Rights Group Publications. p. 10.
- Viviano, Frank. "The Rebirth of Armenia", National Geographic Magazine, March 2004, p. 18,
- Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of the Land of Aluank, Book I, chapters 27, 28 and 29; Book II, chapter 3.
- Н.Адонц. «Дионисий Фракийский и армянские толкователи», Пг., 1915, 181—219
- The Cambridge History of Iran Archived 23 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine. — Cambridge University Press, 1975. — vol. 4. — p. 506 "He was handed to Afshin's troops by Sahl b. Sunbadh, an Armenian prince in 222/836-7, and executed in Samarra (223/837) while his brother and assistant 'Abd-Allah was delivered to the prince of Tabaristan, Ibn Sharvin, who had him put to death in Baghdad."
- ^ Robert H. Hewsen, Armenia: A Historical Atlas. The University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp. 119, 155, 163, 264–65.
- Movses Dasxuranci translated by C. J. F. Dowsett (1961). The History of the Caucasian Albanians By Movses Dasxuranci. London: Oxford University Press. p. 217.
- Тер-Григорян Т.И. Неизданные страницы "Истории Албанской страны"Моисея Каланкайтукского. Архив Ин-та истории АН Азерб. ССР, № 1386, л.18.
- Christopher Walker. The Armenian presence in Mountainous Karabakh, in John F. R. Wright et al.: Transcaucasian Boundaries (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics). 1995, p. 93
- Hewsen, Robert H. "The Kingdom of Artsakh", in T. Samuelian & M. Stone, eds. Medieval Armenian Culture. Chico, CA, 1983
- Arḡūn Āqā — Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived 17 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine P. Jackson "It can only have caused resentment among the Muslims, and the Christian author Kirakos, in stark contrast with Jovaynī, has nothing favorable to say concerning Arḡūn’s exactions: his harsh treatment of certain Armenian princes, such as Jalāl of Ḵačen, whom he had executed in 659/1261, made him especially hateful."
- "Armenia | Geography, Population, Map, Religion, & History". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 June 2023. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori, the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan, and the principates of Khachen (Artzakh) and Sasun."
- Robert H. Hewsen. Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37
- George A. Bournoutian (1994). A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-e Qarabagh. Mazda Publishers. ISBN 1-56859-011-3.
- Abū Bakr Ṭihrānī. Kitāb-i Diyārbakriyya. (original) کتاب دیاربکریه: از تواریخ قراقوینلو و چغاتای. ویسنده: ابوبکر طهرانی. به تصحیح و اهتمام: نجاتی لوغال، فاروق سومه. تهران : کتابخانه طهوری،۱۳۵۶. p. 138.
- Полное Собрание Законов Российской Империи c 1649 года. Том XXV. 1798–1799. СПб.: Печатано в Типографии II Отделения Собственной Его Императорского Величества Канцелярии, 1830, № 18.990, c.674–675. (Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire since 1649. Volume XXV. 1798–1799. SPb .: Printed at the Printing House of the II Branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Office, 1830, No. 18.990, p.674-675).
- Robert H. Hewsen. Russian–Armenian relations, 1700–1828. Society of Armenian Studies, N4, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, p 37.
- Walker, Christopher J. Armenia: Survival of a Nation. London: Routledge, 1990 p. 40 ISBN 0-415-04684-X
- Raffi, The History of Karabagh's Meliks, Vienna, 1906, in Armenian
- In English, Raffi, The Five Melikdoms of Karabagh translated by Ara Stepan Melkonian, Garod Books Ltd. 2010, London. ISBN 9781903656570
- Павлова И.К. Хроника времен Сефевидов. Соч. Мухаммад-Масума Исфахани "Хуласат ас-сийар". М.:Наука, 1993, c.59–61.
- (in Russian) Abbas-gulu Aga Bakikhanov. Golestan-i Iram Archived 20 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine; according to an 18th-century local Turkic-Muslim writer Mirza Adigezal bey, Nadir shah placed Karabakh under his own control, while a 19th-century local Turkic Muslim writer Abbas-gulu Aga Bakikhanov states that the shah placed Karabakh under the control of the governor of Tabriz.
