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			{{Short description|American linguist and activist (born 1928)}}
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			{{Use American English|date=July 2019}}
			{{Infobox academic
			| name = Noam Chomsky
			| image = Noam Chomsky portrait 2017 retouched.jpg
			| alt = A photograph of Noam Chomsky
			| caption = Chomsky in 2017
			| birth_name = Avram Noam Chomsky
			| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1928|12|7}}
			| birth_place = ], Pennsylvania, U.S.
			| father = ]
			| thesis_title = Transformational Analysis
			| thesis_url = https://www.proquest.com/docview/89172813
			| thesis_year = 1955
			| doctoral_advisor = ]{{sfn|Partee|2015|p=328}}
			| doctoral_students = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}} | ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]}}
			| known_for =
			| influences = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}}
			| <!-- LINGUISTIC & PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES -->
			<!-- per the infobox documentation, each name must be explained in the article's prose and cite a third-party source; those that are not mentioned in the main text will be removed -->
			{{collapsible list| title = Academic | ], ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Chomsky|1991|p=50}} ], ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=44–45}} ], ],{{sfn|Slife|1993|p=115}} ], ], ],{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=58}} ], ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Chomsky|1991|p=50}} ]{{sfn|Antony|Hornstein|2003|p=295}}
			}}
			<!-- SOCIAL & POLITICAL INFLUENCES -->
	Dr. '''Avram Noam Chomsky''' (born ], ]) is a ] of ] at the ] and creator of the ], a classification of ]s. Outside of his linguistic work, Chomsky is also widely known for his ] ] views, in particular his criticism of the ] of ]s.
			<!-- per the infobox documentation, each name must be explained in the article's prose and cite a third-party source; those that are not mentioned in the main text will be removed -->
			{{collapsible list| title = Political | ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Chomsky|2016}} ], ],{{sfn|Harbord|1994|p=487}} ],{{sfn|Barsky|2007|p=107}} ], ], ],{{sfn|Barsky|2007|p=107}} ], ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Barsky|2007|p=107}} ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Smith|2004|p=185}} ], ],{{sfn|Barsky|2007|p=107}} ], ], ]{{sfn|Barsky|2007|p=107}}
			}}
			}}
			| influenced = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}}
			| <!-- ACADEMIC INFLUENCEES -->
			<!-- per the infobox documentation, each name must be explained in the article's prose and cite a third-party source; those that are not mentioned in the main text will be removed -->
			{{collapsible list| title = In academia | ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Amid the Philosophers}} ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Persson|LaFollette|2013}} ], ],{{sfn|Prickett|2002|p=234}} ],{{sfn|Searle|1972}} ], ]{{sfn|Amid the Philosophers}}
			}}
			<!-- SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCEES -->
	==Biography ==
			<!-- per the infobox documentation, each name must be explained in the article's prose and cite a third-party source; those that are not mentioned in the main text will be removed -->
	Chomsky was born in ], ], the son of ] ] William Chomsky. Starting in ], he studied ] and ] at the ], learning from ], a professor of linguistics whose political views he identifed with.
			{{collapsible list| title = In politics | ], ], ],{{sfn|Adams|2003}} ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Gould|1981}} ], ],{{sfn|Adams|2003}} ],{{sfn|Adams|2003}} ],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jacobinmag.com/2020/03/kyle-kulinski-bernie-bros-secular-talk-joe-rogan-youtube|title=Kyle Kulinski Speaks, the Bernie Bros Listen|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=March 5, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305204651/https://jacobinmag.com/2020/03/kyle-kulinski-bernie-bros-secular-talk-joe-rogan-youtube|url-status=live}}</ref>
			],{{sfn|Adams|2003}} ], ],{{sfn|Keller|2007}} ], ],{{sfn|Adams|2003}} ], ], ]{{sfn|Swartz|2006}}
			}}
			}}
			| signature = Noam Chomsky signature.svg
			| website = {{URL|https://chomsky.info}}
			| spouse = {{Plainlist|
			* {{marriage|]|1949| December 19, 2008|end=died}}
			* {{marriage|Valeria Wasserman|2014}}
			}}
			| children = 3, including ]
			| discipline = ], ], ], ]
			| work_institutions = {{Plainlist|
			* ] (1955–present)
			* ] (1958–1959)
			* ] (2017–present)
			}}
			| education = ] {{awrap|(], ], ])}}
			| awards = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}} | {{indented plainlist|
			* ] (1971)
			* ] (1972)
			* ] (1984)
			* ] (1987, 1989)
			* ] (1988)
			* ] (1996)
			* ] (1999)
			* ] (2011)
			* ] (2014)
			}}
			}}
			| school_tradition = ], ]
			}}
			{{Anarchism US}}
			<!--Basic introduction; who he is-->
			'''Avram Noam Chomsky''' ({{IPAc-en|n|oʊ|m|_|ˈ|tʃ|ɒ|m|s|k|i|audio=Noam Chomsky.ogg}} {{respell|nohm|_|CHOM|skee}}; born December 7, 1928) is an American professor and ] known for his work in ], ], and ]. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics",{{efn|name=father}} Chomsky is also a major figure in ] and one of the founders of the field of ]. He is a laureate professor of linguistics at the ] and an ] emeritus at the ] (MIT). Among the most cited living authors, Chomsky has written more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, and politics. In addition to his work in linguistics, since the 1960s Chomsky has been an influential voice on the ] as a consistent critic of ], ], and ] on political institutions and the media.
			<!--Early life up until 1966-->
	Receiving his ] in linguistics from ] in 1955, Chomsky had conducted most of his research the previous four years at ] as a ]. In his doctoral thesis, he began to develop some of his linguistic ideas, elaborating on them in his ] book ''Syntactic Structures'', perhaps his best known work in linguistic field.
			Born to ] immigrants in ], Chomsky developed an early interest in ] from alternative bookstores in ]. He studied at the ]. During his postgraduate work in the ], Chomsky developed the theory of ] for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work '']'', which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a ] fellow at the ]. He created or co-created the ] theory, the ] theory, the ], and the ]. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic ], and was particularly critical of the work of ].
			<!--Later life post-1967-->
	After receiving his doctorate, Chomsky taught at the ] for 19 years, receiving the first award from the Ferrari P. Ward Chair of Modern Languages and linguistics. It was during this time that Chomsky became more publicly engaged in ], arguing against American involvement in the ] from around ]. In ], Chomsky published ''American Power and the New Mandarins'', a book of essays also on the Vietnam War. Since that time, Chomsky has become well known for his political views, speaking on politics all over the world, and writing several other books on the subject. His beliefs, broadly classified as ], have earned him both a large following among the left, as well as many detractors on all sides of the ]. He has continued to write and teach on linguistics also.
			An outspoken ], which he saw as an act of ], in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his ] essay "]". Becoming associated with the ], he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President ]'s ]. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the ]. In collaboration with ], Chomsky later articulated the ] of ] in '']'', and worked to expose the ]. His defense of unconditional ], including that of ], generated significant controversy in the ] of the 1980s. Chomsky's commentary on the ] and the ] also generated controversy. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the ] and supporting the ]. An ], Chomsky considers ] to be worse than ],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/blog/2014/8/8/noam_chomsky_what_israel_is_doing|title=Noam Chomsky: Israel's Actions in Palestine are "Much Worse Than Apartheid" in South Africa|website=Democracy Now!}}</ref> and criticizes U.S. support for Israel.
			<!--Brief assessment of Chomsky's reception and legacy:-->
	== Contributions to linguistics ==
			Chomsky is widely recognized as having helped to spark the ] in the ], contributing to the development of a new ] framework for the study of language and the mind. Chomsky remains a leading critic of ], contemporary ], U.S. involvement and Israel's role in the ], and ]. Chomsky and his ideas remain highly influential in the ] and ] movements. Since 2017, he has been Agnese Nelms Haury Chair in the Agnese Nelms Haury Program in Environment and Social Justice at the ].
	''Syntactic Structures'' was a distillation of his book ] (1955,75) in which he introduces ]s. The theory takes utterances (words, phrases, and sentences) to correspond to abstract "surface structures," which in turn correspond to more abstract "deep structures." (The hard and fast distinction between surface and deep structure is absent in current versions of the theory.) Transformational rules, along with ] rules and other structural principles, govern both the creation and interpretation of utterances. With a limited set of grammar rules and a finite set of terms, man is able to produce an infinite number of sentences, including sentences nobody has ever said before. The capability to structure our utterances in this way is ], a part of the genetic endowment of human beings, and is called ]. We are largely unconscious of these structural principles, as we are of most other biological and ] properties.
			==Life==
	Recent theories of Chomsky's (such as his ]) make strong claims regarding universal grammar &mdash; that the grammatical principles underlying languages are completely fixed and innate, and the differences among the world's languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain (such as the ], which indicates whether an explicit subject is always required, as in English, or can be optionally dropped, as in Spanish), which are often likened to switches. (Hence the term ], often given to this approach.) In this view, a child learning a language need only acquire the necessary ] items (words) and ]s, and determine the appropriate parameter settings, which can be done based on a few key examples.
			===Childhood: 1928–1945===
			Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the ] neighborhood of ], Pennsylvania.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=9|3a1=McGilvray|3y=2014|3p=3}} His parents, ] and Elsie Simonofsky, were ]ish immigrants.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=9–10|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=11}} William had fled the ] in 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimore ]s and Hebrew elementary schools before attending university.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=9}} After moving to Philadelphia, William became principal of the ] religious school and joined the ] faculty. He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be "well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, concerned about improving and enhancing the world, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all", a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=11}} Elsie, who also taught at Mikveh Israel, shared her leftist politics and care for social issues with her sons.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=11}}
			Noam's only sibling, David Eli Chomsky (1934–2021), was born five years later, and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=11}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Dr. David Chomsky, a cardiologist who made house calls, dies at 86|url=https://www.inquirer.com/obituaries/david-chomsky-obituary-philadelphia-doctor-noam-judith-20210712.html|date=July 12, 2021|first=Valerie|last=Russ|newspaper=]|access-date=September 10, 2021|archive-date=July 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712200201/https://www.inquirer.com/obituaries/david-chomsky-obituary-philadelphia-doctor-noam-judith-20210712.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The brothers were close, though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive. They were raised Jewish, being taught ] and regularly involved with discussing the political theories of ]; the family was particularly influenced by the ] writings of ].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=11–13}} He faced ] as a child, particularly from Philadelphia's Irish and German communities.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=15}}
	This approach is motivated by the astonishing pace at which children learn languages, the similar steps followed by children all across the world when learning languages, and the fact that children make certain characteristic errors as they learn their first language, whereas other seemingly logical kinds of errors never occur (and, according to Chomsky, should be attested if a purely general, rather than language-specific, learning mechanism is being employed).
			Chomsky attended the independent, ] ]{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=15–17|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=12|4a1=McGilvray|4y=2014|4p=3}} and Philadelphia's ], where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies, but was troubled by the school's hierarchical and domineering teaching methods.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=21–22|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=14|4a1=McGilvray|4y=2014|4p=4}} He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College, where his father taught.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=15–17}}
	Chomsky's ideas have had a strong influence on researchers investigating ] in children, but most researchers who work in this area do not support Chomsky's theories, often preferring ] or ] theories based around general processing mechanisms in the brain. However, this is true of researchers in almost any branch of linguistics, and there is ongoing work on language acquisition from a Chomskyan perspective.
			Chomsky has described his parents as "normal ]" with ], but relatives involved in the ] exposed him to ] and ].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=14|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=11, 14–15}} He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=23|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=12, 14–15, 67|3a1=McGilvray|3y=2014|3p=4}} Chomsky himself often visited left-wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city, voraciously reading political literature.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=23}} He became absorbed in the story of the 1939 ] and suppression of the ] movement, writing his first article on the topic at the age of 10.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=16–19|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=13}} That he came to identify with anarchism first rather than another leftist movement, he described as a "lucky accident".{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=18}} Chomsky was firmly ] by his early teens.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=18}}
	===Generative grammar===
	The Chomskyan approach towards syntax, often termed ], though quite popular, has been challenged by many, especially those working outside of the United States. Chomskyan syntactic analyses are often highly abstract, and are based heavily on careful investigation of the border between grammatical and ungrammatical constructs in a language. (Compare this to the so-called ] that play a similarly important role in mathematics.) Such grammaticality judgments can only be made accurately by a ], however, and thus for pragmatic reasons such linguists usually (but by no means exclusively) focus on their own native languages or languages in which they are fluent, usually English, French, German, Dutch, Italian, Japanese or one of the Chinese languages. Sometimes generative grammar analyses break down when applied to languages which have not previously been studied, and many changes in generative grammar have occurred due to an increase in the number of languages analysed. However, the claims made about language universals have become stronger rather than weaker over time; for example Kayne's suggestion in the 1990s that all languages have an underlying Subject-Verb-Object word order would have seemed implausible in the 1960s. One of the prime motivations behind an alternative approach, the ] or ] (often associated with ]), is to base hypotheses of linguistic universals on the study of as wide a variety of the world's languages as possible, classifying the variation seen, and forming theories based on the results of this classification. The Chomskyan approach is too in-depth and reliant on native speaker knowledge to follow this method, though it has over time been applied to a broad range of languages.
	===Chomsky hierarchy===		===University: 1945–1955===
			] married Chomsky in 1949.]]
	Chomsky is famous for investigating various kinds of ], and whether or not they might be capable of capturing key properties of human language. His ] partitions ]s into classes with increasing expressive power, i.e. each successive class can generate a broader set of formal languages than the one before. Interestingly, Chomsky argues that modelling some aspects of human language requires a more complex formal grammar (as measured by the Chomsky hierarchy) than modeling others. For example, while a ] is powerful enough to model English ], it is not powerful enough to model English ]. In addition to being relevant in linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy has also become important in ] (especially in ] construction), as it has important ties to and isomorphisms with ].
			In 1945, at the age of 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at the ], where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learning ].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=47|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=16}} Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=47}} Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to a ] in ],{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=17}} but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the linguist ], whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=48–51|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=18–19, 31}} Chomsky's ] honors thesis, "Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew", applied Harris's methods to the language.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=51–52|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=32}} Chomsky revised this thesis for his ], which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=51–52|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=33}} He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage of ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=33}}
			From 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was a member of the ] at ], where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=79|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=20}} Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=34}} Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopher ] was based there. Both Quine and a visiting philosopher, ] of the ], strongly influenced Chomsky.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=33–34}} In 1952, Chomsky published his first academic article in '']''.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=34}} Highly critical of the established ] currents in linguistics, in 1954, he presented his ideas at lectures at the ] and ].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=81}} He had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas on ]; he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it, and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part of '']''.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=83–85|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=36|3a1=McGilvray|3y=2014|3pp=4–5}} Harvard professor ] was impressed by Chomsky's thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers in ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=38}} Chomsky's doctorate exempted him from ], which was otherwise due to begin in 1955.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=36}}
	His seminal work in ] was '']''. He published it together with ]. This work is considered outdated (though it has recently been reprinted), and he does not publish on phonology anymore.
			In 1947, Chomsky began a romantic relationship with ], whom he had known since early childhood. They married in 1949.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=13, 48, 51–52|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=18–19}} After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to the ] area of Boston and remained there until 1965, when they relocated to the suburb of ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=20}} The couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe in 1953.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=20–21}} He enjoyed living in ]'s ] ] while in Israel, but was appalled by his interactions with Jewish nationalism, ] and, within the kibbutz's leftist community, ].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=82|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=20–21}} On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journal '']'' and became enamored with the ideas of ], a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link between ] and ].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=24|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=13}} Chomsky also read other political thinkers: the anarchists ] and ], democratic socialists ], ], and ], and works by Marxists ], ], and ].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=24–25}} His politics were reaffirmed by Orwell's depiction of ]'s functioning anarchist society in '']'' (1938).{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=26}} Chomsky read the leftist journal '']'', which furthered his interest in anarchism,{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=34–35}} and the ] periodical '']'', though he rejected the Marxist orthodoxy of its editor, ].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=36}}
	==Contributions to psychology==
	Chomsky's work in linguistics has had major implications for ] and its fundamental direction in the ]. His theory of a ] was a direct challenge to the established ] theories of the time and had major consequences for understanding how ] is learned by children and what, exactly, is the ability to interpret language. The more basic principles of this theory (though not necessarily the stronger claims made by the ] approach described above) are now generally accepted.
			===Early career: 1955–1966===
	In ], Chomsky published a long-circulated critique of ]'s '']'', a book in which the leader of the ] psychologists that had dominated psychology in the first half of the 20th century argued that language was merely a "behavior." Skinner argued that language, like any other behavior &mdash; from a ] salivating in anticipation of dinner, to a master ] performance &mdash; could be attributed to "training by reward and penalty over time." Language, according to Skinner, was completly learned by cues and ] from the world around the language-learner.
			Chomsky befriended two linguists at the ] (MIT)—] and ]—the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955. At MIT, Chomsky spent half his time on a ] project and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xv|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=86–87|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3pp=38–40}} He described MIT as open to experimentation where he was free to pursue his idiosyncratic interests.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=87}} MIT promoted him to the position of ] in 1957, and over the next year he was also a visiting professor at ].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=91}} The Chomskys had their first child, ], that same year.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=91|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=22}} He also published his first book on linguistics, '']'', a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris–] trend in the field.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=88–91|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=40|3a1=McGilvray|3y=2014|3p=5|4a1=Chomsky|4y=2022}} Responses to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused "significant upheaval" in the discipline.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=88–91}} The linguist ] later asserted that ''Syntactic Structures'' "revolutionized the scientific study of language".{{sfn|Lyons|1978|p=1}} From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a ] fellow at the ] in ].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=84}}
			] at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); Chomsky began working at MIT in 1955.]]
	Chomsky's critique of Skinner's methodology and basic assumptions paved the way for a revolution against the behaviorist doctrine that had governed psychology. In his 1966 '']'' and subsequent works, Chomsky laid out an explanation of human language faculties that has become the model for investigation in other areas of psychology. Much of the present conception of how the mind works draws directly from ideas that found their first persuasive author of modern times in Chomsky.
			Chomsky's provocative critique of ], who viewed language as learned behavior, and its challenge to the dominant behaviorist paradigm thrust Chomsky into the limelight. Chomsky argued that behaviorism underplayed the role of human creativity in learning language and overplayed the role of external conditions in influencing verbal behavior.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=6|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=96–99|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=41|4a1=McGilvray|4y=2014|4p=5|5a1=MacCorquodale|5y=1970|5pp=83–99}}<!-- are all of these necessary? Barsky alone seems sufficient --> He proceeded to found MIT's graduate program in linguistics with Halle. In 1961, Chomsky ] and became a ] in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=101–102, 119|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=23}} He was appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth ], held in 1962 in ], which established him as the ''de facto'' spokesperson of American linguistics.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=102}} Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military-sponsored project to teach computers to understand natural English commands from military generals.{{sfn|Knight|2018a}}
	There are three key ideas. First, is that the mind is "cognitive", or that the mind actually contains mental states, beliefs, doubts, and so on. The former view had denied even this, arguing that there were only "stimulus-response" relationships like "If you ask me if I want X, I will say yes". By contrast, Chomsky showed that the common way of understanding the mind, as having things like beliefs and even unconscious mental states, had to be right. Second, he argued that large parts of what the adult mind can do are "innate". While no child is born automatically able to speak a language, all are born with a powerful language learning ability which allows them to ] several languages very quickly in their early years. Subsequent psychologists have extended this thesis far beyond language; the mind is no longer considered a "blank slate" at birth.
			Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including in '']'' (1965), ''Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar'' (1966), and '']'' (1966).{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=103}} Along with Halle, he also edited the '']'' series of books for ].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=104}} As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work, Chomsky lectured at the ], in 1966.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=120}} These lectures were published as '']'' in 1968.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=122}} In the late 1960s, a high-profile intellectual rift later known as the ] developed between Chomsky and some of his colleagues and doctoral students—including ], ], ], and ]—who contended that Chomsky's syntax-based, interpretivist linguistics did not properly account for semantic context (]). A post hoc assessment of this period concluded that the opposing programs ultimately were complementary, each informing the other.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=149–152}}
	Finally, Chomsky made the concept of "]" a critical feature of the mind's cognitive architecture. The mind is composed of an array of interacting, specialized subsystems with limited flows of inter-communication. This model contrasts sharply with the old idea that any piece of information in the mind could be accessed by any other cognitive process (optical illusions, for example, cannot be "turned off" even when they are known to be illusions).
			===Anti-war activism and dissent: 1967–1975===
	The 1984 Nobel Prize laureate in Medicine and Physiology, Niels K. Jerne, used Chomsky's '''generative''' model to explain the human immune system,
			{{Quote box
	equating "components of a generative grammar ... with various features of
			| width = 25em
	protein structures". The title of Jerne's Stockholm Nobel lecture was "The Generative Grammar of the Immune System".
			| quote = t does not require very far-reaching, specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam. And, in fact, to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding. It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one's analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise.
			| source = —Chomsky on the Vietnam War{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=114}}<!--Does the secondary source cite the primary source? It would be better to cite the primary source if a direct quotation-->
			}}
			Chomsky joined ] in 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=78}} His 1967 critique of U.S. involvement, "]", among other contributions to '']'', debuted Chomsky as a public dissident.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=120, 122|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=83}} This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky's first political book, '']''.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=xvii|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=123|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=83}} He followed this with further political books, including ''At War with Asia'' (1970), ''The Backroom Boys'' (1973), '']'' (1973), and ''Peace in the Middle East?'' (1974), published by ].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1pp=xvi–xvii|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=163|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3p=87}} These publications led to Chomsky's association with the American ] movement,{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=5|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2p=123}} though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectuals ] and ] and preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=134–135}} Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=162–163}}
			Chomsky also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students who ], and was arrested while participating in an ] ] outside the Pentagon.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=5|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=127–129}} During this time, Chomsky co-founded the anti-war collective ] with ], ], ], and ].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=5|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=127–129|3a1=Sperlich|3y=2006|3pp=80–81}} Although he questioned the objectives of the ],{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=121–122, 131}} Chomsky regularly gave lectures to student activist groups and, with his colleague Louis Kampf, ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative-dominated ] department.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=121|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=78}} When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT, Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT's oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=121–122, 140–141|2a1=Albert|2y=2006|2p=98|3a1=Knight|3y=2016|3p=34}} Chomsky has acknowledged that his MIT lab's funding at this time came from the military.{{sfn|Chomsky|1996|p=102}} He later said he considered resigning from MIT during the Vietnam War.{{sfn|Allott|Knight|Smith|2019|p=62}} There has since been a wide-ranging debate about what effects Chomsky's employment at MIT had on his political and linguistic ideas.{{sfnm|1a1=Hutton|1y=2020|1p=32|2a1=Harris|2y=2021|2pp=399–400, 426, 454}}
	== Criticism of science culture==
	Chomsky has written strong refutations of ] and ] criticisms of science:
			{{external media
			| topic = Chomsky participating in the anti-Vietnam War ], October 21, 1967
			| image1 =
			| image2 =
			}}<!--Is this media of the same march at which he was arrested? If so, making that connection clearer would improve the value to readers.-->
			Chomsky's anti-war activism led to his arrest on multiple occasions and he was on President ].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=124|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=80}} Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience, and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or joblessness.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=123–124|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=22}} Chomsky's scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=143}} In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam's ] and toured war refugee camps in ]. In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of the ].{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=153|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=24–25, 84–85}}
	:"I have spent a lot of my life working on questions such as these, using the only methods I know of; those condemned here as "science," "rationality," "logic," and so on. I therefore read the papers with some hope that they would help me "transcend" these limitations, or perhaps suggest an entirely different course. I'm afraid I was disappointed. Admittedly, that may be my own limitation. Quite regularly, "my eyes glaze over" when I read polysyllabic discourse on the themes of poststructuralism and postmodernism; what I understand is largely truism or error, but that is only a fraction of the total word count. True, there are lots of other things I don't understand: the articles in the current issues of math and physics journals, for example. But there is a difference. In the latter case, I know how to get to understand them, and have done so, in cases of particular interest to me; and I also know that people in these fields can explain the contents to me at my level, so that I can gain what (partial) understanding I may want. In contrast, no one seems to be able to explain to me why the latest post-this-and-that is (for the most part) other than truism, error, or gibberish, and I do not know how to proceed."
			Chomsky's work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as he ].{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1pp=xv–xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=120, 143}} He delivered ] at the ], ] (]), and ].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=156}} His appearance in a ] with French ] ] positioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead of ].{{sfn|Greif|2015|pp=312–313}} He continued to publish extensively on linguistics, producing ''Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar'' (1972),{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=143}} an enlarged edition of '']'' (1972),{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=51}} and '']'' (1975).{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=51}} In 1974 Chomsky became a ].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=156}}
			===Edward S. Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980===
	Chomsky notes that critiques of "white male science" are much like the ] and politically motivated attacks against "Jewish physics" used by the ]s to denigrate research done by Jewish scientists during the '']'' movement:
			{{See also|Cambodian genocide denial#Chomsky and Herman|Faurisson affair}}
			]
			In the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=175}} His political talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=167, 170}} In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating with ], who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=157}} Together they wrote '']'', a book that criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media's failure to cover it. Warner Modular published it in 1973, but ] disapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies destroyed.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=160–162|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=86}}
			While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support from ]'s ], an activist-oriented publishing company.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=85}} In 1979, South End published Chomsky and Herman's revised ''Counter-Revolutionary Violence'' as the two-volume '']'',{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=187|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=86}} which compares U.S. media reactions to the ] and the ]. It argues that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=187}} Chomsky's response included two testimonials before the United Nations' ], successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation, and meetings with refugees in ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=103}} Marxist academic ] most prominently publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leader ].{{sfn|Barsky|2007|p=98}} Herman said that the controversy "imposed a serious personal cost" on Chomsky,{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=187–189}} who considered the personal criticism less important than the evidence that "mainstream intelligentsia suppressed or justified the crimes of their own states".{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=190}}
			Chomsky had long publicly criticized ], and ] more generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historian ] to advocate a position widely characterized as ]. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 book {{lang|fr|Mémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire}}.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=179–180|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=61}} Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson,{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=185|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=61}} and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=184}} Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologist ] later published an analysis of the affair titled ''Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers''.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=78}} The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career,{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=185}} especially in France.{{sfnm|Birnbaum|2010|Aeschimann|2010}}
	:"In fact, the entire idea of "white male science" reminds me, I'm afraid, of "Jewish physics." Perhaps it is another inadequacy of mine, but when I read a scientific paper, I can't tell whether the author is white or is male. The same is true of discussion of work in class, the office, or somewhere else. I rather doubt that the non-white, non-male students, friends, and colleagues with whom I work would be much impressed with the doctrine that their thinking and understanding differ from "white male science" because of their "culture or gender and race." I suspect that "surprise" would not be quite the proper word for their reaction." ]
			=== Critique of propaganda and international affairs ===
	== Political views==
			{{external media
	]
			| video1 = , a 1992 documentary exploring Chomsky's work of the same name and its impact
			}}
			In 1985, during the ]—in which the U.S. supported the ] against the ] government—Chomsky traveled to ] to meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=91, 92}} Many of these lectures were published in 1987 as ''On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures''.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=91}} In 1983 he published '']'', which argued that the U.S. had continually used the ] for its own ends.{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=99|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=13}} In 1988, Chomsky visited the ] to witness the impact of Israeli occupation.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=98}}
			Chomsky and Herman's '']'' (1988) outlines their ] for understanding mainstream media. Even in countries without official censorship, they argued, the news is censored through five filters that greatly influence both what and how news is presented.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=160, 202|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2pp=127–134}} The book received ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=136}} In 1989, Chomsky published ''Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies,'' in which he suggests that a worthwhile democracy requires that its citizens undertake intellectual self-defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=138–139}} By the 1980s, Chomsky's students had become prominent linguists who, in turn, expanded and revised his linguistic theories.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=53}}
	Chomsky is one of the most well-known figures of the ] ]. He defines himself in the tradition of ], a political philosophy he summarizes as challenging all forms of hierarchy and attempting to eliminate them if they are unjustified. He especially identifies with the labor-oriented ] current of anarchism. Unlike many ]s, Chomsky does not always object to electoral politics; he has even endorsed candidates for office. He has described himself as a "fellow traveller" to the ] as opposed to a pure anarchist to explain why he is sometimes willing to engage with the state.
			] in 2011]]
	Chomsky has also stated that he considers himself to be a conservative (''Chomsky's Politics'', pp. 188) presumably of the ] variety. He has further defined himself as a ]; although, he notes that his definition of Zionism is considered by most to be ] these days; the result of what he perceives to have been a shift (since the ]) in the meaning of Zionism (''Chomsky Reader''). In a ] Book TV interview, he stated:
			In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=214}} Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=104}} The lectures he gave on the subject were published as ''Powers and Prospects'' in 1996.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=104}} As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalist ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=107}} After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999, the Australian-led ] arrived as a peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under the ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=109–110}}
	:"I have always supported a Jewish ethnic homeland in Palestine. That is different from a Jewish state. There's a strong case to be made for an ethnic homeland, but as to whether there should be a Jewish state, or a Muslim state, or a Christian state, or a white state &mdash; that's entirely another matter."
			Chomsky was widely interviewed after the ] in 2001 as the American public attempted to make sense of the attacks.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=110–111}} He argued that the ensuing ] was not a new development but a continuation of U.S. foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=143}} He gave the ] Memorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001,{{sfn|''The Hindu''|2001}} and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=120}} Chomsky's 2003 '']'' articulated what he called the United States' "imperial ]" and critiqued the ] and other aspects of the War on Terror.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=114–118}} Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=120}}
	Overall, Chomsky is not fond of traditional political titles and categories and prefers to let his views speak for themselves. His main modes of actions include writing magazine articles and books and making speaking engagements. He has a large following of supporters worldwide, leading him to schedule speaking engagements sometimes up to two years in advance. He was one of the main speakers at the ] ].
			During the ], Chomsky supported Scottish independence.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/scottish-independence-noam-chomsky-backing-yes-1538839|title=Scottish independence: Noam Chomsky backing Yes|date=April 24, 2014 }}</ref>
	===Chomsky on terrorism===
	Chomsky clearly distinguishes between the targeting of civilians and the targeting of military personnel or installations. thereby demonstrating that in his view that causes, reasons or goals do not justify acts of terrorism. For Chomsky, terrorism is objective, not relative. He states in his book ''9-11'':
			=== Retirement ===
	:"Wanton killing of innocent civilians is terrorism, not a war against terrorism." (pp. 76)
			Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002,{{sfn|Weidenfeld|2017}} but continued to conduct research and seminars on campus as an ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=10}} That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being a ] and amid international media attention, the ] dropped the charge on the first day.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=25}} During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds' human rights.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=25}} A supporter of the ], he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|pp=112–113, 120}}
	On the efficiency of terrorism:
			] in 2014]]
	:"One is the fact that terrorism works. It doesn't fail. It works. Violence usually works. That's world history. Secondly, it's a very serious analytic error to say, as is commonly done, that terrorism is the weapon of the weak. Like other means of violence, it's primarily a weapon of the strong, overwhelmingly, in fact. It is held to be a weapon of the weak because the strong also control the doctrinal systems and their terror doesn't count as terror. Now that's close to universal. I can't think of a historical exception, even the worst mass murderers view the world that way. So take the Nazis. They weren't carrying out terror in occupied Europe. They were protecting the local population from the terrorisms of the partisans. And like other resistance movements, there was terrorism. The Nazis were carrying out counter terror."
			Chomsky supported the 2011 ], speaking at encampments and publishing on the movement, which he called a reaction to a 30-year ].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Feffer |first1=John |title=Review: Noam Chomsky's 'Occupy' |work=Foreign Policy In Focus |date=April 6, 2012 |url=https://fpif.org/review_noam_chomskys_occupy/ |language=en-US |access-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417033628/https://fpif.org/review_noam_chomskys_occupy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The 2015 documentary '']'' summarizes his views on capitalism and ] through a "75-minute ]".{{sfn|Gold|2016}}
			In 2015 Chomsky and his wife purchased a residence in ], ], and began splitting their time between Brazil and the U.S.<ref name="2024 stroke">{{cite web |title=Linguist and activist Noam Chomsky hospitalized in his wife's native country of Brazil after stroke |url=https://apnews.com/article/noam-chomsky-hospitalized-stroke-recovery-brazil-4fb6782abf6a7b6d0bbb30cefa05cede |website=]|date=June 11, 2024 |access-date=June 19, 2024}}</ref>
	===Criticism of the United States government===
	He has been a consistent and outspoken critic of the ] government. In his book ''9-11'', a series of interviews about the terrorist attacks of ], he claims, as he has done before, that the United States government is the leading "terrorist" state in modern times.
			Chomsky taught a short-term politics course at the ] in 2017{{sfn|Harwood|2016}} and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, his duties including teaching and public seminars.{{sfn|Ortiz|2017}} His salary was covered by philanthropic donations.{{sfn|Mace|2017}}
	Chomsky has criticized the government for its involvement in the ] and the larger ], as well as its interference in Central and South American countries and its military support of ], ], and ]. Chomsky focuses his most intense criticism on official friends of the United States government while criticizing official enemies like the former ] and the ] only in passing. He explains this by the following principle: it is more important to evaluate actions which you have more possibility of affecting. His criticism of the former Soviet Union and ] must have had some effect in those countries; both countries banned his work from publication.
			After a ] in June 2023, Chomsky moved to Brazil full-time;<ref name="2024 stroke"/> this was not publicly reported until June 2024.<ref name="2024 stroke"/>
	Chomsky has repeatedly emphasized his theory that much of the United States' foreign policy is based on the "threat of a good example" (which he says is another name for the ]). The "threat of a good example" is that a country could successfully develop independently from ], and the United States' influences, thus presenting a model for other countries, including countries in which the United States has strong economic interests. This, Chomsky says, has prompted the United States to repeatedly intervene to quell "]" or other "independence" movements in regions of the world where it has no significant economic or safety interests. In one of his most famous works, ''What Uncle Sam Really Wants'', Chomsky uses this particular theory as an explanation for the United States' interventions in ], ], ], and ].
			==Linguistic theory==
	Chomsky believes the US government's ] policies were not entirely shaped by anti-Soviet paranoia, but rather to preserve the United States' ideological and economic dominance in the world. As he wrote in ''Uncle Sam'': "...What the US wants is 'stability,' meaning security for the "upper classes and large foreign enterprises."
			{{Quote box
	=== Views on socialism ===
			| width = 25em
	Chomsky is deeply opposed to the system of "corporate state capitalism" practiced by the United States and its allies. He supports the ] view of ], requiring economic freedom in addition to the "control of production by the workers themselves, not owners and managers who rule them and control all decisions." He refers to this as "real socialism", and describes Soviet-style socialism as similar in terms of "totalitarian controls" to the US-style capitalism &mdash;each is a system based in types and levels of control, rather than in organization or efficiency.