- "МИРЗА АДИГЕЗАЛЬ-БЕК->КАРАБАГ-НАМЕ->ГЛАВЫ 1–6". www.vostlit.info. Archived from the original on 21 August 2010. Retrieved 26 December 2006.
- Bournoutian, George A. (2016). The 1820 Russian Survey of the Khanate of Shirvan: A Primary Source on the Demography and Economy of an Iranian Province prior to its Annexation by Russia. Gibb Memorial Trust. p. xvii. ISBN 978-1909724808.
Serious historians and geographers agree that after the fall of the Safavids, and especially from the mid-eighteenth century, the territory of the South Caucasus was composed of the khanates of Ganja, Kuba, Shirvan, Baku, Talesh, Sheki, Karabagh, Nakhchivan and Yerevan, all of which were under Iranian suzerainty.
- "KM.RU – новости, экономика, автомобили, наука и техника, кино, музыка, спорт, игры, анекдоты, курсы валют | KM.RU". www.km.ru. Archived from the original on 13 June 2003.
- Muriel Atkin. The Strange Death of Ibrahim Khalil Khan of Qarabagh. Iranian Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Winter – Spring, 1979), pp. 79–107
- George A. Bournoutian. A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-e Qarabagh. Mazda Publishers, 1994. ISBN 1-56859-011-3, 978-1-568-59011-0
- Tim Potier. M1 Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal Archived 9 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001, p. 2. ISBN 90-411-1477-7.
- Leonidas Themistocles Chrysanthopoulos. Caucasus Chronicles: Nation-building and Diplomacy in Armenia, 1993–1994 Archived 9 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Gomidas Institute, 2002, p. 8. ISBN 1-884630-05-7.
- The British and Foreign Review Archived 9 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine. J. Ridgeway and sons, 1838, p. 422.
- Taru Bahl, M.H. Syed. Encyclopaedia of the Muslim World. Anmol Publications PVT, 2003 p. 34. ISBN 81-261-1419-3.
- Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd (Russian: Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2-m), Tbilisi, 1866.
- Bournoutian, George A. A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18
- Krüger, Heiko (June 2014). "Nagorno-Karabakh". academic.oup.com. pp. 214–232. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198702375.003.0011. ISBN 978-0-19-870237-5. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
- Gardner, Anne-Marie (2011), "Nagorno-Karabakh: Balancing Standards?", Democratic Governance and Non-State Actors, New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 71–103, doi:10.1057/9780230117600_4, ISBN 978-1-349-29153-3, archived from the original on 23 September 2023, retrieved 2 August 2023
- ^ "The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 16 February 2006., New England Center for International Law & Policy
- "Circular by colonel D. I. Shuttleworth of the British Command". Archived from the original on 7 May 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2006.
- Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal by Tim Potier. ISBN 90-411-1477-7
- Walker. The Survival of a Nation. pp. 285–90
- "Q&A with Arsène Saparov: No Evidence that Stalin "gave" Karabakh to Azerbaijan". armenian.usc.edu. 10 December 2018. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2020.
Of all the documents I have seen, there is no direct evidence of Stalin doing or saying something in those 12 days in the summer of 1921 that . A lot of people just assume that since Stalin was an evil person, it would be typical of someone evil to take a decision like that.
- Potier, Tim (2001). Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, A Legal Appraisal. The Hague, Netherlands: Kluwer Law International. p. 5. ISBN 9041114777.
- Audrey L. Altstadt. The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule. Hoover Press, 1992. ISBN 0817991824, 9780817991821
- Black Garden, Thomas de Waal, page 292
- Black Garden Thomas de Waal, p.15
- Elizabeth Fuller, Nagorno-Karabakh: The Death and Casualty Toll to Date, RL 531/88, 14 December 1988, pp. 1–2
- ^ de Waal, Thomas (2003). Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-1945-7.