			| quote = What started as purely linguistic research&nbsp;... has led, through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition, to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man. The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory&nbsp;... The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans (species specific), leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes.
			| source = —] on the significance of Chomsky's linguistic theory{{sfn|Baughman et al.|2006}}
			}}
			The basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies in ], the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=4|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2pp=2–3}} He argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences.{{sfn|Lyons|1978|p=7}} In adopting this position Chomsky rejects the ] psychology of ], who viewed speech, thought, and all behavior as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species.{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1p=6|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Brain From Top To Bottom}} Chomsky argues that his ], internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of "]" and contrasts with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of "]",{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=11}} which contends that all knowledge, including language, comes from external stimuli.{{sfn|Baughman et al.|2006}} Historians have disputed Chomsky's claim about rationalism on the basis that his theory of innate grammar excludes ] and instead focuses on innate learning capacities or structures.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rationalism vs. Empiricism |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism |access-date=October 11, 2023 |last=Markie |first=Peter |date=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |issn=1095-5054 |archive-date=November 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122203336/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
			===Universal grammar===
	Chomsky has illuminated Bakunin's comments on the totalitarian state as predictions for the brutal Soviet police state that would come. He echoes Bakunin's statement "...after a year" "the revolutionary will become worse than the czar himself," which expands upon the idea that the tyrannical Soviet state was simply a natural growth from the ] ideology of state control. He has also termed Soviet communism as "fake socialism," and said that contrary to what many in the United States claim, the collapse of the Soviet Union should be regarded "a small victory for socialism," not capitalism.
			{{Main|Universal grammar}}
			Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of their ]s. He bases his argument on observations about human ] and describes a "]": an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich ] they attain. For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowable ] within their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and produce ], including ones that have never before been uttered, in that language.{{sfn|Dovey|2015}} To explain this, Chomsky proposed that the primary linguistic data must be supplemented by an ]. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of ], if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky referred to this difference in capacity as the ], and suggested that linguists needed to determine both what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute "universal grammar".{{sfn|Chomsky}}{{sfn|Thornbury|2006|p=234}}{{sfn|O'Grady|2015}} Multiple researchers have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language,{{sfnm| 1a1=Christiansen|1a2=Chater|1y=2010|1p=489| 2a1=Ruiter|2a2=Levinson|2y=2010|2p=518}} the lack of crosslinguistic surface universals,{{sfnm| 1a1=Evans|1a2=Levinson|1y=2009|1p=429| Tomasello|2009|2p=470}} and the unproven link between innate/universal structures and the structures of specific languages.{{sfn|Tomasello|2003|p=284}} ] has challenged Chomsky's theory of innate syntactic knowledge as based on theory and not behavioral observation.{{sfn|Tomasello|1995|p=131}} The empirical basis of poverty of the stimulus arguments has been challenged by ] and others, leading to back-and-forth debate in the ] literature.<ref name="PullumScholz">{{cite journal|last1=Pullum|first1=Geoff|author-link1=Geoff Pullum|last2=Scholz|first2=Barbara|author-link2=Barbara Scholz|date=2002|title=Empirical assessment of stimulus poverty arguments|journal=The Linguistic Review|volume=18|issue=1–2|pages=9–50|doi=10.1515/tlir.19.1-2.9}}</ref><ref name="LegateYang">{{cite journal|last1=Legate|first1=Julie Anne|author-link1=Julie Anne Legate|last2=Yang|first2=Charles|author-link2=Charles Yang (linguist)|date=2002|title=Empirical re-assessment of stimulus poverty arguments|journal=The Linguistic Review|volume=18|issue=1–2|pages=151–162|doi=10.1515/tlir.19.1-2.9|url=https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~ycharles/papers/tlr-final.pdf}}</ref> Recent work has also suggested that some ] architectures can learn hierarchical structure without an explicit constraint.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCoy|first1=R. Thomas|last2=Frank|first2=Robert|last3=Linzen|first3=Tal|year=2018 |title=Revisiting the poverty of the stimulus: hierarchical generalization without a hierarchical bias in recurrent neural networks|journal=Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society|pages=2093–2098|arxiv=1802.09091 |url=https://tallinzen.net/media/papers/mccoy_frank_linzen_2018_cogsci.pdf}}</ref>
			===Transformational-generative grammar===
	In ''For Reasons of State'' Chomsky advocates that instead of a capitalist system in which people are "]" or an authoritarian system in which decisions are made by a centralized committee, a society could function with no paid labor. He argues that a nation's populace should be free to pursue jobs of their choosing. People will be free to do as they like, and the work they voluntarily choose will be both "rewarding in itself" and "socially useful." Society would be run under a system of peaceful ], with no "state" or "government" institutions.
			{{Main|Transformational grammar|Generative grammar|Chomsky hierarchy|Minimalist program}}
			] is a broad theory used to model, encode, and deduce a native speaker's linguistic capabilities.{{sfn|Harlow|2010|p=752}} These models, or "]", show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages.{{sfn|Harlow|2010|pp=752–753}} Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s, whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades.{{sfn|Harlow|2010|p=752}} "Transformations" refers to syntactic relationships within language, e.g., being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person.{{sfn|Harlow|2010|p=753}} Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both ]: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and conceptual meaning. Transformational-generative grammar uses ] to express the rules that govern the connection between meaning and sound (deep and surface structures, respectively). By this theory, linguistic principles can ] potential sentence structures in a language.{{sfn|Baughman et al.|2006}}
			]]]
	<!--''Note: This section requires more coverage of Chomsky's earliest and most widely influential work, that on the Vietnam War including his classic ''American Power and the New Mandarins''. The present material is heavily weighted to post-1980 writings.''-->
			Chomsky is commonly credited with inventing transformational-generative grammar, but his original contribution was considered modest when he first published his theory. In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbook '']'', he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated by ], who was Chomsky's PhD supervisor, and by ].{{efn|name=input|
			* {{harvnb|Smith|2004|pp=107}} "Chomsky's early work was renowned for its mathematical rigor and he made some contribution to the nascent discipline of mathematical linguistics, in particular the analysis of (formal) languages in terms of what is now known as the ''Chomsky hierarchy.''"
			* {{harvnb|Koerner|1983|pp=159}}: "Characteristically, Harris proposes a transfer of sentences from English to Modern Hebrew{{nbsp}}... Chomsky's approach to syntax in ''Syntactic Structures'' and several years thereafter was not much different from Harris's approach, since the concept of 'deep' or 'underlying structure' had not yet been introduced. The main difference between Harris (1954) and Chomsky (1957) appears to be that the latter is dealing with transfers within one single language only"}} Their method is derived from the work of the Danish structural linguist ], who introduced ] to general linguistics.{{efn|name=origin|
			* {{harvnb|Koerner|1978|pp=41f}}: "it is worth noting that Chomsky cites Hjelmslev's ''Prolegomena'', which had been translated into English in 1953, since the authors' theoretical argument, derived largely from logic and mathematics, exhibits noticeable similarities."
			* {{harvnb|Seuren|1998|pp=166}}: "Both Hjelmslev and Harris were inspired by the mathematical notion of an algorithm as a purely formal production system for a set of strings of symbols.{{nbsp}}... it is probably accurate to say that Hjelmslev was the first to try and apply it to the generation of strings of symbols in natural language"
			* {{harvnb|Hjelmslev|1969}} ''Prolegomena to a Theory of Language''. Danish original 1943; first English translation 1954.}} Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, <!--needed?{{sfn|Morris|2013|p=189}} --> Chomsky grouped logically possible phrase-structure grammar types into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as the ]. This classification remains relevant to ]{{sfn|Butterfield|Ngondi|Kerr|2016}}<!--is the following needed? It imposes a logical structure across different language classes and provides a basis for understanding the relationship between grammars.--> and ], especially ],{{sfn|Knuth|2002}} ] construction, and ].{{sfn|Davis|Weyuker|Sigal|1994|p=327}} Chomsky's ''Syntactic Structures'' became, beyond generative linguistics as such, a catalyst for connecting what in ]'s and ]'s time was the beginnings of ], which has become ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bierwisch |first=Manfred |date=2019 |title=Strukturelle Grammatik, semantische Universalien und Arbitrarität – Ein Gespräch mit Manfred Bierwisch |url=http://www.gespraech-manfred-bierwisch.de/ |access-date=September 3, 2024 |website=www.gespraech-manfred-bierwisch.de |at=Section 3, starting at 31 min.}}</ref>
			Transformational grammar was the dominant research paradigm through the mid-1970s. The derivative{{sfn|Harlow|2010|p=752}} ] replaced it and remained influential through the early 1990s,<!--{{sfn|Hornstein|2003}}--> {{sfn|Harlow|2010|p=752}} when linguists turned to a "minimalist" approach to grammar. This research focused on the ] framework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data.{{sfn|Hornstein|2003}} The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky,{{sfn|Szabó|2010}}<!-- see this source if more overview on Chomsky's linguistic background if needed --> asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply.{{sfn|Hornstein|2003}} In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as "deep structure" and "surface structure" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or "]".{{sfn|Brain From Top To Bottom}} When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech.{{sfn|Brain From Top To Bottom}}{{sfn|Fox|1998}}
	=== Mass media analysis ===
	Another focus of Chomsky's political work has been an analysis of mainstream media (especially in the United States), its structures and constraints, and its role in supporting big business and government interests. Unlike totalitarian systems, where physical force can be readily used to coerce the general population, democratic societies like the US can only make use of non-violent means of control (despite minor instances of state violence). In an often-quoted remark, Chomsky states that "propaganda is to a democracy what the bludgeon is to a totalitarian state." (''Media Control'') His book '']'', co-authored with ], explores this topic in depth, and presents the theory behind the analysis incorporated in subsequent works (see ]).
			==Political views==
	=== Chomsky and the Middle East ===
			{{Main|Political positions of Noam Chomsky}}
	Chomsky "grew up...in the Jewish-Zionist cultural tradition" (Peck, p. 11). His father was one of the foremost scholars of the ] language and taught at a religious school. Chomsky has also had a long fascination with and involvement in left-wing ] politics. As he described:
			{{Quote box
			| width = 30em
			| quote = The second major area to which Chomsky has contributed—and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says—is his work on sociopolitical analysis; political, social, and economic history; and critical assessment of current political circumstance. In Chomsky's view, although those in power might—and do—try to obscure their intentions and to defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens, it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to.
			| source = —James McGilvray, 2014{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=12}}
			}}
			Chomsky is a prominent political dissident.{{efn|name=dissident}} His political views have changed little since his childhood,{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=95|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=4}} when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=77}} He usually identifies as an ] or a ].{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=14|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2pp=17, 158}} He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs: liberty, community, and freedom of association.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=17}} Unlike some other socialists, such as Marxists, Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science,{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=74|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=16}} but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=222}}
			In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elite ], which uses corporate media, advertising, and ] to promote its own propaganda. His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure.{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=8|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=158}} Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by "common sense", critical thinking, and understanding the roles of self-interest and self-deception,{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=74|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2pp=12–13}} and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=159}} He argues that, as such an intellectual, it is his duty to use his ], resources, and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=161}}
	:"I was deeply interested in...Zionist affairs and activities &mdash; or what was then called 'Zionist,' though the same ideas and concerns are now called 'anti-Zionist.' I was interested in socialist, binationalist options for Palestine, and in the kibbutzim and the whole cooperative labor system that had developed in the Jewish settlement there (the Yishuv)...The vague ideas I had at the time were to go to Palestine, perhaps to a ], to try to become involved in efforts at Arab-Jewish cooperation within a socialist framework, opposed to the deeply antidemocratic concept of a jewish state (a position that was considered well within the mainstream of Zionism)." (Peck, p. 7)
			Although he has participated in ] demonstrations—joining protests, being arrested, organizing groups—Chomsky's primary political outlet is education, i.e., free public lessons.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=71}} He is a longtime member of the ] international union,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edgley |first1=Alison |title=Noam Chomsky |date=2016 |language=en |isbn=978-1-137-32021-6 |publisher=Springer |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3oYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212183620/https://books.google.com/books?id=s3oYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |url-status=live }}</ref> as was his father.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Goldman |editor-first1=Jan |title=Chomsky, Noam |date=2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjeaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA87 |language=en |isbn=978-1-61069-511-4 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |encyclopedia=The War on Terror Encyclopedia: From the Rise of Al-Qaeda to 9/11 and Beyond |page=87 |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212183619/https://books.google.com/books?id=bjeaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA87 |url-status=live }}</ref>
	He is extremely critical of the policies of Israel towards the ]s and ethnic minority ] populations within Israel. Among many articles and books, his book '']'' is considered one of the premier texts among those who oppose Israeli treatment of Palestinians and American support for Israel. He has also condemned Israel's role in "guiding state terrorism" for ] to Latin American countries that he characterizes as U.S. puppet states, e.g. ] in the 1970s. (''What Uncle Sam Really Wants'', Chapter 2.4) In addition, he has repeatedly and vehemently condemned the ] for its military and diplomatic support for Israel, and sectors of the American Jewish community for their role in obtaining this support. For example, he says of the ] (ADL):
			===United States foreign policy===
	:"The leading official monitor of anti-Semitism, the Anti-Defamation League of ], interprets anti-Semitism as unwillingness to conform to its requirements with regard to support for Israeli authorities.... The logic is straightforward: Anti-Semitism is opposition to the interests of Israel (as the ADL sees them).
			], a convention for counter-hegemonic globalization, in ]]]
			Chomsky has been a prominent critic of "]",{{sfn|Milne|2009}} but is not a pacifist, believing ] was justified as America's last defensive war.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Atkins |first1=Stephen E. |title=The 9/11 Encyclopedia |date=June 2, 2011 |language=en |isbn=978-1-59884-922-6 |edition=2nd |publisher=ABC-CLIO |chapter=Chomsky, Noam |page= }}</ref> He believes that ]'s basic principle is the establishment of "open societies" that are economically and politically controlled by the U.S. and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=92}} He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=159}} When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=160}} He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; by criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=13}} Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and U.S. actions in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=13}}
			Chomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=160}} He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because its ] electoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=14, 160}} His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=13}} He urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=18}}
	:"The ADL has virtually abandoned its earlier role as a civil rights organization, becoming 'one of the main pillars' of Israeli propaganda in the U.S., as the Israeli press casually describes it, engaged in surveillance, blacklisting, compilation of FBI-style files circulated to adherents for the purpose of defamation, angry public responses to criticism of Israeli actions, and so on. These efforts, buttressed by insinuations of anti-Semitism or direct accusations, are intended to deflect or undermine opposition to Israeli policies, including Israel's refusal, with U.S. support, to move towards a general political settlement."
			Chomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in the ], arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=159}} He also criticizes the U.S.'s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement in ], highlighting that Saudi Arabia has "one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world".{{sfn|''Democracy Now!''|2016}}
			Chomsky called the ] a criminal act of aggression and noted that ] in the country. He considered support for Ukraine's self-defense legitimate and said Ukraine should be given enough military aid to defend itself, but not enough to cause "an escalation".<ref name=scahill>{{cite news |date=April 14, 2022 |title=Noam Chomsky and Jeremy Scahill on the Russia-Ukraine War, the Media, Propaganda, and Accountability |work=The Intercept |url=https://theintercept.com/2022/04/14/russia-ukraine-noam-chomsky-jeremy-scahill/ |access-date=June 4, 2022 |archive-date=June 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220604093657/https://theintercept.com/2022/04/14/russia-ukraine-noam-chomsky-jeremy-scahill/ |url-status=live }}</ref> His criticism of the war focused on the United States.<ref name=scahill/> He alleged that the U.S. rejected any compromise with Russia and that this might have provoked the invasion.<ref name=scahill/> According to Chomsky, the U.S. was arming Ukraine only to weaken Russia, and Ukrainian requests for heavy weaponry were untrue "Western propaganda", despite Ukraine's President ] repeatedly asking for them.<ref>{{cite news |title=Noam Chomsky Says Ukraine Desire for Heavy Weapons Is 'Western Propaganda' |url=https://www.newsweek.com/noam-chomsky-says-ukraine-desire-heavy-weapons-western-propaganda-1706473 |work=] |date=May 13, 2022}}</ref> More than a year into the invasion, Chomsky argued that Russia was waging the war "more humanely" than the U.S. did the ].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vock |first1=Ido |title=Noam Chomsky: Russia is fighting more humanely than the US did in Iraq |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/the-weekend-interview/2023/04/noam-chomsky-interview-ukraine-free-actor-united-states-determines |website=] |date=April 29, 2023 |access-date=July 23, 2023 |archive-date=June 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610182617/https://www.newstatesman.com/the-weekend-interview/2023/04/noam-chomsky-interview-ukraine-free-actor-united-states-determines |url-status=live }}</ref>
	== Criticism ==
			===Capitalism and socialism===
	=== Accusations of anti-semitism ===
			In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike of ] and the pursuit of material wealth.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=15}} At the same time, he developed a disdain for ], as represented by the ] policies of the Soviet Union.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=168|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=16}} Rather than accepting the common view among U.S. economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control (whether state or private).{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=164–165}} He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really democratic,{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=169}} because, in his view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=170}} He has stated his opposition to ], among them institutions like the ], ], and ] (precursor to the ]).{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=211}}
	Despite being Jewish, Chomsky has been accused of being anti-semitic on several occasions. Three people in particular have made this allegation:
			Chomsky highlights that, since the 1970s, ] as a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the unilateral rescinding of the ] by the U.S.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=14}} He characterizes the U.S. as a ''de facto'' ], viewing both the ] and ] as manifestations of a single "Business Party" controlled by corporate and financial interests.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=14–15}} Chomsky highlights that, within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=15}}
	* Writer ], who has toured college campuses distributing anti-Chomsky pamphlets;
	* Attorney and ] ] ];
	* Sociology professor emeritus ], who has written a book; ''Partners in Hate'', about Chomsky's relationship to Faurisson (see the ]). One of the most common charges is that the difference between anti-Semitism and ] is theoretical, and in practice anti-Zionism is a manifestation of anti-Semitism.
			Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=15}} Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=14}} He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=15}}
	Chomsky's support for Holocaust survivor ], author of '']'', a book that claims that Orthodox ] is a fundamentally ] religion, has led to more accusations of anti-semitism, as have his criticisms of Jewish activist and Holocaust survivor ].
			Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of the ] ideas of the ],{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=89|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=189}} arguing that his ideological position revolves around "nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being".{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=95}} He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct worker control of the ] and government by ]s, who would select temporary and revocable representatives to meet together at general assemblies.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=199}} The point of this self-governance is to make each citizen, in ]'s words, "a direct participator in the government of affairs."{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=210}} He believes that there will be no need for political parties.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=200}} By controlling their productive life, he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=197, 202}} He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated, specially remunerated, or communally shared.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=201–202}}
	Chomsky rejects charges of anti-semitism, arguing that the definition presented by Israeli apologists is itself racist and ethnocentric. In a 2003 New York Times interview, he said, "It is a shame that critics of Israeli policies are seen as either anti-Semites or self-hating Jews. It's grotesque. If an Italian criticized Italian policies, would he be seen as a self-hating Italian?" Chomsky often expresses disappointment at certain Jews' support for policies that disregard humanist and traditional Jewish principles.
			===Israeli–Palestinian conflict===
	=== Other criticisms ===
			Chomsky has written prolifically about the ], aiming to raise public awareness of it.{{sfn|Gendzier|2017|p=314}} A ] who later became what is today considered an ], Chomsky has criticized the ] in the ] ], which he likens to a ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4rpHEAAAQBAJ|title=A New World in Our Hearts: In Conversation with Michael Albert|author=Noam Chomsky|page=59|publisher=PM Press|year=2022|isbn=9781629638928 }}</ref> He has said that the 1947 ] was a bad decision, but given the ] of the situation, he has also considered a ] on the condition that the nation-states exist on equal terms.{{sfnm|1a1=Sperlich|1y=2006|1p=97|2a1=McGilvray|2y=2014|2p=159}}
	Chomsky has been involved in many very public disagreements over policy and scholarship. For example, when Chomsky and Herman wrote ''After the Cataclysm, Postwar Indochina and the Reconstruction of Imperial Ideology'', a book claiming that American media used "unsubstantiated" refugee testimonies, in regard to the ] of the ] ] regime, his apparent unwillingness to acknowledge that atrocities were being committed caused many to attack him as being a Pol Pot ]. One of Chomsky's most infamous statements on the contemporaneous atrocities (whereby more than 1.7 million Cambodians died) was in June 25, 1967 issue of The Nation, where he stated: "The "slaughter" by the Khmer Rouge is a Moss-New York Times creation." Critics often alledge that Chomsky lead a skeptical reaction, possibly based on ideological beliefs and sympathy for the Khmer Rouge "experiment", which hindered an effective response by Western governments.
			Chomsky has said that characterizing ], similar to the system that existed in South Africa, would be a "gift to Israel", as he has long held that "the ] are much worse than South Africa".<ref name="MEM1">{{cite web|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220627-chomsky-on-israeli-apartheid-celebrity-activists-bds-and-the-one-state-solution/|publisher=Middle East Monitor|access-date=December 15, 2023|date=June 27, 2022|work=Ramzy Baroud|title=Chomsky on Israeli apartheid, celebrity activists, BDS and the one-state solution|quote=Chomsky believes that calling Israeli policies towards the Palestinians “apartheid” is actually a “gift to Israel”; at least, if by apartheid one refers to South African-style apartheid. “I have held for a long time that the Occupied Territories are much worse than South Africa,” the professor explained.}}</ref><ref name="Democracy Now-2014">{{cite web|url=https://www.democracynow.org/2014/8/8/noam_chomsky_what_israel_is_doing|title=Noam Chomsky: Israel's Actions in Palestine are "Much Worse Than Apartheid" in South Africa|work=Democracy Now|access-date=December 15, 2023|date=August 8, 2014}}</ref> South Africa depended on its black population for labor, but Chomsky argues the same is not true of Israel, which in his view seeks to make the situation for Palestinians under its occupation unlivable, especially in the ] and the ], where "atrocities" take place every day.<ref name="MEM1"/> He also argues that, unlike South Africa, Israel has not sought the international community's approval, but rather relies solely on U.S. support.<ref name="MEM1"/> Chomsky has said that the Israeli-led ] of the ] has turned it into a "concentration camp" and expressed fears similar to Israeli intellectual ]'s 1990s warning that the continued occupation of the ] could turn ] into "Judeo-Nazis". Chomsky has said that Leibowitz's warning "was a direct reflection of the continued occupation, the humiliation of people, the degradation, and the terrorist attacks by the Israeli government".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/international/188255-181108-chomsky-to-i24news-judeo-nazi-tendencies-in-israel-a-product-of-occupation|title=Chomsky to i24NEWS: 'Judeo-Nazi tendencies in Israel a product of occupation'|work=i24news|access-date=December 15, 2023|date=November 14, 2018|quote=“] warned that if the occupation continues, Israeli Jews are going to turn into what he called, Judeo-Nazis. It’s a pretty strong term to use in Israel. Most people couldn’t get away with that but he did. It will happen, he argued, simply by the dynamics of occupation,” Chomsky told i24NEWS. “If you have your jackboot on somebody’s neck, you have to find a way to justify it. So you blame the victims. Leibowitz’s warning was a direct reflection of the continued occupation, the humiliation of people, the degradation, and the terrorist attacks by the Israeli government. We have many historical examples of that. Europe has plenty of them. And I think that’s what you are seeing in Israel,” he explained.}}</ref> He has also called the U.S. a violent state that exports violence by supporting Israeli "atrocities" against the Palestinians and said that listening to American mainstream media, including ], is like listening to "Israeli propaganda agencies".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://imemc.org/article/72694/|title=Noam Chomsky: Israeli Apartheid 'Much Worse' Than South Africa|work=IMEMC|date=August 20, 2015|access-date=December 15, 2023}}</ref>
	Chomsky's views on the Cambodia situation changed as facts were revealed, but he ultimately argued that focusing on Pol Pot's atrocities did little more than serve to take away attention from what he described as "comparable American atrocities." He also denied that Cambodian violence was inspired by Marxist ideology, and argued that the United States in fact helped Pol Pot rise to power.
			Chomsky was denied entry to the ] in 2010 because of ]. He had been invited to deliver a lecture at ] and was to meet with Palestinian Prime Minister ].{{sfn|Pilkington|2010}}{{sfn|Bronner|2010}}{{sfn|Al Jazeera|2010}}{{sfn|''Democracy Now!''|2010}} An ] spokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake.{{sfn|Kalman|2014}}
	A further example of Chomsky's controversial timing were demonstrated in his remarks in 1967, at the height of the in China, that "China is an important example of a new society in which very interesting positive things happened at the local level".
	Chomsky is also often criticized as being a ], for his often elaborate explanations of the US government's "concealed" motivations, which some critics view as unsubstantiated. He considers this criticism completely unfounded, as he himself is a critic of the conspiracy-mindedness of some of the left (regarding things like the
	]). He says people's lack of knowledge of government policy is usually more due to their laziness in informing themselves regarding policy, than some supposed secret conspiracy to withhold information from them, since most of the information is in the ].
			In his 1983 book ''The Fateful Triangle'', Chomsky criticized the ] for its "self-destructiveness" and "suicidal character" and disapproved of its programs of "armed struggle" and "erratic violence". He also criticized the Arab governments as not "decent".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Said |first1=Edward |title=Permission to narrate |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v06/n03/edward-said/permission-to-narrate |journal=London Review of Books |access-date=January 18, 2024 |language=en |date=February 16, 1984|volume=06 |issue=3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Said |first=Edward |date=1984 |title=Permission to Narrate |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2536688 |journal=Journal of Palestine Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=27–48 |doi=10.2307/2536688 |jstor=2536688 |issn=0377-919X}}</ref> Given what he has described as his very Jewish upbringing with deeply Zionist activist parents, Chomsky's views have drawn controversy and criticism. They are rooted in the ]im and socialist binational cooperation.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rich |first=Melanie S. |chapter=10. Noam Chomsky: The Controversial Jew |title=Jews in Psychology and the Psychology of Judaism |date=December 16, 2008 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31826/9781463214845-012/html?lang=en |pages=77–84 |access-date=December 22, 2023 |publisher=Gorgias Press |language=en |doi=10.31826/9781463214845-012 |isbn=978-1-4632-1484-5}}</ref> In a 2014 interview on '']'', Chomsky said that the charter of ], which calls for Israel's destruction, "means practically nothing", having been created "by a small group of people under siege, under attack in 1988". He compared it to the electoral program of the ] party, which, he said, "states explicitly that there can never be a Palestinian state west of the Jordan River. And they not only state it in their charter, that's a call for the destruction of Palestine, explicit call for it".<ref name="Democracy Now-2014" />
	Chomsky was criticized for citing reports from both ] and the German Embassy when he alleged that the US attack on the ] killed thousands of Sudanese civilians. Allegations were made that Human Rights Watch had made no such estimates, to which Chomsky has responded .
			===Mass media and propaganda===
	==Quotes regarding Chomsky==
			{{Main|Propaganda model}}
	* "In all American history, no one's writings are more unsettling...Chomsky is among our greatest dissenters." &mdash; ]
			{{external media
	* "One of the great voices of reason of our times" &mdash; ]
			| video1 = , June 1, 2003
	* "Arguably the most important intellectual alive... body of political writings, accessible to any literate person but often maddeningly simple-minded." &mdash; '']'', often truncated to "Arguably the most important intellectual alive."
			}}
	* "The Ayatollah of Anti-American Hate." &mdash; ]
			Chomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology, ], ], and state policy.{{sfn|Rai|1995|p=20}} One of his best-known works, '']'', dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship, by government-guided "free market" forces, is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Rai|1995|pp=37–38}} As he argues, the mainstream press is corporate-owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=179}} Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well-meaning, he argues that the mass media's choices of topics and issues, the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests, and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state's ideology:{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=178}} although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties, it will not undermine the wider state-corporate nexus of which it is a part.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=189}} As evidence, he highlights that the U.S. mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=177}} He also points to examples of important news stories that the U.S. mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country, including the murder of Black Panther ] with possible ] involvement, the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U.S.-funded ], and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=179–182}} To remedy this situation, Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=184}}
			Chomsky considers most ] fruitless, distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives.{{sfn|Rai|1995|p=70}} He separates his Propaganda Model from conspiracy in that he is describing institutions following their natural imperatives rather than collusive forces with secret controls.{{sfn|Rai|1995|p=}} Instead of supporting the educational system as an antidote, he believes that most education is counterproductive.{{sfn|Chomsky|1996|p=45}} Chomsky describes ] as a system solely intended to turn farmers from independent producers into unthinking industrial employees.{{sfn|Chomsky|1996|p=45}}
	== Bibliography ==
	See .
			=== Reactions of critics and counter-criticism: 1980s–present ===
	=== Linguistics ===
			In the 2004 book '']'', ] and ] accuse Chomsky of ] facts to suit his theories.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cook |first=Christopher R. |date=2009 |title=A Cold Eye Assessment of US Foreign Policy: It's the Policies, Stupid |journal=International Studies Review |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=601–608 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2486.2009.00877.x |jstor=40389146 |quote=The common critique is that he is often selective about his facts to fit his theories (Collier and Horowitz 2004).|issn=1468-2486}}</ref> Horowitz has also criticized Chomsky's ]:<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 26, 2001 |title=The sick mind of Noam Chomsky |url=https://www.salon.com/2001/09/26/treason_2/ |access-date=July 28, 2023 |website=Salon |language=en |archive-date=July 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728210540/https://www.salon.com/2001/09/26/treason_2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
	* Chomsky, Noam, Morris Halle, and Fred Lukoff (1956). "On accent and juncture in English." In ''For Roman Jakobson''. The Hague: Mouton
	* Syntactic Structures (1957). The Hague: Mouton. Reprint. Berlin and New York (1985).
	* Chomsky (1965). ''Aspects of the Theory of Syntax''. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
	* Chomsky (1965). ''Cartesian Linguistics''. New York: Harper and Row. Reprint. Cartesian Linguistics. A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1986.
	* Chomsky, Noam, and Morris Halle (1968). ''The Sound Pattern of English''. New York: Harper & Row.
	* Chomsky (1981). ''Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures''. Holland: Foris Publications. Reprint. 7th Edition. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1993.
	* Chomsky (1986). ''Barriers. Linguistic Inquiry Monograph Thirteen''. Cambridge, MA and London: The MIT Press.
	* Chomsky, Noam (1995). ''The Minimalist Program''. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
			{{Blockquote|text=For 40 years Noam Chomsky has turned out book after book, pamphlet after pamphlet and speech after speech with one message, and one message alone: America is the Great Satan; it is the fount of evil in the world. In Chomsky's demented universe, America is responsible not only for its own bad deeds, but for the bad deeds of others, including those of the terrorists who struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. In this attitude he is the medium for all those who now search the ruins of Manhattan not for the victims and the American dead, but for the "root causes" of the catastrophe that befell them.}}
	=== Politics ===
			For the ] public policy ] the ], Peter Schweizer wrote in January 2006, "Chomsky favors the estate tax and massive income redistribution—just not the redistribution of his income." Schweizer criticized Chomsky for setting up an estate plan and protecting his own intellectual property as it relates to his published works, as well as the high speaking fees that Chomsky received on a regular basis, around $9,000–$12,000 per talk at that time.{{sfn|Schweizer|2006}}{{sfn|Lott|2006}}
	==== Selected works ====
	* Chomsky & Herman, Edward (1979). ''After the Cataclysm, Postwar Indochina and the Reconstruction of Imperial Ideology''. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0896081001
	*Chomsky (1980). '''': (English translation of original French)
	*Chomsky (February 28, 1981). '''' in ''The Nation''
	*Chomsky (1983, 1999). ''Fateful Triangle''. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0896086011
	* Peck, James (Ed.) (1987). ''Chomsky Reader'' 1987 ISBN 0394751736
	* Chomsky (1989). ''''.
	* Chomsky (1992). ''''. Berkeley: Odonian Press.
	* Chomsky (1993). ''The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many'', Berkeley: Odonian Press.
	* Chomsky (1993). ''Year 501: The Conquest Continues'', Boston: South End Press.
	* Chomsky (1996). '']''. Pluto Press.
	* Chomsky (1999). ''Profit Over People''. Seven Stories Press.
	* Chomsky (2000). ''Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs'', Cambridge: South End Press.
	* Chomsky (2001). ''9-11'', Canada: Seven Stories Press.
	* Chomsky (2003). '']''. Metropolitan Books. (Part of the '']''.)
			Chomsky has been accused of treating socialist or communist regimes with credulity and examining capitalist regimes with greater scrutiny or criticism:{{sfn|Bauerlein|2005}}{{blockquote|Chomsky's analysis of U.S. actions plunged deep into dark U.S. machinations, but when traveling among the Communists he rested content with appearances. The countryside outside Hanoi, he reported in ''The New York Review of Books'', displayed "a high degree of democratic participation at the village and regional levels." But how could he tell? Chomsky did not speak Vietnamese, and so he depended on government translators, tour guides, and handlers for information. In Vietnamese hands, the clear-eyed skepticism turned into willing credulousness.{{sfn|Bauerlein|2005}}}}According to ], writing for ] in September 2012, Chomsky "has drawn the world's attention to the various misdeeds of the US and its proxies around the world, and for that he deserves credit. Yet, in seeking to avoid controversy at all costs Chomsky has turned into something of an ideologue. Scour the Chomsky web site and you won't find significant discussion of Belarus or Latin America's flirtation with outside authoritarian leaders, for that matter."{{sfn|Kozloff|2012}}
	==== About Chomsky ====
	*Hitchens, Christopher (1985, Autumn). '''', in Grand Street Magazine
	*Cohn, Werner. ''''.
	*Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. '''', in ''Assassins of Memory''.
	*Roy, Arundhati (2003). '''', in ]
	*Ear, Sophal (1995). ''''
	*Rai, Milan (1995).
	*Sharp, Bruce (2004). ''''
			Political activist ] has argued that "Part of the problem is that a kind of cult has developed around Noam Chomsky and ], which cannot believe they could ever be wrong, and produces ever more elaborate conspiracy theories to justify their mistakes."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Katerji |first=Oz |date=November 24, 2017 |title=The West's Leftist 'Intellectuals' Who Traffic in Genocide Denial, From Srebrenica to Syria |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/2017-11-24/ty-article-opinion/the-wests-leftist-male-intellectuals-who-traffic-in-genocide-denial/0000017f-f346-d8a1-a5ff-f3cec4320000 |access-date=July 15, 2023 |archive-date=March 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315204708/https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/2017-11-24/ty-article-opinion/the-wests-leftist-male-intellectuals-who-traffic-in-genocide-denial/0000017f-f346-d8a1-a5ff-f3cec4320000 |url-status=live }}</ref>
	== See also: ==
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* "]."
	* ]
			Anarchist and primitivist ] has accused Chomsky of not being a real anarchist, saying that he is instead "a liberal-leftist politically, and downright reactionary in his academic specialty, linguistic theory. Chomsky is also, by all accounts, a generous, sincere, tireless activist—which does not, unfortunately, ensure his thinking has liberatory value."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zerzan |first=John |title=Who is Chomsky? |url=http://www.primitivism.com/chomsky.htm |website=Primitivism.com |access-date=July 28, 2023 |archive-date=February 21, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221023457/http://www.primitivism.com/chomsky.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
	== External links ==
	* on ]
			Defenders of Chomsky have countered that he has been censored or left out of public debate. Claims of this nature date to the ]. Writing for '']'' in February 1988, ] wrote, "It is unhealthy that Chomsky's insights are excluded from the policy debate. His relentless prosecutorial prose, with a hint of Talmudic whine and the rationalist anarchism of Tom Paine, may reflect a justified frustration."{{sfn|Landau|1988}}
	=== Official sites ===
	* (politics only)
	*
	* (politics only)
	* -- Chomsky's official ]. (politics only).
			==Philosophy==
	=== Unofficial archives ===
			Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, including ], ], and ].{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=19}} In these fields he is credited with ushering in the "]",{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=19}} a significant ] that rejected ], the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think about ] and the ].{{sfn|Szabó|2010}} Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-century ] ideals.{{sfn|Friesen|2017|p=46}} His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism than behaviorism.{{sfn|Greif|2015|p=313}} He named one of his key works ] (1966).{{sfn|Friesen|2017|p=46}} This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky's interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology.{{efn|name=rationalism|
	*
			* {{harvnb|Hamans|Seuren|2010|p=377}}: "Having achieved a unique position of supremacy in the theory of syntax and having exploited that position far beyond the narrow circles of professional syntacticians, he felt the need to shore up his theory with the authority of history. It is shown that this attempt, resulting mainly in his Cartesian Linguistics of 1966, was widely, and rightly, judged to be a radical failure"}} In the philosophy of language, Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations.{{sfn|Cipriani|2016|pp=44–60}}
	*
	*
	* - ] format.
	* - You might need to log in as a guest first.
			Chomsky's famous ] on ] with the French philosopher ] was a symbolic clash of the ] and ] philosophy traditions, represented by Chomsky and Foucault, respectively.{{sfn|Greif|2015|pp=312–313}} It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century. Foucault held that any definition of human nature is connected to our present-day conceptions of ourselves; Chomsky held that human nature contained universals such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason.{{sfn|Greif|2015|p=315}} Chomsky criticized ] and ] generally, arguing that the obscure language of postmodern, leftist philosophers gives little aid to the working classes.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1pp=192–195|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=53}} He has also debated analytic philosophers, including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Szabó|2010}}
	=== Select speeches and interviews ===
	* - April 4, 1999; Transcript.
	* - Talk at Harvard, April 13, 1996; ] format.
	* - The Technology & Culture Forum at ], October 18, 2001; Transcript, ] format.
	* - December 8, 2001; Provided by '']'' in ] format.
	* - June 1, 2003; ] format.
	* - Noam Chomsky vs. ], 1988; ] format.
	* - November 20, 2003; ] format.
	* - March 23, 2003; ] format.
			Chomsky's contributions span ] and world history, including the history of philosophy.{{sfn|Otero|2003|p=416}} Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing, such as rhetorically implying that his readers already know something to be true, which engages the reader more actively in assessing the veracity of his claims.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=162}}
	=== Select articles ===
	*
	*
	*
	*
			==Personal life==
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			Chomsky endeavors to separate his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism from each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Barsky|1y=1997|1p=158|2a1=Sperlich|2y=2006|2p=19}}<!--"scrupulous"{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=121}}{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=78}}--> An intensely private person,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=7}} he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=116}} McGilvray suggests that Chomsky is not motivated by a desire for fame, but impelled to tell what he perceives as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=230}} Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world's population;{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=9}} nevertheless, he characterizes himself as a "worker", albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=6}} He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the U.S., he subscribes to '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']''.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=121}} Chomsky is not religious but has expressed approval of forms of religion such as ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=69}}
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			Chomsky is known to use charged language ("corrupt", "fascist", "fraudulent") when describing established political and academic figures, which can polarize his audience but is in keeping with his belief that much scholarship is self-serving.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=199}} His colleague ] has said that Chomsky "portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric", and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives.{{sfn|Jaggi|2001}} Chomsky avoids ], including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=169}} His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores; in 1969, when Chomsky heard that ], a major architect of the Vietnam war, wanted to return to work at MIT, Chomsky threatened "to protest publicly" if Rostow were denied a position at MIT. In 1989, when Pentagon adviser ] applied to be president of MIT, Chomsky supported his candidacy. Later, when Deutch became head of the CIA, ''The New York Times'' quoted Chomsky as saying, "He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I've ever met.{{nbsp}}... If somebody's got to be running the CIA, I'm glad it's him."{{sfnm|Barsky|1997|1pp=140–141|Chomsky|1996|2pp=135–136|Weiner|1995}}
	]
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			Chomsky was married to ] ({{nee|Schatz}}) from 1949 until her death in 2008.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=6}} They had three children together: ] (b. 1957), Diane (b. 1960), and Harry (b. 1967).{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=22}} In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman.{{sfn|''Democracy Now!''|2015}} They have owned a home in Wasserman's native country, Brazil, since 2015.{{r|not dead}}
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			In 2023<!-- please read the sources before changing the date of Chomsky's stroke, which happened in 2023 and not 2024 -->, Chomsky suffered a massive stroke and was flown to a hospital in ], Brazil, to recuperate.{{r|hospitalized}} He can no longer walk or communicate, making his return to public life improbable,<ref>{{cite news |first=Maira |last=Butt |title=Noam Chomsky, 95, 'no longer able to talk' after famed intellectual suffered 'medical event' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/noam-chomsky-health-update-tributes-b2559831.html |access-date=June 11, 2024 |work=The Independent |date=June 10, 2024}}</ref> but he continues to follow current events such as the ].<ref name=hospitalized>{{cite news|title=Linguist and activist Noam Chomsky hospitalized in his wife's native country of Brazil after stroke |url=https://apnews.com/article/noam-chomsky-hospitalized-stroke-recovery-brazil-4fb6782abf6a7b6d0bbb30cefa05cede |access-date=June 11, 2024 |work=AP News |date=June 11, 2024}}</ref> He was discharged in June 2024 to continue his recovery at home.{{r|not dead}} The same month, Chomsky ] amid false reports of his death. Periodicals retracted ].<ref name="not dead">{{cite news |last=Italie |first=Hillel |title=Noam Chomsky's wife says reports of famed linguist's death are false |date=June 18, 2024 |work=] |url=https://apnews.com/article/noam-chomsky-alive-not-dead-5b7a1b23b8731ca311e1ec38cdc3c119 }}</ref>
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			==Reception and influence==
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			{{Quote box
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			| quote = voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy: from computer science to neuroscience, from anthropology to education, mathematics and literary criticism. If we include Chomsky's political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred, and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action.
	]
			| source = —Sperlich, 2006{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=60}}
			}}
			Chomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology.{{sfn|Knight|2016|p=2}} In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time,{{efn|name=important}} Chomsky has a dual legacy as a leader and luminary in both linguistics and the realm of ].{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=191}} Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by mainstream media, and he is regarded as being "on the outer margin of acceptability".{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=24}} Chomsky's public image and social reputation often color his work's public reception.{{sfn|Barsky|2007|p=107}}
			===In academia===
			McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the "]" in linguistics,{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=5}} and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal, ],{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=9}} moving it away from the procedural form of ] dominant during the mid-20th century.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|pp=9–10}} As such, some have called Chomsky "the father of modern linguistics".{{efn|name=father}} Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become "the most dynamic and influential" school of thought in the field.{{sfn|Lyons|1978|p=2}} By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=42}} and a ] poll ranked ''Syntactic Structures'' as the single most important work in ].{{sfn|MSUM Cognitive Sciences}} In addition, his work in ] and the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known in ], and he is much cited in ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=39}}{{sfn|Sipser|1997}}{{sfn|Knuth at Stanford University|2003}}
			Chomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline of ];{{sfn|Graham|2019}} in addition, he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science.{{sfn|Harris|2010}}{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=19}} Some arguments in ] are derived from his research results;{{sfn|Massey University|1996}} ], a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in ] at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.{{sfn|Radick|2007|p=320}}
			] winner ] credited Chomsky's work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics, linguistics, and computer science.{{sfn|Knuth|2003|p=1}} ] computer scientist ], another Turing Award winner, used some of Chomsky's concepts to help him develop ], the first widely used high-level ].{{sfn|Fulton|2007}} Chomsky's theory of generative grammar has also influenced work in ] and ], such as ]'s and ]'s ].{{sfn|Baroni|Callegari|1982|pp=201–218}}{{sfn|Steedman|1984|pp=52–77}}{{sfn|Rohrmeier|2007|pp=97–100}}
			Chomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead.{{efn|name="most cited"}} He was cited within the ] more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992.{{sfn|Babe|2015|p=xvii}} Chomsky was also extensively cited in the ] and ] during the same period. The librarian who conducted the research said that the statistics show that "he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines{{nbsp}}... it seems that you can't write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky."{{sfn|Knight|2016|p=2}} As a result of his influence, there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non-Chomskyan linguistics. Their disputes are often acrimonious.{{sfn|Boden|2006|p=593}} Additionally, according to journalist ], Chomsky is among the most quoted sources in the humanities, ranking alongside ], ] and ].{{sfn|Jaggi|2001}}
			===In politics===
			Chomsky's status as the "most-quoted living author" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics.{{sfn|Boden|2006|p=592}} Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as "one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people";{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=7}} journalist ] has described him as a "genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive."{{sfn|Jaggi|2001}} ] has called him "one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time",{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=114}} and ] thought him "one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions".{{sfn|Jaggi|2001}} ] has said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a "guru" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements.{{sfn|Jaggi|2001}} The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=129}} also exerting a significant influence on the growth of ], including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=142}}
			Despite this broad influence, university departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi.{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=153–154}} Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as many ] claim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so.{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=161}} Some have responded to these criticisms by questioning the critics' motives and their understanding of Chomsky's ideas. Sperlich, for instance, says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=10}} Likewise, according to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics "do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text".{{sfn|McGilvray|2014|p=161}}
			Chomsky drew criticism for not calling the ]'s ] a "genocide".{{sfn|Braun|2018}}{{sfn|Nettelfield|2010|p=142}} While he did not deny the fact of the massacre,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Corrections and clarifications |work=] |date=November 17, 2005 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2005/nov/17/pressandpublishing.corrections |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |access-date=February 21, 2022 |archive-date=July 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712060626/http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/nov/17/pressandpublishing.corrections |url-status=live }}</ref> which he called "a horror story and major crime", he felt the massacre did not meet the ].{{sfn|Braun|2018}} Critics have accused Chomsky of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=August 28, 2009 |title=Chomsky's Genocidal Denial |url=https://bosniak.org/2009/08/28/chomskys-genocidal-denial/ |access-date=July 28, 2023 |website=Congress of Bosniaks of North America |language=en-US |archive-date=July 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728031342/https://bosniak.org/2009/08/28/chomskys-genocidal-denial/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
			Chomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to a ] (FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that the ] (CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law.{{sfn|Hudson|2013}} He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East but has refused uniformed police protection.{{sfn|Rabbani|2012}} German news magazine '']'' described Chomsky as "the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred",{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=10}} while American ] commentator ] called him "the most devious, the most dishonest and&nbsp;... the most treacherous intellect in America", whose work is infused with "anti-American dementia" and evidences his "pathological hatred of his own country".{{sfn|Horowitz|2001}} Writing in '']'' magazine, the journalist ] described Chomsky as "a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says".{{sfn|Kay|2011}}
			{{anchor|Israel}}Chomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and an ].{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=100}} Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints, ] called Chomsky "the most important patron" of the ] movement.{{sfn|Cohn|1995|p=37}} The ] (ADL) called him a Holocaust denier,{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=101}} describing him as a "dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims".{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=101}} In turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by "Stalinist types" who oppose democracy in Israel.{{sfn|Sperlich|2006|p=100}} The lawyer ] has called Chomsky a "false prophet of the left";{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=170}} Chomsky called Dershowitz "a complete liar" who is on "a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation".{{sfn|Barsky|1997|pp=170–171}} In early 2016, President ] of Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed an ] condemning Erdoğan for his ] and double standards on terrorism.{{sfn|Weaver|2016}} Chomsky accused Erdoğan of hypocrisy, noting that Erdoğan supports ]'s Syrian affiliate,{{sfn|Sengupta|2015}} the ].{{sfn|Weaver|2016}}
			===Academic achievements, awards, and honors===
			{{See also|List of honorary degrees awarded to Noam Chomsky}}
			], David Krieger (2014)]]
			In 1970, the London '']'' named Chomsky one of the "makers of the twentieth century".{{sfn|Baughman et al.|2006}} He was voted the world's leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazine '']'' and British magazine ].{{sfn|''Foreign Policy''|2005}} '']'' readers listed Chomsky among the world's foremost heroes in 2006.{{sfn|Cowley|2006}}
			In the United States he is a ], the ], the ], the ], the ],{{sfn|Contemporary Authors Online|2016}} and the ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=APS Member History|url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Chomsky|access-date=June 9, 2021|website=]|archive-date=June 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609220943/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Chomsky|url-status=live}}</ref> Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of the ], an honorary member of the ], a member of the ],{{sfn|Contemporary Authors Online|2016}} and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of the ].{{sfn|SASA foreign membership|2003}} He received a 1971 ], the 1984 ], the 1988 ], the 1996 ],{{sfn|Contemporary Authors Online|2016}} the 1999 ],{{sfn|MIT Linguistics Program|2002}} the 2010 ],{{sfn|Deutsche Presse-Agentur|2010}} and the ]'s 2014 ].{{sfn|British Academy|2014}} He is also a two-time winner of the ] (1987 and 1989).{{sfn|Contemporary Authors Online|2016}} He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award from ].{{sfn|''Soundings''|2002}}
			Chomsky received the 2004 ] Prize from the city of ], to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic.{{sfn|Inventio Musikverlag}} He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from the ].{{sfn|Soundtracksforthem: Interview|2005}} He received the 2008 President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the ].{{sfn|Desmond Tutu to speak to Litndeb|2009}} Since 2009, he has been an honorary member of ] (IAPTI).{{sfn|Honorary Members of IAPTI}} He received the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship{{sfn|UoW–M|2010}} and was inducted into ]' AI's Hall of Fame for "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems."{{sfn|IEEE Xplore|2011}} Chomsky has an ] of four.{{sfn|Erdös Number at Oakland Univ|2017}}
			In 2011, the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace Prize for anti-war activities over five decades.{{sfn|US Memorial Peace Foundation}} For his work in human rights, peace, and social criticism, he received the 2011 ]<!--"unfailing courage, critical analysis of power and promotion of human rights"-->,{{sfn|Huxley|2011}} the ] in 2015,{{sfn|''Politika''|2015}} the 2017 ]<!--"for his tireless commitment to peace, his strong critiques to U.S. foreign policy, and his anti-imperialism"-->{{sfn|IPB|2017}} and the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award.{{sfn|MIT Linguistics Program|2002}}
			Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including the ] and the ] (1967), ] and ] (1970), ] (1971), ] (1972), the ] (1973), and the ] (2012).{{sfnm|1a1=Lyons|1y=1978|1pp=xv–xvi|2a1=Barsky|2y=1997|2pp=120, 143}} Public lectures given by Chomsky include the 1969 ],{{sfn|MIT Linguistics Program|2002}} 1975 ],{{sfn|Barsky|1997|p=156}} 1977 ], and 1988 ].{{sfn|MIT Linguistics Program|2002}}
			Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is the ] for ],{{sfn|Pensoft (bee)}} ],{{sfn|Páez|2019}} an ],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Small-Body Database Lookup |url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/tools/sbdb_lookup.html#/?sstr=52270&view=OPD |access-date=August 17, 2024 |website=ssd.jpl.nasa.gov}}</ref> and a building complex at the Indian university ].{{sfn|JMI|2007}} Actor ] and avant-garde guitarist ] dedicated their 2003 album '']'' to Chomsky.{{sfn|Viggo Mortensen's Spoken Word & Music CDs}}
			==Selected bibliography==
			{{Main|Noam Chomsky bibliography and filmography}}
			{{col-begin}}
			{{col-3}}
			'''Linguistics'''
			* '']'' (1957)
			* '']'' (1964)
			* '']'' (1965)
			* '']'' (1965)
			* '']'' (1968)
			* '']'' with ] (1968)
			* '']'' (1975)
			* '']'' (1981)
			* '']'' (1995)
			{{col-3}}
			'''Politics'''
			* '']'' (1969)
			* '']'' (1973)
			* '']'' with ] (1973)
			* '']'' (1979)
			* '']'' (1982)
			* '']'' (1983)
			* '']'' (1986)
			* '']'' (1988)
			* '']'' (1989)
			* '']'' (1991)
			* '']'' (1993)
			* '']'' (1993)
			* '']'' (1994)
			* '']'' (1997)
			{{col-3}}
			* '']'' (1999)
			* '']'' (2001)
			* '']'' (2002)
			* '']'' (2003)
			* '']'' (2003)
			* '']'' (2004)
			* '']'' (2005)
			* '']'' (2006)
			* '']'' (2007)
			* '']'' (2010)
			* '']'' (2012)
			* '']'' (2012)
			* '']'' (2017)
			* '']'' (2022)
			{{col-end}}
			==See also==
			<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description per ] -->
			{{cols}}
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			{{colend}}
			==Notes==
			{{notelist|40em| refs =<!-- Please keep the following list-defined references (WP:LDR) in alphabetical order by refname -->
			{{efn|name=dissident|
			* {{harvnb|Macintyre|2010}}
			* {{harvnb|Burris|2013}}: "Noam Chomsky has built his entire reputation as a political dissident on his command of the facts."
			* {{harvnb|McNeill|2014}}: " often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals and its leading public dissident{{nbsp}}..."
			}}
			{{efn|name=father|
			* {{harvnb|Fox|1998}}: "Mr. Chomsky&nbsp;... is the father of modern linguistics and remains the field's most influential practitioner."
			* {{harvnb|Tymoczko|Henle|2004|p=101}}: "As the founder of modern linguistics, Noam Chomsky, observed, each of the following sequences of words is nonsense&nbsp;..."
			* {{harvnb|Tanenhaus|2016}}: "At 87, Noam Chomsky, the founder of modern linguistics, remains a vital presence in American intellectual life."
			}}
			{{efn|name=important|
			* {{harvnb|McNeill|2014}}: " often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals{{nbsp}}..."
			* {{harvnb|Campbell|2005}}: "Noam Chomsky, the linguistics professor who has become one of the most outspoken critics of US foreign policy, has won a poll that names him as the world's top public intellectual."
			* {{harvnb|Robinson|1979}}: "Judged in terms of the power, range, novelty and influence of his thought, Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today."
			* {{harvnb|Flint|1995}}: "The man once called the most important intellectual alive keeps his office in{{nbsp}}... the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology."
			}}
			{{efn|name="most cited"|
			* {{harvnb|Knight|2016|p=2}}: "In 1992, the Arts and Humanities Citation Index ranked him as the most cited person alive (the Index's top ten being Marx, Lenin, Shakespeare, Aristotle, the Bible, Plato, Freud, Chomsky, Hegel and Cicero)."
			* {{harvnb|Babe|2015|p=xvii}}: " was the most cited living scholar between 1980 and 1992 (according to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index)."
			}}
			}}<!-- Please keep the above list-defined references (WP:LDR) in alphabetical order by refname -->
			==References==
			{{reflist|20em}}
			==Sources==
			{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky: Thorn in America's side
			| last = Adams
			| first = Tim
			| newspaper = The Guardian
			| url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/nov/30/highereducation.internationaleducationnews
			| date = November 30, 2003
			| access-date = May 8, 2016
			| archive-date = May 16, 2008
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080516072126/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,11913,1094708,00.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Chomsky s'est exposé, il est donc une cible désignée
			| last = Aeschimann
			| first = Eric
			| newspaper = ]
			| language = fr
			| url = http://www.liberation.fr/monde/0101638536-chomsky-s-est-expose-il-est-donc-une-cible-designee
			| date = May 31, 2010
			| access-date = June 8, 2010
			| quote = {{lang|fr|Chomsky a été violemment blessé du fait qu'une partie des intellectuels français aient pu le croire en accord avec Faurisson, en contradiction avec tous ses engagements et toute sa vie.}}
			| archive-date = September 26, 2012
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120926104322/http://www.liberation.fr/monde/0101638536-chomsky-s-est-expose-il-est-donc-une-cible-designee
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Remembering Tomorrow: From the politics of opposition to what we are for
			| last = Albert | first = Michael | year = 2006
			| publisher = Seven Stories Press
			| pages = 97–99
			| isbn = 978-158322742-8
			}}
			* {{cite book
			|title = The Responsibility of Intellectuals - Reflections by Noam Chomsky and Others after 50 years
			|editor1-last = Allott
			|editor1-first = Nick
			|editor2-last = Knight
			|editor2-first = Chris
			|editor3-last = Smith
			|editor3-first = Neil
			|author2-link = Chris Knight (anthropologist)
			|author3-link = Neil Smith (linguist)
			|year = 2019
			|publisher = UCL Press
			|location = London
			|url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10080589/1/The-Responsibility-of-Intellectuals.pdf
			|isbn = 978-1787355514
			|access-date = September 5, 2019
			|archive-date = September 5, 2019
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190905142256/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10080589/1/The-Responsibility-of-Intellectuals.pdf
			|url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Chomsky and His Critics
			| editor1-last = Antony
			| editor1-first = Louise M.
			| editor2-last = Hornstein
			| editor2-first = Norbert
			| year = 2003
			| publisher = Blackwell Publishing
			| location = Malden, MA
			| url = https://archive.org/details/chomskyhiscritic00anto
			| url-access = limited
			| via = ]
			| page =
			| isbn = 978-0-631-20021-5
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Archbishop Desmond Tutu to speak to Litndeb
			| url = http://www.literaryanddebating.com/press/80-archbishop-desmond-tutu-to-speak-to-litndeb
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110511134531/http://www.literaryanddebating.com/press/80-archbishop-desmond-tutu-to-speak-to-litndeb
			| date = January 9, 2009
			| access-date = May 10, 2016
			| archive-date = May 11, 2011
			| ref = {{harvid|Desmond Tutu to speak to Litndeb|2009}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Author, activist Noam Chomsky to receive award
			| publisher = ]
			| url = http://www.news.wisc.edu/17889
			| date = March 29, 2010
			| access-date = May 10, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|UoW–M|2010}}
			| archive-date = December 9, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151209030516/http://news.wisc.edu/17889
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book |last1=Babe |first1=Robert E. |title=Wilbur Schramm and Noam Chomsky Meet Harold Innis: Media, Power, and Democracy |date=2015 |language=en |isbn=978-1-4985-0682-3 |publisher=Lexington Books }}
			* {{Cite book| title = Musical grammars and computer analysis
			| editor1-last = Baroni | editor1-first = M.
			| editor2-last = Callegari | editor2-first = L.
			| year = 1982
			| publisher = ] | location = Firenze
			| pages = 201–218
			| isbn = 978-882223229-8
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent |title-link=Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent
			| last = Barsky | first = Robert F. | year = 1997
			| author-link = Robert Barsky
			| publisher = ] | location = Cambridge, MA
			| isbn = 978-0-262-02418-1
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = The Chomsky Effect: A Radical Works Beyond the Ivory Tower
			| last = Barsky
			| first = Robert F.
			| year = 2007
			| publisher = MIT Press
			| url = https://archive.org/details/chomskyeffectrad00bars
			| url-access = limited
			| via = ]
			| page =
			| isbn = 978-026202624-6
			}}
			* {{Cite web
			|last=Bauerlein
			|first=Mark
			|date=April 1, 2005 |title=Deconstructing Chomsky
			|url=https://reason.com/2005/04/01/deconstructing-chomsky-2/
			|access-date=May 13, 2023 |website=Reason.com
			|language=en-US
			|archive-date=April 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427013445/https://reason.com/2005/04/01/deconstructing-chomsky-2/
			|url-status=live
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| chapter = Noam Chomsky
			| title = American Decades
			| editor1-last = Baughman
			| editor1-first = Judith S.
			| editor2-last = Bondi
			| editor2-first = Victor
			| editor3-last = Layman
			| editor3-first = Richard
			| editor4-last = McConnell
			| editor4-first = Tandy
			| editor5-last = Tompkins
			| editor5-first = Vincent
			| publisher = ]
			| location = Detroit, MI
			| chapter-url = http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/K1602000339/BIC?sid=BIC&xid=e006a1d5
			| date = 2006
			| ref = {{harvid|Baughman et al.|2006}}
			| access-date = July 12, 2019
			| archive-date = February 14, 2022
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220214050520/https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=&sid=BIC&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DBIC%26u%3D%26id%3DGALE%7CK1602000339%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26sid%3DBIC%26asid%3De006a1d5&prodId=BIC
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Chomsky à Paris: chronique d'un malentendu
			| last = Birnbaum
			| first = Jean
			| newspaper = ]
			| department = Le Monde des Livres
			| language = fr
			| url = http://www.lemonde.fr/livres/article/2010/06/03/chomsky-a-paris-chronique-d-un-malentendu_1367002_3260.html
			| date = June 3, 2010
			| access-date = June 8, 2010
			| quote = {{lang|fr|Le pays de Descartes ignore largement ce rationaliste, la patrie des Lumières se dérobe à ce militant de l'émancipation. Il le sait, et c'est pourquoi il n'y avait pas mis les pieds depuis un quart de siècle.}}
			| archive-date = April 27, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210427222501/https://www.lemonde.fr/livres/article/2010/06/03/chomsky-a-paris-chronique-d-un-malentendu_1367002_3260.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Mind As Machine: a History of Cognitive Science
			| last = Boden
			| first = Margaret A.
			| author-link = Margaret A. Boden
			| year = 2006
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| url = https://archive.org/details/mindasmachinehis0001bode
			| url-access = registration
			| via = ]
			| isbn = 978-019924144-6
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = A History of Applied Linguistics: From 1980 to the Present
			| last = de Bot | first = Kees | year = 2015
			| publisher = Routledge
			| isbn = 978-113882065-4
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Dissident intellectual Noam Chomsky at 90
			| last = Braun
			| first = Stuart
			| year = 2018
			| publisher = Deutsche Welle
			| url = https://www.dw.com/en/dissident-intellectual-noam-chomsky-at-90/a-46629642
			| access-date = August 29, 2019
			| archive-date = October 5, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211005175635/https://www.dw.com/en/dissident-intellectual-noam-chomsky-at-90/a-46629642
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = British Academy announces 2014 prize and medal winners
			| publisher = British Academy
			| url = http://www.britac.ac.uk/news/british-academy-announces-2014-prize-and-medal-winners
			| date = July 24, 2014
			| access-date = July 30, 2017
			| ref = {{harvid|British Academy|2014}}
			| archive-date = October 19, 2017
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171019013628/https://www.britac.ac.uk/news/british-academy-announces-2014-prize-and-medal-winners
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Israel Roiled After Chomsky Barred From West Bank
			| last = Bronner
			| first = Ethan
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/18/world/middleeast/18chomsky.html
			| date = May 17, 2010
			| access-date = May 4, 2016
			| issn = 0362-4331
			| archive-date = August 14, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210814021406/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/18/world/middleeast/18chomsky.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = What the Chomsky-Žižek debate tells us about Snowden's NSA revelations
			| last = Burris
			| first = Greg
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/aug/11/chomsky-zizek-debate-snowden-nsa
			| date = August 11, 2013
			| access-date = June 12, 2018
			| archive-date = October 16, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211016212854/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/aug/11/chomsky-zizek-debate-snowden-nsa
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| chapter = Chomsky hierarchy
			| title = A Dictionary of Computer Science
			| editor1-last = Butterfield
			| editor1-first = Andrew
			| editor2-last = Ngondi
			| editor2-first = Gerard Ekembe
			| editor3-last = Kerr
			| editor3-first = Anne
			| year = 2016
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| chapter-url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001/acref-9780199688975-e-729
			| isbn = 978-0-19-968897-5
			| access-date = August 24, 2019
			| archive-date = April 28, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210428034105/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001/acref-9780199688975-e-729
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Chomsky is voted world's top public intellectual
			| last = Campbell
			| first = Duncan
			| author-link = Duncan Campbell (journalist, born 1944)
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/oct/18/books.highereducation
			| date = October 18, 2005
			| issn = 0261-3077
			| access-date = December 20, 2019
			| archive-date = June 15, 2013
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615121100/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/oct/18/books.highereducation
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Chomsky
			| publisher = inventio-musikverlag.de
			| url = http://www.inventio-musikverlag.de/shop/chomsky/
			| access-date = May 11, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|Inventio Musikverlag}}
			| archive-date = August 5, 2016
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160805050422/http://www.inventio-musikverlag.de/shop/chomsky/
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Chomsky Amid the Philosophers
			| publisher = University of East Anglia
			| url = http://www.uea.ac.uk/~j108/chomsky.htm
			| access-date = January 8, 2014
			| ref = {{harvid|Amid the Philosophers}}
			| archive-date = November 13, 2013
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131113154032/http://www.uea.ac.uk/~j108/chomsky.htm
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Interview with Noam Chomsky on the beginnings of generative grammar
			| last = Chomsky
			| first = Noam
			| year = 2022
			| website = hiphilangsci.net
			| url = https://hiphilangsci.net/2022/03/01/podcast-episode-23/
			| access-date = February 28, 2024
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = The 'Chomskyan Era' (excerpted from The Architecture of Language)
			| last = Chomsky
			| first = Noam
			| website = Chomsky.info
			| url = https://chomsky.info/architecture01/
			| access-date = January 3, 2017
			| archive-date = September 23, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923203049/http://www.chomsky.info/books/architecture01.htm
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Linguistics and Cognitive Science: Problems and Mysteries
			| last = Chomsky | first = Noam | year = 1991
			| editor-last = Kasher | editor-first = Asa
			| publisher = Blackwell | location = Oxford
			| page = 50
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Class Warfare: Interviews with David Barsamian
			| last = Chomsky | first = Noam | year = 1996
			| publisher = Pluto Press
			| pages = 135–136
			| isbn = 978-074531137-1
			}}
			* {{Cite web
			| title = Is the US Ready for Socialism? An Interview With Noam Chomsky
			| last = Chomsky
			| first = Noam
			| interviewer = C.J. Polychroniou
			| website = ]
			| url = https://truthout.org/articles/is-the-us-ready-for-socialism-an-interview-with-noam-chomsky/
			| date = May 18, 2016
			| access-date = July 19, 2019
			| archive-date = August 17, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210817053804/https://truthout.org/articles/is-the-us-ready-for-socialism-an-interview-with-noam-chomsky/
			| url-status = live
			}} also available, in part, on {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308010112/https://chomsky.info/05182016/ |date=March 8, 2021 }}.
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Chomsky: Saudi Arabia is the "Center of Radical Islamic Extremism" Now Spreading Among Sunni Muslims
			| website = ]
			| url = http://www.democracynow.org/2016/5/17/chomsky_saudi_arabia_is_the_center
			| date = May 17, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|''Democracy Now!''|2016}}
			| access-date = July 29, 2016
			| archive-date = April 15, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210415080301/https://www.democracynow.org/2016/5/17/chomsky_saudi_arabia_is_the_center
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = Language as shaped by the brain
			| last1 = Christiansen | first1 = Morten H.
			| last2 = Chater | first2 = Nick
			| author1-link = Morten H. Christiansen
			| journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences
			| date = October 2010 | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 489–509
			| doi = 10.1017/S0140525X08004998 | issn = 1469-1825 | pmid = 18826669
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Some reflections on Chomsky's notion of reference
			| last = Cipriani | first = Enrico
			| journal = Linguistics Beyond and within
			| year = 2016 | volume = 2 | pages = 44–60
			| doi = 10.31743/lingbaw.5637
			| doi-access = free
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers
			| last = Cohn | first = Werner | year = 1995
			| orig-year = First published 1985
			| publisher = Avukah Press | location = Cambridge, MA
			| isbn = 978-0-9645897-0-4
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = New Statesman – Heroes of our time – the top 50
			| last = Cowley
			| first = Jason
			| magazine = ]
			| url = http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061227165815/http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016
			| date = May 22, 2006
			| access-date = December 9, 2015
			| archive-date = December 27, 2006
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Computability, complexity, and languages: fundamentals of theoretical computer science
			| edition = 2nd
			| last1 = Davis
			| first1 = Martin
			| last2 = Weyuker
			| first2 = Elaine J.
			| last3 = Sigal
			| first3 = Ron
			| author1-link = Martin Davis (mathematician)
			| author2-link = Elaine Weyuker
			| year = 1994
			| publisher = Academic Press, Harcourt, Brace
			| location = Boston
			| url = https://archive.org/details/computabilitycom00davi_405
			| url-access = limited
			| via = ]
			| page =
			| isbn = 978-0-12-206382-4
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Denied Entry: Israel Blocks Noam Chomsky from Entering West Bank to Deliver Speech
			| website = Democracy Now!
			| url = http://www.democracynow.org/2010/5/17/denied_entry_israel_blocks_noam_chomsky
			| date = May 17, 2010
			| access-date = May 4, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|''Democracy Now!''|2010}}
			| archive-date = April 27, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210427204341/https://www.democracynow.org/2010/5/17/denied_entry_israel_blocks_noam_chomsky
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky's Theory Of Universal Grammar Is Right; It's Hardwired Into Our Brains
			| last = Dovey
			| first = Dana
			| newspaper = Medical Daily
			| url = http://www.medicaldaily.com/noam-chomskys-theory-universal-grammar-right-its-hardwired-our-brains-364236
			| date = December 7, 2015
			| access-date = August 4, 2017
			| archive-date = November 12, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211112210837/https://www.medicaldaily.com/noam-chomskys-theory-universal-grammar-right-its-hardwired-our-brains-364236
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = The Erdös Number Project
			| publisher = Oakland University
			| url = http://www.oakland.edu/enp/erdpaths/
			| date = November 21, 2017
			| access-date = December 18, 2017
			| ref = {{harvid|Erdös Number at Oakland Univ|2017}}
			| archive-date = October 22, 2018
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181022002836/http://www.oakland.edu/enp/erdpaths/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Erich-Fromm-Preis: Noam Chomsky in Stuttgart geehrt
			| agency = ]
			| newspaper = ]
			| language = de
			| url = https://www.stuttgarter-zeitung.de/inhalt.erich-fromm-preis-noam-chomsky-in-stuttgart-geehrt.9bfe6567-b195-45f1-acf4-6d9d19831972.html
			| date = March 23, 2010
			| access-date = August 22, 2019
			| ref = {{harvid|Deutsche Presse-Agentur|2010}}
			| archive-date = August 16, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816054840/https://www.stuttgarter-zeitung.de/inhalt.erich-fromm-preis-noam-chomsky-in-stuttgart-geehrt.9bfe6567-b195-45f1-acf4-6d9d19831972.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science
			| last1 = Evans | first1 = Nicholas
			| last2 = Levinson | first2 = Stephen C.
			| author1-link = Nicholas Evans (linguist)
			| author2-link = Stephen C. Levinson
			| journal = ]
			| date = October 2009 | volume = 32 | issue = 5 | pages = 429–448
			| doi = 10.1017/S0140525X0999094X | issn = 1469-1825 | pmid = 19857320
			| doi-access = free
			| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0012-C29E-4| hdl-access = free}}
			* {{cite book| chapter = Language learning in infancy
			| last1 = Fernald | first1 = Anne
			| last2 = Marchman | first2 = Virginia A.
			| title = Handbook of Psycholinguistics
			| editor1-last = Traxler | editor1-first = Matthew
			| editor2-last = Gernsbacher | editor2-first = Morton Ann
			| publisher = Academic Press
			| date = 2006 | pages = 1027–1071
			| isbn = 978-008046641-5
			}}
			* {{cite news| title = Divided Legacy
			| last = Flint | first = Anthony
			| newspaper = ]
			| page = 25
			| date = November 19, 1995
			| id = {{ProQuest|290754647}} | issn = 0743-1791
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies
			| last = Fox
			| first = Margalit
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/05/arts/a-changed-noam-chomsky-simplifies.html
			| date = December 5, 1998
			| access-date = February 22, 2016
			| issn = 0362-4331
			| archive-date = April 27, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210427221420/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/05/arts/a-changed-noam-chomsky-simplifies.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = The Textbook and the Lecture: Education in the Age of New Media
			| last = Friesen | first = Norm
			| author-link = Norm Friesen
			| publisher = ]
			| year = 2017
			| isbn = 978-1421424347
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = John W. Backus (1924–2007)
			| last = Fulton
			| first = Scott M. III
			| publisher = BetaNews
			| url = http://betanews.com/2007/03/20/john-w-backus-1924-2007/
			| date = March 20, 2007
			| access-date = January 8, 2014
			| archive-date = April 22, 2014
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140422075734/http://betanews.com/2007/03/20/john-w-backus-1924-2007/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| chapter = 15: Noam Chomsky and the Question of Palestine/Israel: Bearing Witness
			| last = Gendzier | first = Irene | year = 2017
			| title = The Cambridge Companion to Chomsky | edition = 2nd
			| editor-last = McGilvray | editor-first = James
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| pages = 314–329
			| isbn = 978-1316738757
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Review: Noam Chomsky Focuses on Financial Inequality in 'Requiem for the American Dream'
			| last = Gold
			| first = Daniel M.
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/29/movies/review-noam-chomsky-focuses-on-financial-inequality.html
			| date = January 28, 2016
			| access-date = June 1, 2016
			| issn = 0362-4331
			| archive-date = August 17, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210817023524/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/29/movies/review-noam-chomsky-focuses-on-financial-inequality.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Official Transcript for Gould's deposition in McLean v. Arkansas
			| last = Gould
			| first = S. J.
			| year = 1981
			| url = http://www.antievolution.org/projects/mclean/new_site/depos/pf_gould_dep.htm
			| access-date = January 8, 2014
			| archive-date = February 18, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150218210726/http://www.antievolution.org/projects/mclean/new_site/depos/pf_gould_dep.htm
			| url-status = usurped
			}}
			* {{Cite encyclopedia
			| title = Behaviorism
			| edition = Spring 2019
			| last = Graham
			| first = George
			| encyclopedia = ]
			| editor-last = Zalta
			| editor-first = Edward N.
			| publisher = Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
			| url = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/behaviorism/
			| date = 2019
			| access-date = July 19, 2019
			| archive-date = December 19, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211219123402/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/behaviorism/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = The Age of the Crisis of Man: Thought and Fiction in America, 1933–1973
			| title-link = The Age of the Crisis of Man: Thought and Fiction in America, 1933–1973
			| last = Greif | first = Mark
			| author-link = Mark Greif
			| publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, N.J.
			| date = 2015
			| isbn = 978-0-691-14639-3
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Chomsky in search of a pedigree
			| last1 = Hamans
			| first1 = Camiel
			| last2 = Seuren
			| first2 = Pieter A. M.
			| title = Chomskyan (R)evolutions
			| editor-last = Kibbee
			| editor-first = Douglas A.
			| publisher = John Benjamins
			| chapter-url = https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_357853/component/file_2441943/content
			| date = 2010
			| pages = 377–394
			| isbn = 978-9027211699
			| access-date = December 23, 2020
			| archive-date = November 28, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211128133250/https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_357853/component/file_2441943/content
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Extracts form 'An historian's appraisal of the political writings of Noam Chomsky'
			| last = Harbord
			| first = Shaun
			| year = 1994
			| title = Noam Chomsky: Critical Assessments, Volumes 2–3
			| editor-last = Otero
			| editor-first = Carlos Peregrín
			| publisher = Taylor & Francis
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MRdIAV5IVgoC&pg=PA487
			| page = 487
			| isbn = 978-0-415-10694-8
			| access-date = May 31, 2019
			| archive-date = August 16, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816013932/https://books.google.com/books?id=MRdIAV5IVgoC&pg=PA487
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite encyclopedia
			| title = Transformational Grammar: Evolution
			| last = Harlow
			| first = S. J.
			| encyclopedia = Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics
			| editor1-last = Barber
			| editor1-first = Alex
			| editor2-last = Stainton
			| editor2-first = Robert J.
			| publisher = Elsevier
			| via = ]
			| date = 2010
			| pages = –770
			| url = https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00barb
			| url-access = limited
			| isbn = 978-0-08-096501-7
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Chomsky's other Revolution
			| last = Harris
			| first = R. Allen
			| year = 2010
			| title = Chomskyan (R)evolutions
			| editor-last = Kibbee
			| editor-first = Douglas A.
			| publisher = ]
			| location = Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA
			| url = https://archive.org/details/chomskyanrevolut00kibb
			| url-access = limited
			| via = ]
			| pages = –265
			| isbn = 978-90-272-1169-9
			}}
			* {{cite book
			|title = The Linguistics Wars: Chomsky, Lakoff, and the Battle over Deep Structure
			|last1 = Harris
			|first1 = Randy Allen
			|year = 2021
			|publisher = Oxford University Press
			|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x3o_EAAAQBAJ&q=randy+chomsky+wars
			|isbn = 978-0199740338
			|access-date = February 7, 2022
			|archive-date = February 14, 2022
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220214050506/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Linguistics_Wars/x3o_EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=randy+chomsky+wars&printsec=frontcover
			|url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky to Teach Politics Course In Spring
			| last = Harwood
			| first = Lori
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = https://uanews.arizona.edu/story/noam-chomsky-teach-politics-course-spring
			| date = November 21, 2016
			| access-date = February 4, 2017
			| archive-date = June 13, 2020
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200613225622/https://uanews.arizona.edu/story/noam-chomsky-teach-politics-course-spring
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Prolegomena to a Theory of Language
			| last = Hjelmslev | first = Louis
			| author-link = Louis Hjelmslev
			| orig-year = First published 1943
			| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press
			| date = 1969
			| isbn = 0299024709
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Honorary Members of IAPTI
			| publisher = ]
			| url = https://www.iapti.org/honorary_members/
			| access-date = December 26, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|Honorary Members of IAPTI}}
			| archive-date = January 18, 2017
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170118211653/https://www.iapti.org/honorary_members/
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Honors & Awards
			| magazine = Soundings
			| url = http://web.mit.edu/shass/soundings/issue_02f/dep_honors_02f.html
			| date =Fall 2002
			| access-date = May 12, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|''Soundings''|2002}}
			| archive-date = March 8, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210308024027/http://web.mit.edu/shass/soundings/issue_02f/dep_honors_02f.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite encyclopedia
			| title = Minimalist Program
			| last = Hornstein
			| first = Norbert
			| encyclopedia = International Encyclopedia of Linguistics
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195139778.001.0001/acref-9780195139778-e-0686
			| date = 2003
			| isbn = 978-0-19-513977-8
			| access-date = August 24, 2019
			| archive-date = April 28, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210428033710/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195139778.001.0001/acref-9780195139778-e-0686
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = The Sick Mind of Noam Chomsky
			| last = Horowitz
			| first = David
			| website = ]
			| url = http://www.salon.com/2001/09/26/treason_2/
			| url-status = live
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130506041118/http://www.salon.com/2001/09/26/treason_2
			| date = September 26, 2001
			| archive-date = May 6, 2013
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Exclusive: After Multiple Denials, CIA Admits to Snooping on Noam Chomsky
			| last = Hudson
			| first = John
			| magazine = Foreign Policy
			| url = https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/08/13/exclusive-after-multiple-denials-cia-admits-to-snooping-on-noam-chomsky/
			| date = August 13, 2013
			| access-date = December 7, 2016
			| archive-date = December 11, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211211000918/https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/08/13/exclusive-after-multiple-denials-cia-admits-to-snooping-on-noam-chomsky/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = Linguistics and the state: How funding and politics shape a field | last1 = Hutton | first1 = Christopher | journal = International Journal of the Sociology of Language | date = April 30, 2020 | issue = 263 | pages = 31–36 | doi = 10.1515/ijsl-2020-2079 | s2cid = 219168139 | doi-access = free }}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Sydney Peace Prize goes to Chomsky
			| last = Huxley
			| first = John
			| newspaper = The Sydney Morning Herald
			| url = https://www.smh.com.au/national/sydney-peace-prize-goes-to-chomsky-20110601-1fgws.html
			| date = June 2, 2011
			| access-date = December 23, 2015
			| archive-date = August 14, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210814124325/https://www.smh.com.au/national/sydney-peace-prize-goes-to-chomsky-20110601-1fgws.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = AI's Hall of Fame
			| journal = IEEE Intelligent Systems
			| date = August 1, 2011
			| volume = 26
			| issue = 4
			| pages = 5–15
			| doi = 10.1109/MIS.2011.64
			| url = https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5968105
			| ref = {{harvid|IEEE Xplore|2011}}
			| access-date = October 8, 2023
			| archive-date = June 30, 2019
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190630035238/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5968105
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Interview: Noam Chomsky Speaks Out On Education and Power
			| website = Soundtracksforthem
			| url = http://soundtracksforthem.com/blog/?p=81
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110513224447/http://soundtracksforthem.com/blog/?p=81
			| date = September 20, 2005
			| access-date = May 10, 2016
			| archive-date = May 13, 2011
			| ref = {{harvid|Soundtracksforthem: Interview|2005}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Israel: Chomsky ban 'big mistake'
			| publisher = Al Jazeera
			| url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2010/05/201051904343834346.html
			| date = May 20, 2010
			| access-date = May 4, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|Al Jazeera|2010}}
			| archive-date = October 14, 2019
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191014162043/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2010/05/201051904343834346.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Conscience of a nation
			| last = Jaggi
			| first = Maya
			| author-link = Maya Jaggi
			| newspaper = The Guardian
			| url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/jan/20/society.politics
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150111052153/http://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/Jan/20/society.politics
			| date = January 20, 2001
			| access-date = May 11, 2016
			| archive-date = January 11, 2015
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Jamia Millia Islamia named a complex honoring Noam Chomsky
			| publisher = ]
			| url = http://jmi.ac.in/bulletinboard/press-releases/latest/Honble_Minister_for_Human_Resource_Development_Shri_Arjun_Singh_visiting_Jamia_Millia_Islamia_on_04_05_2007-459
			| date = May 3, 2007
			| access-date = May 3, 2007
			| ref = {{harvid|JMI|2007}}
			| archive-date = April 27, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210427204322/https://www.jmi.ac.in/bulletinboard/press-releases/latest/Honble_Minister_for_Human_Resource_Development_Shri_Arjun_Singh_visiting_Jamia_Millia_Islamia_on_04_05_2007-459