- Lieberman, Benjamin (2006). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. pp. 284–92. ISBN 1-5666-3646-9.
- RESOLUTION on the situation in Soviet Armenia Archived 8 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine page 21
- The Encyclopedia of World History. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2001. p. 906.
- Roeder, Philip G. (2007). Where nation-states come from: institutional change in the age of nationalism. Princeton University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-691-13467-3. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
- Human Rights Watch. Playing the "Communal Card". Communal Violence and Human Rights Archived 11 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine: "By early 1992 full-scale fighting broke out between Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijani authorities." / "...Karabakh Armenian forces—often with the support of forces from the Republic of Armenia—conducted large-scale operations..." / "Because 1993 witnessed unrelenting Karabakh Armenian offensives against the Azerbaijani provinces surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh..." / "Since late 1993, the conflict has also clearly become internationalized: in addition to Azerbaijani and Karabakh Armenian forces, troops from the Republic of Armenia participate on the Karabakh side in fighting inside Azerbaijan and in Nagorno-Karabakh."
- Human Rights Watch. The former Soviet Union. Human Rights Developments Archived 18 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine: "In 1992 the conflict grew far more lethal as both sides—the Azerbaijani National Army and free-lance militias fighting along with it, and ethnic Armenians and mercenaries fighting in the Popular Liberation Army of Artsakh—began."
- United States Institute of Peace. Nagorno-Karabakh Searching for a Solution. Foreword Archived 2 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine: "Nagorno-Karabakh’s armed forces have not only fortified their region but have also occupied a large swath of surrounding Azeri territory in the hopes of linking the enclave to Armenia."
- United States Institute of Peace. Sovereignty after Empire. Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union. Hopes and Disappointments: Case Studies Archived 1 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine "Meanwhile, the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh was gradually transforming into a full-scale war between Azeri and Karabakh irregulars, the latter receiving support from Armenia." / "Azerbaijan's objective advantage in terms of human and economic potential has so far been offset by the superior fighting skills and discipline of Nagorno-Karabakh's forces. After a series of offensives, retreats, and counteroffensives, Nagorno-Karabakh now controls a sizable portion of Azerbaijan proper ... including the Lachin corridor."
- "By Giving Karabakh Lands to Azerbaijan, Conflict Would Have Ended in '97, Says Ter-Petrosian". Asbarez. Asbarez. 19 April 2011. Archived from the original on 1 October 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- "Ter-Petrosyan on the BBC: Karabakh conflict could have been resolved by giving certain territories to Azerbaijan". ArmeniaNow. ArmeniaNow. 19 April 2011. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- "Первый президент Армении о распаде СССР и Карабахе". BBC. BBC. 18 April 2011. Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
- Human Rights Watch. Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh. December 1994, p. xiii, ISBN 1-56432-142-8, citing: Natsional'nyi Sostav Naseleniya SSSR, po dannym Vsesoyuznyi Perepisi Naseleniya 1989 g., Moskva, "Finansy i Statistika"
- Azerbaijan closes last of emergency camps Archived 24 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, UNHCR
- "Armenia, Azerbaijan clash as ceasefire fails to stick". Dawn.com, Agence France-Presse. 12 October 2020. Archived from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
- de Waal, Thomas (2003). Black Garden (PDF). New York University Press. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
- No End in Sight to Fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh Archived 16 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine by Ivan Watson/National Public Radio. Weekend Edition Sunday, 23 April 2006.
- "Проект заявления по Нагорному Карабаху ожидает одобрения парламентских сил Армении". Archived from the original on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
- Резолюция ПАСЕ по Карабаху: что дальше? Archived 25 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. BBC Russian.
- Resolutions on Political Affairs Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine. The Thirty-Fourth Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers.
- Resolutions on Political Affairs Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Islamic Summit Conference. 13–14 May 2008
- "A/RES/62/243 – E – A/RES/62/243 -Desktop". undocs.org. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
- "Resolutions on Political Issues Adopted by the Council of Foreign Ministers (Session of Shared Vision of a More Secure and Prosperous Islamic World) Dushanbe, Republic of Tajikistan 4–6 Jamadul Thani 1431H (18–20 May 2010)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016.