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Palestinians Divided Over Boycott of Israeli Universities
			| last = Kalman
			| first = Matthew
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/20/world/middleeast/palestinians-divided-over-boycott-of-israeli-universities.html
			| date = January 19, 2014
			| issn = 0362-4331
			| access-date = June 29, 2019
			| archive-date = August 16, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816224120/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/20/world/middleeast/palestinians-divided-over-boycott-of-israeli-universities.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| title = The Monomania of an Anti-American Prophet
			| last = Kay
			| first = Jonathan
			| magazine = ]
			| url = https://www.commentarymagazine.com/culture-civilization/noam-chomskys-monomanical-antiamericanism/
			| url-status = live
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160107055440/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/culture-civilization/noam-chomskys-monomanical-antiamericanism/
			| date = May 12, 2011
			| archive-date = January 7, 2016
			}}
			* {{Cite web
			| title = Writer, Creator, Journalist, and Uppity Woman: Ann Nocenti
			| last = Keller
			| first = Katherine
			| website = Sequential Tart
			| url = http://www.sequentialtart.com/article.php?id=737
			| date = November 12, 2007
			| access-date = July 27, 2013
			| archive-date = September 4, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150904005358/http://www.sequentialtart.com/article.php?id=737
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book| title = ]: Science and Revolutionary Politics
			| last = Knight | first = Chris | year = 2016
			| publisher = Yale University Press
			| isbn = 978-0300228762
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = When the Pentagon Looked to Chomsky's Linguistics for their Weapons Systems
			| last = Knight
			| first = Chris
			| website = ]
			| url = http://www.3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2018/03/when-the-pentagon-looked-to-chomskys-linguistics-for-their-weapons-systems.html
			| date = March 12, 2018a
			| access-date = March 14, 2018
			| archive-date = November 25, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211125202259/https://3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2018/03/when-the-pentagon-looked-to-chomskys-linguistics-for-their-weapons-systems.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| chapter = Preface
			| last = Knuth | first = Donald | year = 2002
			| title = Selected Papers on Computer Languages
			| publisher = Center for the Study of Language and Information
			| isbn = 978-1-57586-381-8
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Preface: a mathematical theory of language in which I could use a computer programmer's intuition
			| last = Knuth
			| first = Donald E.
			| title = Selected Papers on Computer Languages
			| url = https://archive.org/details/selectedpaperson00knut_374
			| url-access = limited
			| via = ]
			| date = 2003
			| page =
			| publisher = CSLI Publications, Center for the Study of Language and Information
			| isbn = 1-57586-382-0
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Knuth: Selected Papers on Computer Languages
			| publisher = Stanford University
			| year = 2003
			| url = http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/cl.html
			| isbn = 1575863812
			| ref = {{harvid|Knuth at Stanford University|2003}}
			| access-date = August 10, 2011
			| archive-date = August 20, 2018
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180820080806/https://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/cl.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| chapter = Towards a historiography of linguistics
			| last = Koerner | first = E. F. K.
			| title = Toward a Historiography of Linguistics: Selected Essays
			| publisher = John Benjamins
			| date = 1978 | pages = 21–54
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = The Chomskyan 'revolution' and its historiography: a few critical remarks
			| last = Koerner | first = E. F. K.
			| journal = Language & Communication
			| year = 1983 | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 147–169
			| doi = 10.1016/0271-5309(83)90012-5
			}}
			*{{Cite web
			|last=Kozloff
			|first=Nikolas
			|title=Chomsky, Ali, and the failure to challenge the authoritarian left
			|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2012/9/22/chomsky-ali-and-the-failure-to-challenge-the-authoritarian-left
			|date=September 22, 2012 |access-date=May 12, 2023 |website=Al Jazeera
			|language=en
			|archive-date=April 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427215550/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2012/9/22/chomsky-ali-and-the-failure-to-challenge-the-authoritarian-left
			|url-status=live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Lecture 6: Evolutionary Psychology, Problem Solving, and 'Machiavellian' Intelligence
			| publisher = School of Psychology, Massey University
			| year = 1996
			| url = http://evolution.massey.ac.nz/lecture6/lect600.htm
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070117055247/http://evolution.massey.ac.nz/lecture6/lect600.htm
			| access-date = September 4, 2007
			| archive-date = January 17, 2007
			| ref = {{harvid|Massey University|1996}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Let me introduce myself – leafcutter bee Megachile chomskyi from Texas
			| publisher = Pensoft
			| url = https://www.pensoft.net/news.php?n=230
			| access-date = May 10, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|Pensoft (bee)}}
			| archive-date = February 14, 2022
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220214050518/https://blog.pensoft.net/2013/04/04/let-me-introduce-myself-leafcutter-bee-megachile-chomskyi-from-texas/?n=230
			| url-status = live
			}}
			*{{Cite news
			|last=Landau
			|first=Saul
			|date=February 21, 1988 |title=Noam Chomsky and the Tyranny of the Privileged
			|language=en-US
			|newspaper=The Washington Post
			|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1988/02/21/noam-chomsky-and-the-tyranny-of-the-privileged/203c9dbb-6116-4c5e-ba0b-fdd15ed30500/
			|access-date=April 25, 2023 |issn=0190-8286
			|archive-date=November 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125224710/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1988/02/21/noam-chomsky-and-the-tyranny-of-the-privileged/203c9dbb-6116-4c5e-ba0b-fdd15ed30500/
			|url-status=live
			}}
			* {{Cite web
			|last=Lott
			|first=Jeremy
			|date=April 1, 2006 |title=I'm OK—You're a Hypocrite
			|url=https://reason.com/2006/04/01/im-ok-youre-a-hypocrite/
			|access-date=May 13, 2023 |website=Reason.com
			|language=en-US
			|archive-date=April 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405091934/https://reason.com/2006/04/01/im-ok-youre-a-hypocrite/
			|url-status=live
			}}
			* {{cite book | title = Noam Chomsky | edition = revised | last = Lyons | first = John | year = 1978 | author-link = John Lyons (linguist) | publisher = Penguin | location = Harmondsworth | url = https://archive.org/details/noamchomsky0000lyon | url-access = registration | via = ] | isbn = 978-0-14-004370-9 }}
			* {{Cite journal | title = On Chomsky's review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior
			| last = MacCorquodale | first = Kenneth
			| journal = ]
			| date = January 1970 | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–99
			| doi = 10.1901/jeab.1970.13-83 | issn = 0022-5002 | pmc = 1333660
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Linguist Noam Chomsky joins University of Arizona faculty
			| last = Mace
			| first = Mikayla
			| newspaper = Arizona Daily Star
			| url = https://tucson.com/news/linguist-noam-chomsky-joins-university-of-arizona-faculty/article_5e150bc8-1e7d-528b-afe7-eb3faf1c78f4.html
			| date = August 18, 2017
			| access-date = July 27, 2018
			| archive-date = April 27, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210427222831/https://tucson.com/news/linguist-noam-chomsky-joins-university-of-arizona-faculty/article_5e150bc8-1e7d-528b-afe7-eb3faf1c78f4.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Chomsky refused entry into West Bank
			| last = Macintyre
			| first = Donald
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/chomsky-refused-entry-into-west-bank-1975189.html
			| date = May 17, 2010
			| access-date = June 12, 2018
			| archive-date = June 12, 2018
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180612153444/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/chomsky-refused-entry-into-west-bank-1975189.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book | title = Chomsky: Language, Mind, Politics | edition = 2nd | last = McGilvray | first = James | year = 2014 | publisher = Polity | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-7456-4989-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/chomskylanguagem0000mcgi_s2h6 }}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky: Truth to power
			| last = McNeill
			| first = David
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/02/22/world/politics-diplomacy-world/noam-chomsky-truth-to-power/
			| date = February 22, 2014
			| access-date = June 12, 2018
			| archive-date = November 24, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211124091254/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/02/22/world/politics-diplomacy-world/noam-chomsky-truth-to-power/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = 'US foreign policy is straight out of the mafia' <!-- Deny Citation Bot -->
			| last = Milne
			| first = Seumas
			| newspaper = The Guardian
			| url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/07/noam-chomsky-us-foreign-policy
			| date = November 7, 2009
			| access-date = June 3, 2017
			| archive-date = December 16, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211216152656/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/07/noam-chomsky-us-foreign-policy
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* <!--see note in ]
			{{cite encyclopedia| title = Language Theory
			| last = Morris | first = Derrick | year = 2013
			| encyclopedia = Concise Encyclopedia of Software Engineering
			| publisher = Elsevier Science
			| page = 189
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qv8gBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA189
			| isbn = 978-1-4832-8684-6
			}}-->
			* {{cite book
			| title = Courting Democracy in Bosnia and Herzegovina
			| last = Nettelfield
			| first = Lara J.
			| year = 2010
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bl9KT9NME0C&pg=PA142
			| isbn = 978-0521763806
			| access-date = August 30, 2019
			| archive-date = August 16, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816101250/https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bl9KT9NME0C&pg=PA142
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Nikolic presented the Sretenje Order
			| script-title = sr:Николић уручио Сретењско ордење
			| newspaper = ]
			| language = sr
			| url = http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/319194/Nikolic-urucio-Sretenjsko-ordenje
			| date = February 15, 2015
			| access-date = January 27, 2021
			| ref = {{harvid|''Politika''|2015}}
			| archive-date = February 5, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210205140551/http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/319194/Nikolic-urucio-Sretenjsko-ordenje
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Noam Chomsky
			| publisher = MIT Linguistics Program
			| year = 2002
			| url = https://chomsky.info/2002____/
			| via = chomsky.info
			| access-date = January 3, 2017
			| ref = {{harvid|MIT Linguistics Program|2002}}
			| archive-date = September 17, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150917044226/http://www.chomsky.info/bios/2002----.htm
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| chapter = Noam Chomsky
			| title = Contemporary Authors Online
			| title-link = Contemporary Authors Online
			| publisher = ]
			| location = Detroit, MI
			| series = Biography in Context
			| chapter-url = http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/H1000017846/BIC?sid=BIC&xid=c79e828a
			| date = 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|Contemporary Authors Online|2016}}
			| access-date = July 12, 2019
			| archive-date = February 14, 2022
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220214050524/https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=&sid=BIC&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DBIC%26u%3D%26id%3DGALE%7CH1000017846%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26sid%3DBIC%26asid%3Dc79e828a&prodId=BIC
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Noam Chomsky Awarded 2011 US Peace Prize
			| publisher = US Memorial Peace Foundation
			| url = https://www.uspeacememorial.org/PEACEPRIZE.htm
			| access-date = January 7, 2020
			| ref = {{harvid|US Memorial Peace Foundation}}
			| archive-date = March 9, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210309123504/https://www.uspeacememorial.org/PEACEPRIZE.htm
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky on Life & Love: Still Going at 86, Renowned Dissident is Newly Married
			| website = Democracy Now!
			| url = http://www.democracynow.org/2015/3/3/noam_chomsky_on_life_love_still
			| date = March 3, 2015
			| access-date = May 11, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|''Democracy Now!''|2015}}
			| archive-date = June 10, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210610151827/https://www.democracynow.org/2015/3/3/noam_chomsky_on_life_love_still
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = MIT claims to have found a "language universal" that ties all languages together
			| last = O'Grady
			| first = Cathleen
			| website = ]
			| url = https://arstechnica.com/science/2015/08/mit-claims-to-have-found-a-language-universal-that-ties-all-languages-together/
			| date = June 8, 2015
			| doi = 10.1073/pnas.1502134112
			| doi-access = free
			| access-date = June 14, 2017
			| archive-date = December 15, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211215050931/https://arstechnica.com/science/2015/08/mit-claims-to-have-found-a-language-universal-that-ties-all-languages-together/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = The one hundred most influential works in cognitive science
			| publisher = Center for Cognitive Sciences, Minnesota State University
			| url = http://web.mnstate.edu/schwartz/cogsci100.htm
			| access-date = November 29, 2015
			| ref = {{harvid|MSUM Cognitive Sciences}}
			| archive-date = August 16, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816231346/http://web.mnstate.edu/schwartz/cogsci100.htm
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Chomsky joins University of Arizona faculty
			| last = Ortiz
			| first = Aimee
			| newspaper = The Boston Globe
			| url = https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/08/28/chomsky-joins-university-arizona-faculty/JYdA9TjGk6OeBwa7Q8fPjJ/story.html
			| date = August 28, 2017
			| access-date = October 24, 2017
			| archive-date = December 20, 2018
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181220093327/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/08/28/chomsky-joins-university-arizona-faculty/JYdA9TjGk6OeBwa7Q8fPjJ/story.html
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| contribution = Editor's notes to Selection 4 ("Perspectives on language and mind")
			| contributor-last = Otero
			| contributor-first = Carlos Peregrín
			| year = 2003
			| last = Chomsky
			| first = Noam
			| title = Chomsky on Democracy & Education
			| editor-last = Otero
			| editor-first = Carlos Peregrín
			| publisher = Psychology Press
			| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3ORu91WxxL4C&pg=PA416
			| page = 416
			| isbn = 978-0415926324
			| access-date = August 20, 2019
			| archive-date = August 18, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210818072135/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ORu91WxxL4C&pg=PA416
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Systematics of Huicundomantis, a new subgenus of Pristimantis (Anura, Strabomantidae) with extraordinary cryptic diversity and eleven new species
			| last = Páez | first = Nadia
			| journal = ]
			| year = 2019 | issue = 868 | pages = 1–112
			| doi = 10.3897/zookeys.868.26766 | issn = 1313-2970 | pmc = 6687670 | pmid = 31406482
			| bibcode = 2019ZooK..868....1P | doi-access = free }}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Asking What a Meaning ''Does'': David Lewis's Contribution to Semantics
			| last = Partee
			| first = Barbara H.
			| year = 2015
			| author-link = Barbara Partee
			| title = A Companion to David Lewis
			| editor1-last = Loewer
			| editor1-first = Barry
			| editor1-link = Barry Loewer
			| editor2-last = Schaffer
			| editor2-first = Jonathan
			| editor2-link = Jonathan Schaffer
			| publisher = ]
			| series = Blackwell Companions to Philosophy
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=z9FuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA328
			| isbn = 978-1118388181
			| access-date = February 8, 2020
			| archive-date = August 16, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816112618/https://books.google.com/books?id=z9FuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA328
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory | edition = 2nd
			| editor1-last = Persson | editor1-first = Ingmar
			| editor2-last = LaFollette | editor2-first = Hugh
			| year = 2013
			| publisher = John Wiley & Sons
			| isbn = 978-1-118-51426-9
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky barred by Israelis from lecturing in Palestinian West Bank
			| last = Pilkington
			| first = Ed
			| newspaper = The Guardian
			| url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/16/israel-noam-chomsky-palestinian-west-bank
			| date = May 16, 2010
			| access-date = May 4, 2016
			| archive-date = August 17, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210817092855/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/16/israel-noam-chomsky-palestinian-west-bank
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Press release: Séan MacBride Peace Prize 2017
			| publisher = ]
			| location = Berlin
			| url = http://www.ipb.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Press-release_MacBride-Peace-Prize-2017.pdf
			| date = September 6, 2017
			| access-date = December 9, 2017
			| ref = {{harvid|IPB|2017}}
			| archive-date = February 25, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210225161853/http://www.ipb.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Press-release_MacBride-Peace-Prize-2017.pdf
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Narrative, Religion and Science: Fundamentalism Versus Irony, 1700–1999
			| last = Prickett
			| first = Stephen
			| year = 2002
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| url = https://archive.org/details/narrativereligio00pric
			| url-access = limited
			| via = ]
			| page =
			| isbn = 978-0-521-00983-6
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| title = Prospect/FP Top 100 Public Intellectuals Results
			| magazine = ]
			| url = https://foreignpolicy.com/2005/10/15/prospectfp-top-100-public-intellectuals-results
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051025155541/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3260
			| date = October 15, 2005
			| access-date = November 30, 2015
			| archive-date = October 25, 2005
			| ref = {{harvid|''Foreign Policy''|2005}}
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = Empirical assessment of stimulus poverty arguments
			| last1 = Pullum
			| first1 = Geoffrey
			| last2 = Scholz
			| first2 = Barbara
			| journal = The Linguistic Review
			| year = 2002
			| volume = 18
			| issue = 1–2
			| pages = 9–50
			| url = http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/research/pullum.pdf
			| doi = 10.1515/tlir.19.1-2.9
			| s2cid = 143735248
			| access-date = December 22, 2020
			| archive-date = February 3, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210203111631/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/research/pullum.pdf
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = Reflections on a Lifetime of Engagement with Zionism, the Palestine Question, and American Empire: An Interview with Noam Chomsky
			| last = Rabbani
			| first = Mouin
			| author-link = Mouin Rabbani
			| journal = ]
			| year = 2012
			| volume = 41
			| issue = 3
			| pages = 92–120
			| url = http://www.palestine-studies.org/journals.aspx?id=11394&jid=1&href=fulltext
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120803030604/http://www.palestine-studies.org/journals.aspx?id=11394&jid=1&href=fulltext
			| archive-date = August 3, 2012
			| doi = 10.1525/jps.2012.XLI.3.92
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = The Simian Tongue: The Long Debate about Animal Language
			| last = Radick
			| first = Gregory
			| year = 2007
			| publisher = University of Chicago Press
			| url = https://archive.org/details/simiantonguelong00radi/page/320
			| via = ]
			| isbn = 978-0226702247
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Chomsky's Politics
			| last = Rai
			| first = Milan
			| author-link = Milan Rai
			| publisher = Verso
			| url = https://archive.org/details/chomskyspolitics00raim
			| via = ]
			| date = 1995
			| isbn = 978-1-85984-011-5
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = The Chomsky Problem
			| last = Robinson
			| first = Paul
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1979/02/25/archives/the-chomsky-problem-chomsky.html
			| date = February 25, 1979
			| issn = 0362-4331
			| access-date = December 20, 2019
			| archive-date = December 23, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211223181609/https://www.nytimes.com/1979/02/25/archives/the-chomsky-problem-chomsky.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite journal
			| title = A generative grammar approach to diatonic harmonic structure
			| last = Rohrmeier
			| first = Martin
			| editor1-last = Spyridis
			| editor1-first = Georgaki
			| editor2-last = Kouroupetroglou
			| editor2-first = Anagnostopoulou
			| journal = Proceedings of the 4th Sound and Music Computing Conference
			| year = 2007
			| pages = 97–100
			| url = http://smc07.uoa.gr/SMC07%20Proceedings/SMC07%20Paper%2015.pdf
			| access-date = November 29, 2015
			| archive-date = August 14, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210814130536/http://smc07.uoa.gr/SMC07%20Proceedings/SMC07%20Paper%2015.pdf
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = A biological infrastructure for communication underlies the cultural evolution of languages
			| last1 = Ruiter | first1 = J. P. de
			| last2 = Levinson | first2 = Stephen C.
			| author2-link = Stephen Levinson
			| journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences
			| date = October 2010 | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | page = 518
			| doi = 10.1017/S0140525X08005086 | issn = 1469-1825
			| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1FE2-5| hdl-access = free}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = SASA Member
			| publisher = ]
			| url = http://www.sanu.ac.rs/English/Clanstvo/Clan.aspx?arg=1401,
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111249/http://www.sanu.ac.rs/English/Clanstvo/Clan.aspx?arg=1401,
			| date = October 30, 2003
			| archive-date = March 4, 2016
			| ref = {{harvid|SASA foreign membership|2003}}
			}}
			* {{Cite web
			|title=Noam Chomsky, Closet Capitalist
			|url=https://www.hoover.org/research/noam-chomsky-closet-capitalist
			|website=Hoover Institution
			|first=Peter
			|last=Schweizer
			|date=January 30, 2006
			|access-date=May 12, 2023
			|language=en
			|archive-date=May 23, 2023
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523090654/https://www.hoover.org/research/noam-chomsky-closet-capitalist
			|url-status=live
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| title = A Special Supplement: Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics
			| last = Searle
			| first = John R.
			| magazine = ]
			| url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1972/jun/29/a-special-supplement-chomskys-revolution-in-lingui/
			| date = June 29, 1972
			| access-date = January 8, 2014
			| archive-date = March 21, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150321222207/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1972/jun/29/a-special-supplement-chomskys-revolution-in-lingui/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria
			| last = Sengupta
			| first = Kim
			| newspaper = The Independent
			| url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-arabia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-antiassad-jihadists-10242747.html
			| date = May 12, 2015
			| access-date = September 6, 2017
			| archive-date = May 13, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150513214636/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-arabia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-antiassad-jihadists-10242747.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Western linguistics: An historical introduction
			| last = Seuren | first = Pieter A. M. | year = 1998
			| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell
			| isbn = 0-631-20891-7
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation
			| last = Sipser
			| first = Michael
			| year = 1997
			| author-link = Michael Sipser
			| publisher = PWS Publishing
			| url = https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth00sips
			| via = ]
			| isbn = 978-0-534-94728-6
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Time and Psychological Explanation: The Spectacle of Spain's Tourist Boom and the Reinvention of Difference
			| last = Slife
			| first = Brent D.
			| year = 1993
			| publisher = SUNY Press
			| url = https://archive.org/details/timepsychologica0000slif
			| via = ]
			| page =
			| isbn = 978-0-7914-1469-9
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals
			| last = Smith
			| first = Neil
			| year = 2004
			| author-link = Neil Smith (linguist)
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| url = https://archive.org/details/chomskyideasidea00smit_676
			| url-access = limited
			| via = ]
			| page =
			| isbn = 978-0521546881
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Noam Chomsky
			| last = Sperlich
			| first = Wolfgang B.
			| year = 2006
			| publisher = Reaktion Books
			| url = https://archive.org/details/noamchomsky00sper/page/44
			| via = ]
			| isbn = 978-1-86189-269-0
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = A Generative Grammar for Jazz Chord Sequences
			| last = Steedman | first = Mark J.
			| journal = Music Perception
			| date = October 1, 1984 | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 52–77
			| doi = 10.2307/40285282 | jstor = 40285282
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = The Book That Changed My Life
			| last = Swartz
			| first = Aaron
			| publisher = Raw Thought
			| url = http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/epiphany
			| date = May 15, 2006
			| access-date = January 8, 2014
			| archive-date = November 17, 2013
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131117061230/http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/epiphany
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Chomsky, Noam Avram (1928–)
			| last = Szabó
			| first = Zoltán Gendler
			| year = 2010
			| title = The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers
			| editor-last = Shook
			| editor-first = John R.
			| publisher = Continuum
			| chapter-url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199754663.001.0001/acref-9780199754663-e-193
			| isbn = 978-0-19-975466-3
			| access-date = August 24, 2019
			| archive-date = April 27, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210427223401/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199754663.001.0001/acref-9780199754663-e-193
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky and the Bicycle Theory
			| last = Tanenhaus
			| first = Sam
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/06/education/edlife/on-being-noam-chomsky.html
			| date = October 31, 2016
			| access-date = October 31, 2016
			| issn = 0362-4331
			| archive-date = October 18, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211018053203/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/06/education/edlife/on-being-noam-chomsky.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = An A–Z of ELT (Methodology)
			| last = Thornbury | first = Scott
			| publisher = Macmillan Education | location = Oxford
			| date = 2006 | page = 234
			| isbn = 978-1405070638
			}}
			* {{Cite journal | title = Language is not an instinct
			| last = Tomasello | first = Michael
			| author-link = Michael Tomasello
			| journal = Cognitive Development
			| date = January 1995 | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 131–156
			| doi = 10.1016/0885-2014(95)90021-7 | issn = 0885-2014
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition
			| last = Tomasello | first = Michael | year = 2003
			| publisher = ] | location = Cambridge, MA
			| isbn = 978-0-674-01030-7
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Universal grammar is dead
			| last = Tomasello | first = Michael
			| journal = ]
			| date = October 2009 | volume = 32 | issue = 5 | pages = 470–471
			| doi = 10.1017/S0140525X09990744 | s2cid = 144188188 | issn = 1469-1825
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Tool Module: Chomsky's Universal Grammar
			| work = The Brain From Top To Bottom
			| publisher = ]
			| url = http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/outil_rouge06.html
			| access-date = December 24, 2015
			| ref = {{harvid|Brain From Top To Bottom}}
			| archive-date = September 10, 2017
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170910201125/http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/outil_rouge06.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic
			| last1 = Tymoczko
			| first1 = Tom
			| last2 = Henle
			| first2 = Jim
			| publisher = Springer Science & Business Media
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LQnsSuvP9dAC
			| year = 2004
			| page = 101
			| isbn = 978-0-387-98930-3
			| access-date = October 28, 2016
			| archive-date = April 28, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210428235214/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQnsSuvP9dAC
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = U.S., Britain ignored 'culture of terrorism': Chomsky
			| url = http://www.thehindu.com/2001/11/04/stories/0204000j.htm
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161224222947/http://www.thehindu.com/2001/11/04/stories/0204000j.htm
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-date = December 24, 2016
			| date = November 4, 2001
			| access-date = March 21, 2016
			| newspaper = ]
			| ref = {{harvid|''The Hindu''|2001}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Viggo Mortensen's Spoken Word & Music CDs
			| url = http://www.viggofanbase.com/cds
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101215194045/http://www.viggofanbase.com/cds
			| access-date = May 10, 2016
			| archive-date = December 15, 2010
			| ref = {{harvid|Viggo Mortensen's Spoken Word & Music CDs}}
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Chomsky hits back at Erdoğan, accusing him of double standards on terrorism
			| last = Weaver
			| first = Matthew
			| newspaper = The Guardian
			| url = https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jan/14/chomsky-hits-back-erdogan-double-standards-terrorism-bomb-istanbul
			| date = January 14, 2016
			| access-date = January 14, 2016
			| archive-date = November 13, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211113120757/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jan/14/chomsky-hits-back-erdogan-double-standards-terrorism-bomb-istanbul
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky Is Leaving MIT for the University of Arizona
			| last = Weidenfeld
			| first = Lisa
			| magazine = Boston Magazine
			| url = https://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/2017/08/29/noam-chomsky-mit-arizona/
			| date = August 29, 2017
			| access-date = June 10, 2019
			| quote = Chomsky has been at MIT since 1955, and retired in 2002.
			| archive-date = August 17, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210817160616/https://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/2017/08/29/noam-chomsky-mit-arizona/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = The C.I.A.'s most Important Mission: Itself
			| last = Weiner
			| first = Tim
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/10/magazine/the-cia-s-most-important-mission-itself.html
			| date = December 10, 1995
			| issn = 0362-4331
			| access-date = February 18, 2017
			| archive-date = May 10, 2021
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210510183350/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/10/magazine/the-cia-s-most-important-mission-itself.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			{{Refend}}
			==Further reading==
			{{Refbegin|30em}}
			* {{Cite interview
			| title = American Socrates
			| interviewer = ]
			| website = ]
			| url = http://www.truthdig.com/report/item/american_socrates_20140615
			| date = June 15, 2014
			| ref = none
			| access-date = June 16, 2014
			| archive-date = June 18, 2014
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140618115344/http://www.truthdig.com/report/item/american_socrates_20140615
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses
			| last1 = Changeux | first1 = Jean-Pierre
			| last2 = Courrége | first2 = Philippe
			| last3 = Danchin | first3 = Antoine
			| journal = ]
			| year = 1973 | volume = 70 | issue = 10 | pages = 2974–2978
			| bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.2974C | doi = 10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974 | pmc = 427150 | pmid = 4517949
			| ref = none
			| doi-access = free }}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = Reviews: ''Verbal behavior'' by B. F. Skinner
			| last = Chomsky
			| first = Noam
			| journal = ]
			| year = 1959
			| volume = 35
			| issue = 1
			| pages = 26–58
			| url = https://chomsky.info/1967____/
			| doi = 10.2307/411334
			| jstor = 411334
			| ref = none
			| access-date = January 3, 2017
			| archive-date = September 10, 2019
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190910191335/https://chomsky.info/1967____/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = Human nature and the origins of language
			| last = Chomsky
			| first = Noam
			| journal = Radical Anthropology
			| date = 2008–2009
			| issue = 2
			| pages = 19–23
			| url = http://radicalanthropologygroup.org/sites/default/files/journal/journal_02.pdf
			| ref = none
			| access-date = July 12, 2019
			| archive-date = December 7, 2019
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191207235646/http://radicalanthropologygroup.org/sites/default/files/journal/journal_02.pdf
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite magazine
			| title = The World of Our Grandchildren
			| last = Chomsky
			| first = Noam
			| interviewer = David Barsamian
			| magazine = ]
			| url = https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/02/noam-chomsky-interview-jacobin/
			| date = February 13, 2015
			| ref = none
			| access-date = February 15, 2015
			| archive-date = March 22, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150322130638/https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/02/noam-chomsky-interview-jacobin/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Don't Sleep, There Are Snakes: Life and Language in the Amazonian Jungle
			| last = Everett
			| first = Daniel L.
			| year = 2008
			| author-link = Daniel Everett
			| publisher = ]
			| location = New York
			| url = https://archive.org/details/dontsleeptherear00ever
			| via = ]
			| isbn = 978-0-375-42502-8
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Noam Chomsky interview
			| last = Farndale
			| first = Nigel
			| newspaper = ]
			| url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/7865508/Noam-Chomsky-interview.html
			| access-date = May 15, 2016
			| ref = none
			| archive-date = April 24, 2019
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190424055222/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/7865508/Noam-Chomsky-interview.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Carol Chomsky, 78, Linguist and Educator, Dies
			| last = Fox
			| first = Margalit
			| author-link = Margalit Fox
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/21/us/21chomsky-carol.html
			| date = December 20, 2008
			| access-date = December 10, 2015
			| issn = 0362-4331
			| ref = none
			| archive-date = September 7, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150907194644/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/21/us/21chomsky-carol.html
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee | last1 = Gardner | first1 = R. A. | last2 = Gardner | first2 = B. T. | journal = ] | year = 1969 | volume = 165 | issue = 3894 | pages = 664–672 | url = http://www.cog.brown.edu/courses/cg2000/Papers/Chimp69ScienceGardner.pdf | bibcode = 1969Sci...165..664G | citeseerx = 10.1.1.384.4164 | doi = 10.1126/science.165.3894.664 | jstor = 1727877 | pmid = 5793972 | ref = none | access-date = August 21, 2013 | archive-date = April 12, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190412103734/http://www.cog.brown.edu/courses/cg2000/Papers/Chimp69ScienceGardner.pdf | url-status = dead }}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees
			| last1 = Gardner
			| first1 = R. A.
			| last2 = Gardner
			| first2 = B. T.
			| last3 = Van Cantfort
			| first3 = Thomas E.
			| year = 1989
			| publisher = ]
			| location = Albany, NY
			| url = http://www.sunypress.edu/p-825-teaching-sign-language-to-chimp.aspx
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140721030409/http://www.sunypress.edu/p-825-teaching-sign-language-to-chimp.aspx
			| archive-date = July 21, 2014
			| isbn = 978-0-88706-965-9
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{Cite web
			| title = IWW Interview with Noam Chomsky: Worker Occupations And The Future Of Radical Labor
			| publisher = ]
			| url = http://www.iww.org/history/library/Chomsky/2009int
			| date = October 9, 2009
			| ref = none
			| access-date = March 29, 2015
			| archive-date = May 11, 2015
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150511190545/http://www.iww.org/history/library/Chomsky/2009int
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = Chomsky and Genocide
			| url = https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol14/iss1/8/
			| first = Adam
			| last = Jones
			| author-link = Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)
			| year = 2020
			| journal = ]
			| volume = 14
			| issue = 1
			| pages = 76–104
			| doi = 10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1738
			| s2cid = 218959996
			| issn = 1911-9933
			| doi-access = free
			| access-date = April 2, 2023
			| archive-date = April 2, 2023
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230402123617/https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol14/iss1/8/
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = From Whitney to Chomsky: Essays in the history of American linguistics
			| last = Joseph | first = John E. | year = 2002
			| publisher = John Benjamins
			| volume = 103 | series = Studies in the History of the Language Sciences
			| doi = 10.1075/sihols.103 | isbn = 978-9027275370
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Joseph
			| first = John E.
			| chapter = Chomsky's Atavistic Revolution (With a little help from his enemies)
			| year = 2010
			| author-mask = 1
			| title = Chomskyan (R)evolutions
			| editor-last = Kibbee
			| editor-first = Douglas A.
			| publisher = John Benjamins
			| url = https://archive.org/details/chomskyanrevolut00kibb
			| url-access = limited
			| via = ]
			| pages = –18
			| doi = 10.1075/z.154.01jos
			| isbn = 978-9027211699
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Théories et politiques de Noam Chomsky
			| trans-title = Political Theories of Noam Chomsky
			| last = Joseph | first = John E.
			| author-mask = 1
			| journal = ]
			| year = 2011 | volume = 182 | number = 2 | pages = 55–68
			| language = fr
			| doi = 10.3917/lang.182.0055 | issn = 0458-726X
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{Cite magazine| title = Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial Intelligence Went Wrong
			| last = Katz | first = Yarden
			| magazine = ]
			| url = https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/11/noam-chomsky-on-where-artificial-intelligence-went-wrong/261637/?single_page=true
			| url-status = live
			| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130104220252/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/11/noam-chomsky-on-where-artificial-intelligence-went-wrong/261637/?single_page=true
			| date = November 1, 2012 | archive-date = January 4, 2013
			| ref = none
			}}{{cbignore|bot=InternetArchiveBot}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Education according to Chomsky
			| last = Knoester | first = Matthew
			| journal = Mind, Culture, and Activity
			| year = 2003 | volume = 10 | number = 3 | pages = 266–270
			| doi = 10.1207/s15327884mca1003_10 | s2cid = 144284901
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = Is Linguistics a Branch of Psychology?
			| last = Laurence
			| first = Stephen
			| year = 2003
			| title = Epistemology of Language
			| editor-last = Barker
			| editor-first = A.
			| publisher = ]
			| location = Oxford
			| chapter-url = http://www.philosophy.dept.shef.ac.uk/papers/IsLingPsych.pdf
			| pages = 69–106
			| isbn = 978-0199250585
			| ref = none
			| access-date = August 19, 2013
			| archive-date = July 26, 2014
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140726080719/http://www.philosophy.dept.shef.ac.uk/papers/IsLingPsych.pdf
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book| chapter = On some current views of the language universal
			| last = Lehmann | first = Christian | year = 1982
			| title = Issues in the Theory of Universal Grammar
			| editor1-last = Radden | editor1-first = Günter
			| editor2-last = Dirven | editor2-first = René
			| publisher = Gunter Narr | location = Tübingen
			| pages = 75–94
			| isbn = 978-3-87808-565-2
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| chapter = Noam Chomsky
			| title = Key Thinkers in Critical Communication Scholarship: From the Pioneers to the Next Generation
			| editor1-last = Lent
			| editor1-first = John A.
			| editor2-last = Amazeen
			| editor2-first = Michelle A.
			| publisher = ]
			| pages = 1–12
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fldOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fldOCgAAQBAJ
			| year = 2015
			| isbn = 978-1-137-46342-5
			| ref = none
			| access-date = December 12, 2015
			| archive-date = June 3, 2016
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160603202458/https://books.google.com/books?id=fldOCgAAQBAJ
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite journal
			| title = AI's Hall of Fame: Computational Linguistics and Cognitive Science
			| last = Lim
			| first = Ee-Peng
			| journal = ]
			| year = 2011
			| volume = 26
			| issue = 4
			| page = 12
			| url = https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5968105 <!-- Deny Citation Bot -->
			| doi = 10.1109/MIS.2011.64
			| ref = none
			| access-date = June 30, 2019
			| archive-date = June 30, 2019
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190630035238/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5968105
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = The NS Interview: Noam Chomsky
			| last = McDonald
			| first = Alyssa
			| magazine = ]
			| url = http://www.newstatesman.com/international-politics/2010/09/war-crimes-interview-obama
			| date = September 2010
			| ref = none
			| access-date = September 15, 2010
			| archive-date = September 14, 2010
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100914215512/http://www.newstatesman.com/international-politics/2010/09/war-crimes-interview-obama
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| chapter = The cognitive foundations for reference in a signing orangutan
			| last = Miles
			| first = H. Lyn White
			| year = 1990
			| title = "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives
			| editor1-last = Gibson
			| editor1-first = Kathleen Rita
			| editor2-last = Packer
			| editor2-first = Sue Taylor
			| publisher = ]
			| location = Cambridge
			| chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/languageintellig0000unse/page/511
			| url = https://archive.org/details/languageintellig0000unse
			| url-access = registration
			| via = ]
			| isbn = 978-0-521-38028-7
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{Cite book
			| title = Understanding Power: The Indispensable Chomsky
			| editor1-last = Mitchell
			| editor1-first = Peter R.
			| editor2-last = Schoeffel
			| editor2-first = John
			| year = 2002
			| publisher = New Press
			| location = New York
			| url = https://archive.org/details/understandingpow00chom_0
			| via = ]
			| isbn = 978-1565847033
			| oclc = 46936001
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali Mountains
			| last = Nishida
			| first = T.
			| journal = ]
			| year = 1968
			| volume = 9
			| issue = 3
			| pages = 167–224
			| url = http://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/213162/1/yrigk00159.pdf
			| doi = 10.1007/BF01730971
			| hdl = 2433/213162
			| s2cid = 28751730
			| ref = none
			| hdl-access = free
			| access-date = October 26, 2018
			| archive-date = October 26, 2018
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181026104435/https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/213162/1/yrigk00159.pdf
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| title = Music, Language, and the Brain
			| last = Patel
			| first = Aniruddh D.
			| year = 2008
			| publisher = ]
			| location = New York
			| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195123753
			| url-access = registration
			| via = ]
			| isbn = 978-0-19-512375-3
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = The Education of Koko
			| last1 = Patterson | first1 = Francine
			| last2 = Linden | first2 = Eugene
			| author1-link = Francine Patterson
			| author2-link = Eugene Linden (author)
			| year = 1981
			| publisher = ] | location = New York, NY
			| isbn = 978-0-03-046101-9
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite book| chapter = Some basic traits of language in wild chimpanzees?
			| last = Plooij | first = F. X. | year = 1978
			| title = Action, Gesture and Symbol: The Emergence of Language
			| editor-last = Lock | editor-first = A.
			| publisher = ] | location = London
			| pages = 111–131
			| isbn = 978-0-12-454050-7
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite book| chapter = Noam Chomsky
			| last = Poole | first = Geoffrey | year = 2005
			| title = Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language
			| editor1-last = Routledge | editor1-first = Christopher
			| editor2-last = Chapman | editor2-first = Siobhan
			| publisher = ] | location = Edinburgh
			| pages = 53–59
			| isbn = 978-0-7486-1757-9
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline | edition = Revised
			| last = Posner | first = Richard A. | year = 2003
			| author-link = Richard Posner
			| publisher = ] | location = Cambridge, MA
			| isbn = 978-0-674-01246-2
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = 'Gavagai!' or the future history of the animal language controversy
			| last = Premack | first = D.
			| journal = Cognition
			| year = 1985 | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 207–296
			| doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(85)90036-8 | pmid = 4017517 | s2cid = 39292094
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| title = Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition and Communicative Use By Pygmy Chimpanzees (''Pan paniscus'')
			| last1 = Savage-Rumbaugh
			| first1 = S.
			| last2 = McDonald
			| first2 = K.
			| last3 = Sevcik
			| first3 = R. A.
			| last4 = Hopkins
			| first4 = W. D.
			| last5 = Rubert
			| first5 = E.
			| journal = ]
			| year = 1986
			| volume = 115
			| issue = 3
			| pages = 211–235
			| url = http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/170/readings/21-ApeLanguage.pdf
			| doi = 10.1037/0096-3445.115.3.211
			| pmid = 2428917
			| ref = none
			| access-date = August 21, 2013
			| archive-date = September 7, 2013
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130907161216/http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/170/readings/21-ApeLanguage.pdf
			| url-status = live
			}}
			* {{cite journal | title = Language learning in two species of apes
			| last1 = Savage-Rumbaugh | first1 = S.
			| last2 = Rumbaugh | first2 = D. M.
			| last3 = McDonald | first3 = K.
			| author1-link = Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
			| journal = ]
			| year = 1985 | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 653–665
			| doi = 10.1016/0149-7634(85)90012-0 | pmid = 4080283 | s2cid = 579851
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{Cite magazine
			| title = Review of Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent, by Robert F. Barsky
			| last = Shalom
			| first = Stephen
			| magazine = ]
			| issue = 23
			| url = http://nova.wpunj.edu/newpolitics/issue23/shalom23.htm
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160808085048/http://nova.wpunj.edu/newpolitics/issue23/shalom23.htm
			| access-date = October 7, 2016
			| archive-date = August 8, 2016
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| title = At the Birth of Language
			| last = Tattersall
			| first = Ian
			| author-link = Ian Tattersall
			| magazine = ]
			| date = August 18, 2016
			| volume = LXIII
			| number = 13
			| pages = 27–28
			| postscript = ,
			| url = https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/08/18/noam-chomsky-robert-berwick-birth-of-language/
			| ref = none
			| access-date = June 30, 2019
			| archive-date = June 30, 2019
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190630035239/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/08/18/noam-chomsky-robert-berwick-birth-of-language/
			| url-status = live
			}} a review of {{cite book| title = Why Only Us: Language and Evolution
			| last1 = Berwick | first1 = Robert C.
			| last2 = Chomsky | first2 = Noam
			| publisher = MIT Press
			| ref = none
			}}
			* {{cite book| title = Nim: A Chimpanzee who Learned Sign Language
			| last = Terrace | first = Herbert S. | year = 1987
			| publisher = ] | location = New York, NY
			| isbn = 978-0-231-06341-8
			| ref = none
			}}
			{{Refend}}
			==External links==
			{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes|viaf=89803084}}
			* {{Official website}}
			* at ]
			* ] at ]
			* at ]
			* at ]
			{{Noam Chomsky|state=expanded}}
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			{{Subject bar|wikt=Chomskyan|b=no|s=Author:Noam_Chomsky|n=Interview with US political activist and philosopher Noam Chomsky|v=no|d=Q9049|Anarchism|Libertarianism|Linguistics|Philosophy|Politics|Socialism}}
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Latest revision as of 06:14, 18 December 2024