- "FM: Azerbaijan welcomes resolution 'Need for EU Strategy for South Caucasus' adopted by European Parliament Archived 19 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine." Trend.az. 21 May 2010.
- "EU's Ashton Says Nagorno-Karabakh Elections Illegal Archived 7 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine." RFE/RL. 21 May 2010.
- Bulgarian MEPs Urge EU to Be Proactive in South Caucasus Archived 10 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
- "Inhabitants of frontier regions of Azerbaijan are deliberately deprived of water". Parliamentary Assembly of Council of Europe. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
- "PACE Adopts Anti-Armenian Measure, Rejects Another". Armenian Weekly. Archived from the original on 31 August 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
- "Resolution: Inhabitants of frontier regions of Azerbaijan are deliberately deprived of water". sarsang.org. Archived from the original on 15 March 2017.
- "Azerbaijan military threat to Armenia Archived 25 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine." The Daily Telegraph. 22 November 2009. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
- Hodge, Nathan (2 April 2016). "A Dozen Dead in Heavy Fighting Reported in Nagorno-Karabakh". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
- "Dozens killed in Nagorno-Karabakh clashes". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
- "UN Security Council calls for immediate end to fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh". France 24. 30 September 2020. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
- "Russia Steps In To End War Between 2 Former Soviet Republics". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 10 November 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2020.
- "Ethnic Armenian forces confirm loss of Karabakh's second city, say enemy nearing capital". Reuters. 9 November 2020. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
- "Азербайджанские "активисты" блокируют дорогу из Карабаха в Армению. Одновременно в Карабахе пропал газ" [Azerbaijani "activists" are blocking the road from Karabakh to Armenia. At the same time, gas disappeared in Karabakh]. BBC News Русская Служба (in Russian). Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
- Loe, Catherine (27 April 2023). "Azerbaijan sets up checkpoints on the Lachin corridor". Economist Intelligence Unit. Archived from the original on 2 August 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
The move has increased the blockade of Nagorny Karabakh...A checkpoint on the border would give Azerbaijan the ability to stop any cars travelling between Armenia and Nagorny Karabakh.
- Hauer, Neil (31 July 2023). "Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low". www.intellinews.com. Archived from the original on 14 August 2023. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
Occasional ICRC and Russian traffic continued to pass until June 15, at which point Azerbaijan halted all humanitarian deliveries. No food, medicine or fuel has entered Nagorno-Karabakh since.
- Gavin, Gabriel (19 December 2022). "Supplies begin to run low as Nagorno-Karabakh blockade continues". eurasianet.org. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
- Kitachayev, Bashir (16 December 2022). "Azerbaijani roadblock cuts tens of thousands off from food, fuel and medicine". openDemocracy. Archived from the original on 26 February 2023. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
- "New Troubles in Nagorno-Karabakh: Understanding the Lachin Corridor Crisis". www.crisisgroup.org. 22 May 2023. Archived from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
While travellers were already few due to the blockade, the ICRC reports that its ability to get people across has been curtailed , leaving only the Russian peacekeepers to facilitate trips to Armenia for medical care.
- "June Alerts and May Trends 2023". www.crisisgroup.org. 31 May 2023. Archived from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
Checkpoint on Lachin corridor faced fierce opposition amid humanitarian crisis....Azerbaijani military consolidated blockade, however, leading to even fewer crossings and reduced transportation of goods.
- Shahverdyan, Lilit (12 January 2023). "Blackouts and food rationing as Karabakh blockade enters second month". Eurasianet. Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
But the supplies are meager compared to the pre-blockade delivery of 12,000 tons of goods monthly, and barely meet the needs of the local population, which Armenian sources estimate at around 120,000.