American linguist and activist (born 1928) "Chomsky" redirects here. For other uses, see Chomsky (disambiguation).

Noam Chomsky
Chomsky in 2017
Born	Avram Noam Chomsky (1928-12-07) December 7, 1928 (age 96) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Spouses	Carol Schatz ​ ​(m. 1949; died 2008)​ Valeria Wasserman ​(m. 2014)​
Children	3, including Aviva
Father	William Chomsky
Awards	Guggenheim Fellowship (1971) Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1972) APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology (1984) Orwell Award (1987, 1989) Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences (1988) Helmholtz Medal (1996) Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science (1999) Sydney Peace Prize (2011) Nuclear Age Peace Foundation (2014)
Academic background
Education	University of Pennsylvania (BA, MA, PhD)
Thesis	Transformational Analysis (1955)
Doctoral advisor	Zellig Harris
Influences	Academic J. L. Austin, William Chomsky, C. West Churchman, René Descartes, Galileo, Nelson Goodman, Morris Halle, Zellig Harris, Wilhelm von Humboldt, David Hume, Roman Jakobson, Immanuel Kant, George Armitage Miller, Pāṇini, Hilary Putnam, W. V. O. Quine, Bertrand Russell, Ferdinand de Saussure, Marcel-Paul Schützenberger, Alan Turing, Ludwig Wittgenstein Political Mikhail Bakunin, Alex Carey, William Chomsky, John Dewey, Zellig Harris, Wilhelm von Humboldt, David Hume, Thomas Jefferson, Karl Korsch, Peter Kropotkin, Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, John Locke, Dwight Macdonald, Paul Mattick, John Stuart Mill, George Orwell, Anton Pannekoek, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Rudolf Rocker, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Bertrand Russell, Diego Abad de Santillán, Adam Smith
Academic work
Discipline	Linguistics, analytic philosophy, cognitive science, political criticism
School or tradition	Anarcho-syndicalism, libertarian socialism
Institutions	Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1955–present) Institute for Advanced Study (1958–1959) University of Arizona (2017–present)
Doctoral students	Gülşat Aygen, Mark Baker, Jonathan Bobaljik, Joan Bresnan, Peter Culicover, Ray C. Dougherty, Janet Dean Fodor, John Goldsmith, C.-T. James Huang, Sabine Iatridou, Ray Jackendoff, Edward Klima, Jan Koster, Jaklin Kornfilt, S.-Y. Kuroda, Howard Lasnik, Robert Lees, Alec Marantz, Diane Massam, James D. McCawley, Jacques Mehler, Andrea Moro, Barbara Partee, David Perlmutter, David Pesetsky, Tanya Reinhart, John R. Ross, Ivan Sag, Edwin S. Williams
Influenced	In academia John Backus, Derek Bickerton, Julian C. Boyd, Daniel Dennett, Daniel Everett, Jerry Fodor, Gilbert Harman, Marc Hauser, Norbert Hornstein, Niels Kaj Jerne, Donald Knuth, Georges J. F. Köhler, Peter Ludlow, Colin McGinn, César Milstein, Steven Pinker, John Searle, Neil Smith, Crispin Wright In politics Michael Albert, Julian Assange, Bono, Jean Bricmont, Hugo Chávez, Zack de la Rocha, Clinton Fernandes, Norman Finkelstein, Robert Fisk, Amy Goodman, Stephen Jay Gould, Glenn Greenwald, Christopher Hitchens, Naomi Klein, Kyle Kulinski, Michael Moore, John Nichols, Ann Nocenti, John Pilger, Harold Pinter, Arundhati Roy, Edward Said, Aaron Swartz
Website	chomsky.info
Signature

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Avram Noam Chomsky (/noʊm ˈtʃɒmski/ nohm CHOM-skee; born December 7, 1928) is an American professor and public intellectual known for his work in linguistics, political activism, and social criticism. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. He is a laureate professor of linguistics at the University of Arizona and an institute professor emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Among the most cited living authors, Chomsky has written more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, and politics. In addition to his work in linguistics, since the 1960s Chomsky has been an influential voice on the American left as a consistent critic of U.S. foreign policy, contemporary capitalism, and corporate influence on political institutions and the media.

Born to Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania. During his postgraduate work in the Harvard Society of Fellows, Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures, which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study. He created or co-created the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic behaviorism, and was particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner.

An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which he saw as an act of American imperialism, in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his anti-war essay "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". Becoming associated with the New Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon's list of political opponents. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the linguistics wars. In collaboration with Edward S. Herman, Chomsky later articulated the propaganda model of media criticism in Manufacturing Consent, and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. His defense of unconditional freedom of speech, including that of Holocaust denial, generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the 1980s. Chomsky's commentary on the Cambodian genocide and the Bosnian genocide also generated controversy. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the 2003 invasion of Iraq and supporting the Occupy movement. An anti-Zionist, Chomsky considers Israel's treatment of Palestinians to be worse than South African–style apartheid, and criticizes U.S. support for Israel.