- "Nagorno-Karabakh reports gas cut for second time since start of blockade". OC Media. 17 January 2023. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
- "Nagorno-Karabakh again faces shortages as Azerbaijan closes Lachin Corridor". OC Media. 20 June 2023. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
- "Food shortages and fear as peacekeepers refused entry to Nagorno-Karabakh". OC Media. Archived from the original on 22 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
- "Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low". www.intellinews.com. 31 July 2023. Archived from the original on 14 August 2023. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
- "Russian-mediated ceasefire announced in Nagorno-Karabakh". Armenpress. 20 September 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
- Tim Lister; Anna Chernova; Christian Edwards; Radina Gigova (21 September 2023). "Azerbaijan says it has retaken breakaway Armenian enclave after separatists surrender". CNN.com. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
- "Ethnic Armenians accept Russia ceasefire plan after Azerbaijan offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh". CNN. 20 September 2023. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
- "BREAKING: Stepanakert to disband army in ceasefire deal". CIVILNET. 20 September 2023. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
- "МВД Нагорного Карабаха обвинило Азербайджан в нарушении договора о прекращении огня". Meduza. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
- "Aserbaidschan soll Waffenruhe gebrochen haben". Rheinische Post. 21 September 2023. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
- "Nagorno Karabakh Republic – Country Overview". www.nkrusa.org. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2006.
- ^ Zürcher, Christoph (2007). The post-Soviet wars: rebellion, ethnic conflict, and nationhood in the Caucasus. NYU Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0814797099.
- "Nagorno-Karabakh". Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
- DeRouen, Karl R., ed. (2007). Civil wars of the world: major conflicts since World War II, Volume 2. ABC-CLIO. p. 150. ISBN 978-1851099191.
- ^ Beglaryan, Ashot. "The population of Nagorno-Karabakh for a year. Union of Armenians of Russia - Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Excursion into history". losevskaya.ru. Stepanakert. Archived from the original on 31 October 2022. Retrieved 31 October 2022.
- ^ Javanshir, Mirza Jamal; Adigözal Beg, Mirza (2004). Two Chronicles On The History of Karabagh (PDF). Introduction and annotated translation by George A. Bournoutian. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers. pp. 6, 21 & 24. ISBN 1-56859-179-9.
- Shnirelman, Victor A. (2001). "The Value of the Past: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia" (PDF). Senri Ethnological Studies (57). Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology: 153. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2022.
- ^ Herzig, Edmund; Kurkchiyan, Marina (2005). The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity. London: RoutledgeCurzon. pp. 66 & 121. ISBN 0-203-00493-0. OCLC 229988654.
- Bournoutian, George (2017). "The Population of the South Caucasus according to the 1897 General Census of the Russian Empire". Iran & the Caucasus. 21 (3): 330. doi:10.1163/1573384X-20170307. ISSN 1609-8498. JSTOR 26548902. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
- ^ Bassiouni, M. Cherif, ed. (2010). The Pursuit of International Criminal Justice A World Study on Conflicts, Victimization, and Post-conflict Justice. Vol. 2. Antwerp: Intersentia. p. 839. ISBN 978-94-000-0017-9. OCLC 497573622. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
- Wright, John F. R. (1996). Transcaucasian Boundaries. Psychology Press. p. 99. ISBN 9780203214473. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
- Libaridian, Gerard J., ed. (1988). The Karabagh File (PDF) (1st ed.). Toronto: Cambridge. p. 29. ISBN 0-916431-26-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 February 2022.
- Cory D., Welt (2004). Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 77. OCLC 59823134. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2022.
Out of a population of approximately 20,000, at least several hundred were killed; the rest were forced to flee. In the fighting that followed, several nearby villages were also razed.
- "Шушинская резня 1920 года" [Shusha massacre of 1920]. lazarevsky.club. 13 March 2020. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
- Bagdasaryan, Gegam (March 2015). "Три нераскрытых обстоятельства резни армян в Шуши" [Three unsolved circumstances of the massacre of Armenians in Shushi]. theanalyticon.com (in Russian). Stepanakert. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
- Hovannisian, Richard G. (1996). The Republic of Armenia. Vol. 3. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 0-520-01805-2.