Chomsky is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution in the human sciences, contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. Chomsky remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, contemporary capitalism, U.S. involvement and Israel's role in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mass media. Chomsky and his ideas remain highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements. Since 2017, he has been Agnese Nelms Haury Chair in the Agnese Nelms Haury Program in Environment and Social Justice at the University of Arizona.

Life

Childhood: 1928–1945

Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His parents, William Chomsky and Elsie Simonofsky, were Jewish immigrants. William had fled the Russian Empire in 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimore sweatshops and Hebrew elementary schools before attending university. After moving to Philadelphia, William became principal of the Congregation Mikveh Israel religious school and joined the Gratz College faculty. He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be "well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, concerned about improving and enhancing the world, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all", a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son. Elsie, who also taught at Mikveh Israel, shared her leftist politics and care for social issues with her sons.

Noam's only sibling, David Eli Chomsky (1934–2021), was born five years later, and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia. The brothers were close, though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive. They were raised Jewish, being taught Hebrew and regularly involved with discussing the political theories of Zionism; the family was particularly influenced by the Left Zionist writings of Ahad Ha'am. He faced antisemitism as a child, particularly from Philadelphia's Irish and German communities.

Chomsky attended the independent, Deweyite Oak Lane Country Day School and Philadelphia's Central High School, where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies, but was troubled by the school's hierarchical and domineering teaching methods. He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College, where his father taught.

Chomsky has described his parents as "normal Roosevelt Democrats" with center-left politics, but relatives involved in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union exposed him to socialism and far-left politics. He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs. Chomsky himself often visited left-wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city, voraciously reading political literature. He became absorbed in the story of the 1939 fall of Barcelona and suppression of the Spanish anarchosyndicalist movement, writing his first article on the topic at the age of 10. That he came to identify with anarchism first rather than another leftist movement, he described as a "lucky accident". Chomsky was firmly anti-Bolshevik by his early teens.

University: 1945–1955

In 1945, at the age of 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at the University of Pennsylvania, where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learning Arabic. Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew. Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to a kibbutz in Mandatory Palestine, but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the linguist Zellig Harris, whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject. Chomsky's BA honors thesis, "Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew", applied Harris's methods to the language. Chomsky revised this thesis for his MA, which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book. He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage of Nelson Goodman.

From 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was a member of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University, where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation. Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply, Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine was based there. Both Quine and a visiting philosopher, J. L. Austin of the University of Oxford, strongly influenced Chomsky. In 1952, Chomsky published his first academic article in The Journal of Symbolic Logic. Highly critical of the established behaviorist currents in linguistics, in 1954, he presented his ideas at lectures at the University of Chicago and Yale University. He had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas on transformational grammar; he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it, and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part of The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. Harvard professor George Armitage Miller was impressed by Chomsky's thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers in mathematical linguistics. Chomsky's doctorate exempted him from compulsory military service, which was otherwise due to begin in 1955.

In 1947, Chomsky began a romantic relationship with Carol Doris Schatz, whom he had known since early childhood. They married in 1949. After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to the Allston area of Boston and remained there until 1965, when they relocated to the suburb of Lexington. The couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe in 1953. He enjoyed living in Hashomer Hatzair's HaZore'a kibbutz while in Israel, but was appalled by his interactions with Jewish nationalism, anti-Arab racism and, within the kibbutz's leftist community, Stalinism. On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journal Fraye Arbeter Shtime and became enamored with the ideas of Rudolf Rocker, a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link between anarchism and classical liberalism. Chomsky also read other political thinkers: the anarchists Mikhail Bakunin and Diego Abad de Santillán, democratic socialists George Orwell, Bertrand Russell, and Dwight Macdonald, and works by Marxists Karl Liebknecht, Karl Korsch, and Rosa Luxemburg. His politics were reaffirmed by Orwell's depiction of Barcelona's functioning anarchist society in Homage to Catalonia (1938). Chomsky read the leftist journal Politics, which furthered his interest in anarchism, and the council communist periodical Living Marxism, though he rejected the Marxist orthodoxy of its editor, Paul Mattick.

Early career: 1955–1966

Chomsky befriended two linguists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)—Morris Halle and Roman Jakobson—the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955. At MIT, Chomsky spent half his time on a mechanical translation project and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy. He described MIT as open to experimentation where he was free to pursue his idiosyncratic interests. MIT promoted him to the position of associate professor in 1957, and over the next year he was also a visiting professor at Columbia University. The Chomskys had their first child, Aviva, that same year. He also published his first book on linguistics, Syntactic Structures, a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris–Bloomfield trend in the field. Responses to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused "significant upheaval" in the discipline. The linguist John Lyons later asserted that Syntactic Structures "revolutionized the scientific study of language". From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.

Chomsky's provocative critique of B. F. Skinner, who viewed language as learned behavior, and its challenge to the dominant behaviorist paradigm thrust Chomsky into the limelight. Chomsky argued that behaviorism underplayed the role of human creativity in learning language and overplayed the role of external conditions in influencing verbal behavior. He proceeded to found MIT's graduate program in linguistics with Halle. In 1961, Chomsky received tenure and became a full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics. He was appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, held in 1962 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which established him as the de facto spokesperson of American linguistics. Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military-sponsored project to teach computers to understand natural English commands from military generals.

Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar (1966), and Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966). Along with Halle, he also edited the Studies in Language series of books for Harper and Row. As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work, Chomsky lectured at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1966. These lectures were published as Language and Mind in 1968. In the late 1960s, a high-profile intellectual rift later known as the linguistic wars developed between Chomsky and some of his colleagues and doctoral students—including Paul Postal, John Ross, George Lakoff, and James D. McCawley—who contended that Chomsky's syntax-based, interpretivist linguistics did not properly account for semantic context (general semantics). A post hoc assessment of this period concluded that the opposing programs ultimately were complementary, each informing the other.

Anti-war activism and dissent: 1967–1975

t does not require very far-reaching, specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam. And, in fact, to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding. It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one's analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise.

—Chomsky on the Vietnam War

Chomsky joined protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War in 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes. His 1967 critique of U.S. involvement, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", among other contributions to The New York Review of Books, debuted Chomsky as a public dissident. This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky's first political book, American Power and the New Mandarins. He followed this with further political books, including At War with Asia (1970), The Backroom Boys (1973), For Reasons of State (1973), and Peace in the Middle East? (1974), published by Pantheon Books. These publications led to Chomsky's association with the American New Left movement, though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectuals Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm and preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals. Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period.

Chomsky also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students who refused the draft, and was arrested while participating in an anti-war teach-in outside the Pentagon. During this time, Chomsky co-founded the anti-war collective RESIST with Mitchell Goodman, Denise Levertov, William Sloane Coffin, and Dwight Macdonald. Although he questioned the objectives of the 1968 student protests, Chomsky regularly gave lectures to student activist groups and, with his colleague Louis Kampf, ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative-dominated political science department. When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT, Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT's oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense. Chomsky has acknowledged that his MIT lab's funding at this time came from the military. He later said he considered resigning from MIT during the Vietnam War. There has since been a wide-ranging debate about what effects Chomsky's employment at MIT had on his political and linguistic ideas.

External images
Chomsky participating in the anti-Vietnam War March on the Pentagon, October 21, 1967
Chomsky with other public figures
The protesters passing the Lincoln Memorial en route to the Pentagon

Chomsky's anti-war activism led to his arrest on multiple occasions and he was on President Richard Nixon's master list of political opponents. Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience, and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or joblessness. Chomsky's scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs. In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam's Hanoi University of Science and Technology and toured war refugee camps in Laos. In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of the War Resisters League.

Chomsky's work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as he received multiple honorary doctorates. He delivered public lectures at the University of Cambridge, Columbia University (Woodbridge Lectures), and Stanford University. His appearance in a 1971 debate with French continental philosopher Michel Foucault positioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead of analytic philosophy. He continued to publish extensively on linguistics, producing Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar (1972), an enlarged edition of Language and Mind (1972), and Reflections on Language (1975). In 1974 Chomsky became a corresponding fellow of the British Academy.

Edward S. Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980

See also: Cambodian genocide denial § Chomsky and Herman, and Faurisson affair

In the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory. His political talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military. In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating with Edward S. Herman, who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam. Together they wrote Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, a book that criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media's failure to cover it. Warner Modular published it in 1973, but its parent company disapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies destroyed.

While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support from Michael Albert's South End Press, an activist-oriented publishing company. In 1979, South End published Chomsky and Herman's revised Counter-Revolutionary Violence as the two-volume The Political Economy of Human Rights, which compares U.S. media reactions to the Cambodian genocide and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. It argues that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy. Chomsky's response included two testimonials before the United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization, successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation, and meetings with refugees in Lisbon. Marxist academic Steven Lukes most prominently publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leader Pol Pot. Herman said that the controversy "imposed a serious personal cost" on Chomsky, who considered the personal criticism less important than the evidence that "mainstream intelligentsia suppressed or justified the crimes of their own states".

Chomsky had long publicly criticized Nazism, and totalitarianism more generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historian Robert Faurisson to advocate a position widely characterized as Holocaust denial. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 book Mémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire. Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson, and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations. Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologist Werner Cohn later published an analysis of the affair titled Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers. The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career, especially in France.

Critique of propaganda and international affairs

External videos
Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, a 1992 documentary exploring Chomsky's work of the same name and its impact

In 1985, during the Nicaraguan Contra War—in which the U.S. supported the contra militia against the Sandinista government—Chomsky traveled to Managua to meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics. Many of these lectures were published in 1987 as On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures. In 1983 he published The Fateful Triangle, which argued that the U.S. had continually used the Israeli–Palestinian conflict for its own ends. In 1988, Chomsky visited the Palestinian territories to witness the impact of Israeli occupation.

Chomsky and Herman's Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) outlines their propaganda model for understanding mainstream media. Even in countries without official censorship, they argued, the news is censored through five filters that greatly influence both what and how news is presented. The book received a 1992 film adaptation. In 1989, Chomsky published Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, in which he suggests that a worthwhile democracy requires that its citizens undertake intellectual self-defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them. By the 1980s, Chomsky's students had become prominent linguists who, in turn, expanded and revised his linguistic theories.

In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before. Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance. The lectures he gave on the subject were published as Powers and Prospects in 1996. As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalist John Pilger. After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999, the Australian-led International Force for East Timor arrived as a peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under the Timor Gap Treaty.

Chomsky was widely interviewed after the September 11 attacks in 2001 as the American public attempted to make sense of the attacks. He argued that the ensuing War on Terror was not a new development but a continuation of U.S. foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era. He gave the D.T. Lakdawala Memorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001, and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists. Chomsky's 2003 Hegemony or Survival articulated what he called the United States' "imperial grand strategy" and critiqued the Iraq War and other aspects of the War on Terror. Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period.

During the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Chomsky supported Scottish independence.

Retirement

Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002, but continued to conduct research and seminars on campus as an emeritus. That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being a co-defendant and amid international media attention, the Security Courts dropped the charge on the first day. During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds' human rights. A supporter of the World Social Forum, he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India.

Chomsky supported the 2011 Occupy movement, speaking at encampments and publishing on the movement, which he called a reaction to a 30-year class war. The 2015 documentary Requiem for the American Dream summarizes his views on capitalism and economic inequality through a "75-minute teach-in".

In 2015 Chomsky and his wife purchased a residence in São Paulo, Brazil, and began splitting their time between Brazil and the U.S.

Chomsky taught a short-term politics course at the University of Arizona in 2017 and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, his duties including teaching and public seminars. His salary was covered by philanthropic donations.

After a stroke in June 2023, Chomsky moved to Brazil full-time; this was not publicly reported until June 2024.

Linguistic theory

What started as purely linguistic research ... has led, through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition, to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man. The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory ... The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans (species specific), leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes.

—Edward Marcotte on the significance of Chomsky's linguistic theory

The basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies in biolinguistics, the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited. He argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences. In adopting this position Chomsky rejects the radical behaviorist psychology of B. F. Skinner, who viewed speech, thought, and all behavior as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species. Chomsky argues that his nativist, internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of "rationalism" and contrasts with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of "empiricism", which contends that all knowledge, including language, comes from external stimuli. Historians have disputed Chomsky's claim about rationalism on the basis that his theory of innate grammar excludes propositional knowledge and instead focuses on innate learning capacities or structures.

Universal grammar

Main article: Universal grammar

Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of their native languages. He bases his argument on observations about human language acquisition and describes a "poverty of the stimulus": an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic competence they attain. For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowable syntactic variants within their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and produce an infinite number of sentences, including ones that have never before been uttered, in that language. To explain this, Chomsky proposed that the primary linguistic data must be supplemented by an innate linguistic capacity. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky referred to this difference in capacity as the language acquisition device, and suggested that linguists needed to determine both what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute "universal grammar". Multiple researchers have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language, the lack of crosslinguistic surface universals, and the unproven link between innate/universal structures and the structures of specific languages. Michael Tomasello has challenged Chomsky's theory of innate syntactic knowledge as based on theory and not behavioral observation. The empirical basis of poverty of the stimulus arguments has been challenged by Geoffrey Pullum and others, leading to back-and-forth debate in the language acquisition literature. Recent work has also suggested that some recurrent neural network architectures can learn hierarchical structure without an explicit constraint.

Transformational-generative grammar

Main articles: Transformational grammar, Generative grammar, Chomsky hierarchy, and Minimalist program

Transformational-generative grammar is a broad theory used to model, encode, and deduce a native speaker's linguistic capabilities. These models, or "formal grammars", show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages. Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s, whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades. "Transformations" refers to syntactic relationships within language, e.g., being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person. Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both deep structures and surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and conceptual meaning. Transformational-generative grammar uses mathematical notation to express the rules that govern the connection between meaning and sound (deep and surface structures, respectively). By this theory, linguistic principles can mathematically generate potential sentence structures in a language.

Chomsky is commonly credited with inventing transformational-generative grammar, but his original contribution was considered modest when he first published his theory. In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbook Syntactic Structures, he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated by Zellig Harris, who was Chomsky's PhD supervisor, and by Charles F. Hockett. Their method is derived from the work of the Danish structural linguist Louis Hjelmslev, who introduced algorithmic grammar to general linguistics. Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, Chomsky grouped logically possible phrase-structure grammar types into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as the Chomsky hierarchy. This classification remains relevant to formal language theory and theoretical computer science, especially programming language theory, compiler construction, and automata theory. Chomsky's Syntactic Structures became, beyond generative linguistics as such, a catalyst for connecting what in Hjelmslev's and Jesperson's time was the beginnings of structural linguistics, which has become cognitive linguistics.

Transformational grammar was the dominant research paradigm through the mid-1970s. The derivative government and binding theory replaced it and remained influential through the early 1990s, when linguists turned to a "minimalist" approach to grammar. This research focused on the principles and parameters framework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data. The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky, asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply. In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as "deep structure" and "surface structure" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or "logical forms". When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech.

Political views

Main article: Political positions of Noam Chomsky

The second major area to which Chomsky has contributed—and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says—is his work on sociopolitical analysis; political, social, and economic history; and critical assessment of current political circumstance. In Chomsky's view, although those in power might—and do—try to obscure their intentions and to defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens, it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to.

—James McGilvray, 2014

Chomsky is a prominent political dissident. His political views have changed little since his childhood, when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition. He usually identifies as an anarcho-syndicalist or a libertarian socialist. He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs: liberty, community, and freedom of association. Unlike some other socialists, such as Marxists, Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science, but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories.

In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elite corporatocracy, which uses corporate media, advertising, and think tanks to promote its own propaganda. His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure. Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by "common sense", critical thinking, and understanding the roles of self-interest and self-deception, and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding. He argues that, as such an intellectual, it is his duty to use his social privilege, resources, and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles.