- ^ Cory D., Welt (2004). Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 116. OCLC 59823134. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2022.
- Административное деление АССР... 1. Районы, сельсоветы, списки, населенных мест с указанием численности населения, национального состава числа хозяйств по состоянию на 1/1-1933 г. 2. Список колхозов, совхозов, МТС и МТФ. 3. Карты, районов на тюрк. и рус. яз. (отдельно) - Азербайджанская ССР Управление народно-хозяйственного учета (in Russian). 1933. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
- Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Vol. 17. New York: Macmillan. 1973. p. 301.
- Geldenhuys, Deon (2009). Contested States in World Politics. Vol. 3. Berkeley: Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 97. ISBN 9780230234185.
- "Stuart Kaufman". University of Delaware. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
- Kaufman, Stuart J. (2001). Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. Ithaca, New York. pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-1-5017-0199-3. OCLC 1160511946.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - "Nagorno-Karabakh: Armenia and Azerbaijan shaky ceasefire in force". BBC News. 10 October 2020. Archived from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
- "Перепись населения АзССР в 1921 г." [Census of the population of the AzSSR in 1921]. karabagh.am. Archived from the original on 26 May 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- Всесоюзная перепись населения 1926 года. Национальный состав населения по регионам республик СССР Archived 5 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Демоскоп
- Всесоюзная перепись населения 1939 года. Распределение городского и сельского населения областей союзных республик по национальности и полу Archived 5 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Демоскоп
- Всесоюзная перепись населения 1959 года. Городское и сельское население областей республик СССР (кроме РСФСР) по полу и национальности Archived 5 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Демоскоп
- Всесоюзная перепись населения 1970 года. Городское и сельское население областей республик СССР (кроме РСФСР) по полу и национальности Archived 5 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Демоскоп
- Всесоюзная перепись населения 1979 года. Городское и сельское население областей республик СССР (кроме РСФСР) по полу и национальности Archived 5 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Демоскоп
- Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года.Распределение городского и сельского населения областей республик СССР по полу и национальности Archived 5 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Демоскоп
- "Airports in Azerbaijan". Worldaerodata.com. Archived from the original on 4 August 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
Bibliography
- Ali; Ekinciel (1 August 2015). Karabakh Diary (1 ed.). Russia: Sage. ISBN 9786059932196. Archived from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
Further reading
- Tsibenko, Veronika (2018). "Karabakh, Nagorno". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
- Torres, Ricardo Juan (2022). "The role of Nagorno-Karabakh in the shaping of Armenian and Azeri identity". Consejo Argentino para las Relaciones Internacionales (CARI).
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help)
External links
- Articles and Photography on Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) from UK Photojournalist Russell Pollard
- All UN Security Council resolutions on Nagorno-Karabakh, courtesy U.S. State department
- Nagorno-Karabakh Agreement of 2 November 2008 and country profile from BBC News Online
- Article on the 10 December Referendum from Russia Profile
- The conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh region dealt with by the OSCE Minsk Conference — Report by rapporteur David Atkinson presented to Political Affairs Committee of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
- Conciliation Resources – Accord issue: The limits of leadership – Elites and societies in the Nagorny Karabakh peace process also key texts & agreements and chronology (in English & Russian)
- Independence of Kosovo and the Nagorno-Karabakh Issue Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Interview with Thomas De Waal
- Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty. Nagorno-Karabakh: Timeline Of The Long Road To Peace
- Resolution #1416 from the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
- USIP — Nagorno-Karabakh Searching for a Solution: Key points, by Patricia Carley, Publication of the United States Institute of Peace (USIP)
- USIP — Sovereignty after Empire Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union. Case Studies: Nagorno-Karabakh. by Galina Starovoitova, Publication of the United States Institute of Peace (USIP)
- Photo Series Nagorno-Karabakh 2008–2011 – daily life, front line, mine clearance, culture, religion.
Territorial disputes in West Asia | |
---|---|
Parties involved shown in parentheses after each entry | |
Land | |
| |
|