Although he has participated in direct action demonstrations—joining protests, being arrested, organizing groups—Chomsky's primary political outlet is education, i.e., free public lessons. He is a longtime member of the Industrial Workers of the World international union, as was his father.

United States foreign policy

Chomsky has been a prominent critic of "American imperialism", but is not a pacifist, believing World War II was justified as America's last defensive war. He believes that U.S. foreign policy's basic principle is the establishment of "open societies" that are economically and politically controlled by the U.S. and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper. He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power. When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective. He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; by criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them. Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and U.S. actions in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.

Chomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States. He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because its liberal democratic electoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy. His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies. He urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves.

Chomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement. He also criticizes the U.S.'s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement in Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, highlighting that Saudi Arabia has "one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world".

Chomsky called the Russian invasion of Ukraine a criminal act of aggression and noted that Russia was committing major war crimes in the country. He considered support for Ukraine's self-defense legitimate and said Ukraine should be given enough military aid to defend itself, but not enough to cause "an escalation". His criticism of the war focused on the United States. He alleged that the U.S. rejected any compromise with Russia and that this might have provoked the invasion. According to Chomsky, the U.S. was arming Ukraine only to weaken Russia, and Ukrainian requests for heavy weaponry were untrue "Western propaganda", despite Ukraine's President Volodymyr Zelensky repeatedly asking for them. More than a year into the invasion, Chomsky argued that Russia was waging the war "more humanely" than the U.S. did the invasion of Iraq.

Capitalism and socialism

In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike of capitalism and the pursuit of material wealth. At the same time, he developed a disdain for authoritarian socialism, as represented by the Marxist–Leninist policies of the Soviet Union. Rather than accepting the common view among U.S. economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control (whether state or private). He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really democratic, because, in his view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy. He has stated his opposition to ruling elites, among them institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and GATT (precursor to the WTO).

Chomsky highlights that, since the 1970s, the U.S. has become increasingly economically unequal as a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the unilateral rescinding of the Bretton Woods financial control agreement by the U.S. He characterizes the U.S. as a de facto one-party state, viewing both the Republican Party and Democratic Party as manifestations of a single "Business Party" controlled by corporate and financial interests. Chomsky highlights that, within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite.

Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably. Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions. He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval.

Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of the classical liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, arguing that his ideological position revolves around "nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being". He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct worker control of the means of production and government by workers' councils, who would select temporary and revocable representatives to meet together at general assemblies. The point of this self-governance is to make each citizen, in Thomas Jefferson's words, "a direct participator in the government of affairs." He believes that there will be no need for political parties. By controlling their productive life, he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose. He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated, specially remunerated, or communally shared.

Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Chomsky has written prolifically about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, aiming to raise public awareness of it. A labor Zionist who later became what is today considered an anti-Zionist, Chomsky has criticized the Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied West Bank, which he likens to a settler colony. He has said that the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a bad decision, but given the realpolitik of the situation, he has also considered a two-state solution on the condition that the nation-states exist on equal terms.

Chomsky has said that characterizing Israel's treatment of the Palestinians as apartheid, similar to the system that existed in South Africa, would be a "gift to Israel", as he has long held that "the Occupied Territories are much worse than South Africa". South Africa depended on its black population for labor, but Chomsky argues the same is not true of Israel, which in his view seeks to make the situation for Palestinians under its occupation unlivable, especially in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, where "atrocities" take place every day. He also argues that, unlike South Africa, Israel has not sought the international community's approval, but rather relies solely on U.S. support. Chomsky has said that the Israeli-led blockade of the Gaza Strip has turned it into a "concentration camp" and expressed fears similar to Israeli intellectual Yeshayahu Leibowitz's 1990s warning that the continued occupation of the Palestinian territories could turn Israeli Jews into "Judeo-Nazis". Chomsky has said that Leibowitz's warning "was a direct reflection of the continued occupation, the humiliation of people, the degradation, and the terrorist attacks by the Israeli government". He has also called the U.S. a violent state that exports violence by supporting Israeli "atrocities" against the Palestinians and said that listening to American mainstream media, including CBS, is like listening to "Israeli propaganda agencies".

Chomsky was denied entry to the West Bank in 2010 because of his criticisms of Israel. He had been invited to deliver a lecture at Bir Zeit University and was to meet with Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad. An Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake.

In his 1983 book The Fateful Triangle, Chomsky criticized the Palestinian Liberation Organization for its "self-destructiveness" and "suicidal character" and disapproved of its programs of "armed struggle" and "erratic violence". He also criticized the Arab governments as not "decent". Given what he has described as his very Jewish upbringing with deeply Zionist activist parents, Chomsky's views have drawn controversy and criticism. They are rooted in the kibbutzim and socialist binational cooperation. In a 2014 interview on Democracy Now!, Chomsky said that the charter of Hamas, which calls for Israel's destruction, "means practically nothing", having been created "by a small group of people under siege, under attack in 1988". He compared it to the electoral program of the Likud party, which, he said, "states explicitly that there can never be a Palestinian state west of the Jordan River. And they not only state it in their charter, that's a call for the destruction of Palestine, explicit call for it".

Mass media and propaganda

Main article: Propaganda model

External videos
Chomsky on propaganda and the manufacturing of consent, June 1, 2003

Chomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology, social and political power, mass media, and state policy. One of his best-known works, Manufacturing Consent, dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship, by government-guided "free market" forces, is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union. As he argues, the mainstream press is corporate-owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests. Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well-meaning, he argues that the mass media's choices of topics and issues, the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests, and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state's ideology: although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties, it will not undermine the wider state-corporate nexus of which it is a part. As evidence, he highlights that the U.S. mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators. He also points to examples of important news stories that the U.S. mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country, including the murder of Black Panther Fred Hampton with possible FBI involvement, the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U.S.-funded Contras, and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict. To remedy this situation, Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media.

Chomsky considers most conspiracy theories fruitless, distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives. He separates his Propaganda Model from conspiracy in that he is describing institutions following their natural imperatives rather than collusive forces with secret controls. Instead of supporting the educational system as an antidote, he believes that most education is counterproductive. Chomsky describes mass education as a system solely intended to turn farmers from independent producers into unthinking industrial employees.

Reactions of critics and counter-criticism: 1980s–present

In the 2004 book The Anti-Chomsky Reader, Peter Collier and David Horowitz accuse Chomsky of cherry-picking facts to suit his theories. Horowitz has also criticized Chomsky's anti-Americanism:

For 40 years Noam Chomsky has turned out book after book, pamphlet after pamphlet and speech after speech with one message, and one message alone: America is the Great Satan; it is the fount of evil in the world. In Chomsky's demented universe, America is responsible not only for its own bad deeds, but for the bad deeds of others, including those of the terrorists who struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. In this attitude he is the medium for all those who now search the ruins of Manhattan not for the victims and the American dead, but for the "root causes" of the catastrophe that befell them.

For the conservative public policy think tank the Hoover Institution, Peter Schweizer wrote in January 2006, "Chomsky favors the estate tax and massive income redistribution—just not the redistribution of his income." Schweizer criticized Chomsky for setting up an estate plan and protecting his own intellectual property as it relates to his published works, as well as the high speaking fees that Chomsky received on a regular basis, around $9,000–$12,000 per talk at that time.

Chomsky has been accused of treating socialist or communist regimes with credulity and examining capitalist regimes with greater scrutiny or criticism:

Chomsky's analysis of U.S. actions plunged deep into dark U.S. machinations, but when traveling among the Communists he rested content with appearances. The countryside outside Hanoi, he reported in The New York Review of Books, displayed "a high degree of democratic participation at the village and regional levels." But how could he tell? Chomsky did not speak Vietnamese, and so he depended on government translators, tour guides, and handlers for information. In Vietnamese hands, the clear-eyed skepticism turned into willing credulousness.

According to Nikolas Kozloff, writing for Al Jazeera in September 2012, Chomsky "has drawn the world's attention to the various misdeeds of the US and its proxies around the world, and for that he deserves credit. Yet, in seeking to avoid controversy at all costs Chomsky has turned into something of an ideologue. Scour the Chomsky web site and you won't find significant discussion of Belarus or Latin America's flirtation with outside authoritarian leaders, for that matter."

Political activist George Monbiot has argued that "Part of the problem is that a kind of cult has developed around Noam Chomsky and John Pilger, which cannot believe they could ever be wrong, and produces ever more elaborate conspiracy theories to justify their mistakes."

Anarchist and primitivist John Zerzan has accused Chomsky of not being a real anarchist, saying that he is instead "a liberal-leftist politically, and downright reactionary in his academic specialty, linguistic theory. Chomsky is also, by all accounts, a generous, sincere, tireless activist—which does not, unfortunately, ensure his thinking has liberatory value."

Defenders of Chomsky have countered that he has been censored or left out of public debate. Claims of this nature date to the Reagan era. Writing for The Washington Post in February 1988, Saul Landau wrote, "It is unhealthy that Chomsky's insights are excluded from the policy debate. His relentless prosecutorial prose, with a hint of Talmudic whine and the rationalist anarchism of Tom Paine, may reflect a justified frustration."

Philosophy

Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, including philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. In these fields he is credited with ushering in the "cognitive revolution", a significant paradigm shift that rejected logical positivism, the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think about language and the mind. Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-century rationalist ideals. His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism than behaviorism. He named one of his key works Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966). This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky's interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology. In the philosophy of language, Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations.

Chomsky's famous 1971 debate on human nature with the French philosopher Michel Foucault was a symbolic clash of the analytic and continental philosophy traditions, represented by Chomsky and Foucault, respectively. It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century. Foucault held that any definition of human nature is connected to our present-day conceptions of ourselves; Chomsky held that human nature contained universals such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason. Chomsky criticized postmodernism and French philosophy generally, arguing that the obscure language of postmodern, leftist philosophers gives little aid to the working classes. He has also debated analytic philosophers, including Tyler Burge, Donald Davidson, Michael Dummett, Saul Kripke, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Willard Van Orman Quine, and John Searle.

Chomsky's contributions span intellectual and world history, including the history of philosophy. Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing, such as rhetorically implying that his readers already know something to be true, which engages the reader more actively in assessing the veracity of his claims.

Personal life

Chomsky endeavors to separate his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism from each other. An intensely private person, he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him. McGilvray suggests that Chomsky is not motivated by a desire for fame, but impelled to tell what he perceives as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so. Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world's population; nevertheless, he characterizes himself as a "worker", albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill. He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the U.S., he subscribes to The Boston Globe, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, and The Christian Science Monitor. Chomsky is not religious but has expressed approval of forms of religion such as liberation theology.

Chomsky is known to use charged language ("corrupt", "fascist", "fraudulent") when describing established political and academic figures, which can polarize his audience but is in keeping with his belief that much scholarship is self-serving. His colleague Steven Pinker has said that Chomsky "portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric", and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives. Chomsky avoids academic conferences, including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences. His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores; in 1969, when Chomsky heard that Walt Rostow, a major architect of the Vietnam war, wanted to return to work at MIT, Chomsky threatened "to protest publicly" if Rostow were denied a position at MIT. In 1989, when Pentagon adviser John Deutch applied to be president of MIT, Chomsky supported his candidacy. Later, when Deutch became head of the CIA, The New York Times quoted Chomsky as saying, "He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I've ever met. ... If somebody's got to be running the CIA, I'm glad it's him."

Chomsky was married to Carol Doris (née Schatz) from 1949 until her death in 2008. They had three children together: Aviva (b. 1957), Diane (b. 1960), and Harry (b. 1967). In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman. They have owned a home in Wasserman's native country, Brazil, since 2015.

In 2023, Chomsky suffered a massive stroke and was flown to a hospital in São Paulo, Brazil, to recuperate. He can no longer walk or communicate, making his return to public life improbable, but he continues to follow current events such as the Israel–Hamas war. He was discharged in June 2024 to continue his recovery at home. The same month, Chomsky trended on social media amid false reports of his death. Periodicals retracted premature obituaries.

Reception and influence

voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy: from computer science to neuroscience, from anthropology to education, mathematics and literary criticism. If we include Chomsky's political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred, and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action.

—Sperlich, 2006

Chomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology. In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time, Chomsky has a dual legacy as a leader and luminary in both linguistics and the realm of political dissent. Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by mainstream media, and he is regarded as being "on the outer margin of acceptability". Chomsky's public image and social reputation often color his work's public reception.

In academia

McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the "cognitive revolution" in linguistics, and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal, natural science, moving it away from the procedural form of structural linguistics dominant during the mid-20th century. As such, some have called Chomsky "the father of modern linguistics". Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become "the most dynamic and influential" school of thought in the field. By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy, and a Minnesota State University Moorhead poll ranked Syntactic Structures as the single most important work in cognitive science. In addition, his work in automata theory and the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known in computer science, and he is much cited in computational linguistics.

Chomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline of behaviorist psychology; in addition, he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science. Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results; Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.

ACM Turing Award winner Donald Knuth credited Chomsky's work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics, linguistics, and computer science. IBM computer scientist John Backus, another Turing Award winner, used some of Chomsky's concepts to help him develop FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level computer programming language. Chomsky's theory of generative grammar has also influenced work in music theory and analysis, such as Fred Lerdahl's and Ray Jackendoff's generative theory of tonal music.

Chomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead. He was cited within the Arts and Humanities Citation Index more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992. Chomsky was also extensively cited in the Social Sciences Citation Index and Science Citation Index during the same period. The librarian who conducted the research said that the statistics show that "he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines ... it seems that you can't write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky." As a result of his influence, there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non-Chomskyan linguistics. Their disputes are often acrimonious. Additionally, according to journalist Maya Jaggi, Chomsky is among the most quoted sources in the humanities, ranking alongside Marx, Shakespeare and the Bible.

In politics

Chomsky's status as the "most-quoted living author" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics. Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as "one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people"; journalist John Pilger has described him as a "genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive." Arundhati Roy has called him "one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time", and Edward Said thought him "one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions". Fred Halliday has said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a "guru" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements. The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media, also exerting a significant influence on the growth of alternative media, including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work.

Despite this broad influence, university departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi. Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as many social scientists claim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so. Some have responded to these criticisms by questioning the critics' motives and their understanding of Chomsky's ideas. Sperlich, for instance, says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press. Likewise, according to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics "do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text".

Chomsky drew criticism for not calling the Bosnian War's Srebrenica massacre a "genocide". While he did not deny the fact of the massacre, which he called "a horror story and major crime", he felt the massacre did not meet the definition of genocide. Critics have accused Chomsky of denying the Bosnian genocide.

Chomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law. He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East but has refused uniformed police protection. German news magazine Der Spiegel described Chomsky as "the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred", while American conservative commentator David Horowitz called him "the most devious, the most dishonest and ... the most treacherous intellect in America", whose work is infused with "anti-American dementia" and evidences his "pathological hatred of his own country". Writing in Commentary magazine, the journalist Jonathan Kay described Chomsky as "a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says".

Chomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and an anti-Semite. Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints, Werner Cohn called Chomsky "the most important patron" of the neo-Nazi movement. The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) called him a Holocaust denier, describing him as a "dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims". In turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by "Stalinist types" who oppose democracy in Israel. The lawyer Alan Dershowitz has called Chomsky a "false prophet of the left"; Chomsky called Dershowitz "a complete liar" who is on "a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation". In early 2016, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed an open letter condemning Erdoğan for his anti-Kurdish repression and double standards on terrorism. Chomsky accused Erdoğan of hypocrisy, noting that Erdoğan supports al-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate, the al-Nusra Front.

Academic achievements, awards, and honors

See also: List of honorary degrees awarded to Noam Chomsky

In 1970, the London Times named Chomsky one of the "makers of the twentieth century". He was voted the world's leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazine Foreign Policy and British magazine Prospect. New Statesman readers listed Chomsky among the world's foremost heroes in 2006.

In the United States he is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Philosophical Association, and the American Philosophical Society. Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of the British Academy, an honorary member of the British Psychological Society, a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina, and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He received a 1971 Guggenheim Fellowship, the 1984 American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology, the 1988 Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the 1996 Helmholtz Medal, the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, the 2010 Erich Fromm Prize, and the British Academy's 2014 Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics. He is also a two-time winner of the NCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language (1987 and 1989). He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award from The Asiatic Society.

Chomsky received the 2004 Carl-von-Ossietzky Prize from the city of Oldenburg, Germany, to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic. He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin. He received the 2008 President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway. Since 2009, he has been an honorary member of International Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters (IAPTI). He received the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship and was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems." Chomsky has an Erdős number of four.

In 2011, the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace Prize for anti-war activities over five decades. For his work in human rights, peace, and social criticism, he received the 2011 Sydney Peace Prize, the Sretenje Order in 2015, the 2017 Seán MacBride Peace Prize and the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award.

Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including the University of London and the University of Chicago (1967), Loyola University Chicago and Swarthmore College (1970), Bard College (1971), Delhi University (1972), the University of Massachusetts (1973), and the International School for Advanced Studies (2012). Public lectures given by Chomsky include the 1969 John Locke Lectures, 1975 Whidden Lectures, 1977 Huizinga Lecture, and 1988 Massey Lectures.

Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is the eponym for a bee species, a frog species, an asteroid, and a building complex at the Indian university Jamia Millia Islamia. Actor Viggo Mortensen and avant-garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2003 album Pandemoniumfromamerica to Chomsky.

Selected bibliography

Main article: Noam Chomsky bibliography and filmography

Linguistics Syntactic Structures (1957) Current Issues in Linguistic Theory (1964) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) Cartesian Linguistics (1965) Language and Mind (1968) The Sound Pattern of English with Morris Halle (1968) Reflections on Language (1975) Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) The Minimalist Program (1995)

Politics American Power and the New Mandarins (1969) For Reasons of State (1973) Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda with Edward S. Herman (1973) The Political Economy of Human Rights (1979) Towards a New Cold War (1982) The Fateful Triangle (1983) Pirates and Emperors (1986) Manufacturing Consent (1988) Necessary Illusions (1989) Deterring Democracy (1991) Letters from Lexington (1993) The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many (1993) World Orders Old and New (1994) Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship (1997)

Profit over People (1999) 9-11 (2001) Understanding Power (2002) Middle East Illusions (2003) Hegemony or Survival (2003) Getting Haiti Right This Time (2004) Imperial Ambitions (2005) Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy (2006) Interventions (2007) Gaza in Crisis (2010) Making the Future (2012) Occupy (2012) Requiem for the American Dream (2017) The Withdrawal (2022)

See also

• Anarchism in the United States
• American philosophy
• List of linguists
• List of peace activists
• List of pioneers in computer science
• Theory of language

Notes

1. ^
   • Fox 1998: "Mr. Chomsky ... is the father of modern linguistics and remains the field's most influential practitioner."
   • Tymoczko & Henle 2004, p. 101: "As the founder of modern linguistics, Noam Chomsky, observed, each of the following sequences of words is nonsense ..."
   • Tanenhaus 2016: "At 87, Noam Chomsky, the founder of modern linguistics, remains a vital presence in American intellectual life."
2. • Smith 2004, pp. 107 "Chomsky's early work was renowned for its mathematical rigor and he made some contribution to the nascent discipline of mathematical linguistics, in particular the analysis of (formal) languages in terms of what is now known as the Chomsky hierarchy."
   • Koerner 1983, pp. 159: "Characteristically, Harris proposes a transfer of sentences from English to Modern Hebrew ... Chomsky's approach to syntax in Syntactic Structures and several years thereafter was not much different from Harris's approach, since the concept of 'deep' or 'underlying structure' had not yet been introduced. The main difference between Harris (1954) and Chomsky (1957) appears to be that the latter is dealing with transfers within one single language only"
3. • Koerner 1978, pp. 41f: "it is worth noting that Chomsky cites Hjelmslev's Prolegomena, which had been translated into English in 1953, since the authors' theoretical argument, derived largely from logic and mathematics, exhibits noticeable similarities."
   • Seuren 1998, pp. 166: "Both Hjelmslev and Harris were inspired by the mathematical notion of an algorithm as a purely formal production system for a set of strings of symbols. ... it is probably accurate to say that Hjelmslev was the first to try and apply it to the generation of strings of symbols in natural language"
   • Hjelmslev 1969 Prolegomena to a Theory of Language. Danish original 1943; first English translation 1954.
4. • Macintyre 2010
   • Burris 2013: "Noam Chomsky has built his entire reputation as a political dissident on his command of the facts."
   • McNeill 2014: " often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals and its leading public dissident ..."
5. • Hamans & Seuren 2010, p. 377: "Having achieved a unique position of supremacy in the theory of syntax and having exploited that position far beyond the narrow circles of professional syntacticians, he felt the need to shore up his theory with the authority of history. It is shown that this attempt, resulting mainly in his Cartesian Linguistics of 1966, was widely, and rightly, judged to be a radical failure"
6. • McNeill 2014: " often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals ..."
   • Campbell 2005: "Noam Chomsky, the linguistics professor who has become one of the most outspoken critics of US foreign policy, has won a poll that names him as the world's top public intellectual."
   • Robinson 1979: "Judged in terms of the power, range, novelty and influence of his thought, Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today."
   • Flint 1995: "The man once called the most important intellectual alive keeps his office in ... the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology."
7. • Knight 2016, p. 2: "In 1992, the Arts and Humanities Citation Index ranked him as the most cited person alive (the Index's top ten being Marx, Lenin, Shakespeare, Aristotle, the Bible, Plato, Freud, Chomsky, Hegel and Cicero)."
   • Babe 2015, p. xvii: " was the most cited living scholar between 1980 and 1992 (according to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index)."

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Further reading

• "American Socrates". Truthdig (Interview). Interviewed by Chris Hedges. June 15, 2014. Archived from the original on June 18, 2014. Retrieved June 16, 2014.
• Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Courrége, Philippe; Danchin, Antoine (1973). "A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 70 (10): 2974–2978. Bibcode:1973PNAS...70.2974C. doi:10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974. PMC 427150. PMID 4517949.
• Chomsky, Noam (1959). "Reviews: Verbal behavior by B. F. Skinner". Language. 35 (1): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. JSTOR 411334. Archived from the original on September 10, 2019. Retrieved January 3, 2017.
• Chomsky, Noam (2008–2009). "Human nature and the origins of language" (PDF). Radical Anthropology (2): 19–23. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 7, 2019. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
• Chomsky, Noam (February 13, 2015). "The World of Our Grandchildren". Jacobin. Interviewed by David Barsamian. Archived from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2015.
• Everett, Daniel L. (2008). Don't Sleep, There Are Snakes: Life and Language in the Amazonian Jungle. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42502-8 – via Internet Archive.
• Farndale, Nigel. "Noam Chomsky interview". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on April 24, 2019. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
• Fox, Margalit (December 20, 2008). "Carol Chomsky, 78, Linguist and Educator, Dies". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
• Gardner, R. A.; Gardner, B. T. (1969). "Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee" (PDF). Science. 165 (3894): 664–672. Bibcode:1969Sci...165..664G. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.384.4164. doi:10.1126/science.165.3894.664. JSTOR 1727877. PMID 5793972. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
• Gardner, R. A.; Gardner, B. T.; Van Cantfort, Thomas E. (1989). Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-965-9. Archived from the original on July 21, 2014.
• "IWW Interview with Noam Chomsky: Worker Occupations And The Future Of Radical Labor". IWW. October 9, 2009. Archived from the original on May 11, 2015. Retrieved March 29, 2015.
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• Joseph, John E. (2002). From Whitney to Chomsky: Essays in the history of American linguistics. Studies in the History of the Language Sciences. Vol. 103. John Benjamins. doi:10.1075/sihols.103. ISBN 978-9027275370.
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• Katz, Yarden (November 1, 2012). "Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial Intelligence Went Wrong". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013.
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v t e Noam Chomsky
Bibliography Chomsky hierarchy "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" Honorary degrees Political positions
Select bibliography	Linguistics Syntactic Structures (1957) Current Issues in Linguistic Theory (1964) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) Cartesian Linguistics (1966) Language and Mind (1968) The Sound Pattern of English (1968) "Remarks on Nominalization" (1970) "Conditions on Transformations" (1973) Reflections on Language (1975) The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1975) Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) Knowledge of Language (1986) The Minimalist Program (1995) New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind (2000) Politics "The Responsibility of Intellectuals" (1967) American Power and the New Mandarins (1969) For Reasons of State (1973) Counter-Revolutionary Violence (1973), with Edward S. Herman The Fateful Triangle (1983) Manufacturing Consent (1988), with Edward S. Herman Necessary Illusions (1989) Deterring Democracy (1991) Letters from Lexington (1993) The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many (1993) World Orders Old and New (1994) Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship (1997) Hegemony or Survival (2003) Failed States (2006) Requiem for the American Dream (2017) Collections Class Warfare (1996) Middle East Illusions (2003) Imperial Ambitions (2005) Interventions (2007) Gaza in Crisis (2010) 9-11: Was There An Alternative? (2011) Making the Future (2012) Occupy (2012) On Palestine (2015), with Ilan Pappé
Academic works about	Chomsky Chomsky's Universal Grammar: An Introduction Decoding Chomsky Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent The Anti-Chomsky Reader The Cambridge Companion to Chomsky The Kingdom of Speech
Filmography	Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media (1992) Last Party 2000 (2001) Power and Terror: Noam Chomsky in Our Times (2002) Distorted Morality – America's War on Terror? (2003) Noam Chomsky: Rebel Without a Pause (2003) (TV) Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land (2004) Is the Man Who Is Tall Happy? (2013)
Family	William Chomsky (father) Carol Chomsky (deceased wife) Valeria Wasserman (wife) Aviva Chomsky (daughter)
Related	Chomsky–Foucault debate

Articles related to Noam Chomsky

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