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{{Short description|Polysaccharide found in brown algae}}
{{chembox
{{Chembox
| Verifiedfields = changed | Verifiedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 476994139 | verifiedrevid = 477314688
|ImageFile=Alginsäure.svg | ImageFile = Alginsäure.svg
|ImageSize=250px | ImageSize = 250px
|IUPACName= | IUPACName =
|OtherNames=Alginic acid | OtherNames = Alginic acid; E400; <sub>n</sub>
|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
|OtherNames = E400
|Section1= {{Chembox Identifiers
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CASNo=9005-32-7 | CASNo = 9005-32-7
| EINECS=232-680-1 | EINECS = 232-680-1
| ATCCode_prefix = A02
| ATCCode_suffix = BX13
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|changed|FDA}} | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|changed|FDA}}
| UNII = 8C3Z4148WZ | UNII = 8C3Z4148WZ
| PubChem= | PubChem =
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| ChemSpiderID = NA | ChemSpiderID = None
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|Section2= {{Chembox Properties |Section2={{Chembox Properties
| Formula=(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>6</sub>)<sub>n</sub> | Formula = (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>6</sub>)<sub>n</sub>
| MolarMass=10,000 - 600,000 | MolarMass = 10,000 – 600,000
| Appearance= white to yellow, fibrous powder | Appearance = White to yellow, fibrous powder
| Density= 1.601 g/cm<sup>3</sup> | Density = 1.601{{nbsp}}g/cm<sup>3</sup>
| MeltingPt= | MeltingPt =
| BoilingPt= | BoilingPt =
| Solubility= | Solubility =
| pKa = 1.5-3.5 | pKa = 1.5–3.5
}} }}
|Section3= {{Chembox Hazards |Section6={{Chembox Pharmacology
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| ATCCode_suffix = BX13
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| Autoignition=
|Section7={{Chembox Hazards
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}} }}
] ]'', the largest species of giant ]]]
'''Alginic acid''', also called '''algin''' or '''alginate''', is an ] ] distributed widely in the ]s of ], where it, through binding water, forms a viscous ]. In extracted form it absorbs water quickly; it is capable of absorbing 200-300 times its own weight in water.<ref>{{citation | first = Raymond | last = Roew | contribution = Adipic Acid | title = Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients | year = 2009 | pages = 11–12}}</ref>{{cite quote|date=January 2012}} Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown. It is sold in ], granular or powdered forms. '''Alginic acid''', also called '''algin''', is a naturally occurring, edible ] found in ]. It is ] and forms a viscous ] when hydrated. When the alginic acid binds with sodium and calcium ions, the resulting salts are known as '''alginates'''. Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown. It is sold in ], granular, or powdered forms.


It is a significant component of the ] produced by the bacterium '']'', a major pathogen found in the lungs of some people who have ].<ref name="davies">{{cite journal | last=Davies | first=JC | title=Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis: pathogenesis and persistence. | journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews | volume=3 | issue=2 | year=2002 | issn=1526-0542 | pmid=12297059 | pages=128–34| doi=10.1016/S1526-0550(02)00003-3 }}</ref> The biofilm and ''P. aeruginosa'' have a high resistance to ],<ref name="boyd">{{cite journal | last1=Boyd | first1=A | last2=Chakrabarty | first2=AM | title=Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms: role of the alginate exopolysaccharide. | journal=Journal of Industrial Microbiology | volume=15 | issue=3 | year=1995 | issn=0169-4146 | pmid=8519473 | pages=162–8| doi=10.1007/BF01569821 | s2cid=42880806 | doi-access=free }}</ref> but are susceptible to inhibition by ].<ref name="Leid">{{cite journal | last1=Leid | first1=JG | last2=Willson | first2=CJ | last3=Shirtliff | first3=ME | last4=Hassett | first4=DJ | last5=Parsek | first5=MR | last6=Jeffers | first6=AK | title=The exopolysaccharide alginate protects Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm bacteria from IFN-gamma-mediated macrophage killing. | journal=Journal of Immunology | volume=175 | issue=11 | date=1 November 2005 | issn=0022-1767 | pmid=16301659 | pages=7512–8|url=http://www.jimmunol.org/content/175/11/7512.full.pdf| doi=10.4049/jimmunol.175.11.7512 | s2cid=1011606 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Structure==
It is a linear ] with ]ic blocks of (1-4)-linked β-D-mannuronate (M) and its C-5 ] α-L-guluronate (G) residues, respectively, ] linked together in different sequences or blocks.


Alginate was discovered by British chemical scientist E. C. C. Stanford in 1881, and he patented an extraction process for it in the same year.<ref name="extract" /> The alginate was extracted, in the original patent, by first soaking the algae in water or diluted acid, then extracting the alginate by soaking it in ], and finally precipitating the alginate from solution.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Pereira |first1=Leonel |title=Introductory Chapter: Alginates - A General Overview |date=2020-02-05 |work=Alginates - Recent Uses of This Natural Polymer |url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/68305 |access-date=2024-08-06 |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |isbn=978-1-78985-642-2 |last2=Cotas |first2=João}}</ref>{{Better citation needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (]).|date=August 2024}}
The ]s can appear in homopolymeric blocks of consecutive ] (G-blocks), consecutive ] (M-blocks) or alternating M and G-residues (MG-blocks).

==Structure==
Alginic acid is a linear ] with ]ic blocks of (1→4)-linked β-D-] (M) and α-L-] (G) residues, respectively, ] linked together in different sequences or blocks. The ]s may appear in homopolymeric blocks of consecutive ] (G-blocks), consecutive ] (M-blocks) or alternating M and G-residues (MG-blocks). α-L-guluronate is the C-5 ] of β-D-mannuronate.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}


==Forms== ==Forms==
Alginates are refined from brown ]. Throughout the world, many of the ] class brown seaweeds are harvested to be processed and converted into sodium alginate. Sodium alginate is used in many industries including food, animal food, fertilisers, textile printing, and pharmaceuticals. Dental impression material uses alginate as its means of gelling. Food grade alginate is an approved ingredient in processed and manufactured foods.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alginates|url=https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Alginates%20TR%202015.pdf|publisher=Agricultural Marketing Service, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=1 March 2018|date=5 February 2015}}</ref>
Commercial varieties of alginate are extracted from ], including the giant ] '']'', '']'', and various types of '']''. It is also produced by two ]l ] '']'' and '']'', which played a major role in the unravelling of its ] pathway. Bacterial alginates are useful for the production of micro- or nanostructures suitable for medical applications.<ref name=2Remminghorst>{{cite book |author=Remminghorst and Rehm|year=2009|chapter=Microbial Production of Alginate: Biosynthesis and Applications|title=Microbial Production of Biopolymers and Polymer Precursors|publisher=Caister Academic Press|isbn = 978-1-904455-36-3}}</ref>


Brown seaweeds range in size from the giant ] '']'' which can be 20–40 meters long, to thick, leather-like seaweeds from 2–4 m long, to smaller species 30–60&nbsp;cm long. Most brown seaweed used for alginates are gathered from the wild, with the exception of '']'', which is cultivated in China for food and its surplus material is diverted to the alginate industry in China.
==Uses==
Alginate absorbs water quickly, which makes it useful as an additive in ] products such as ], and in the manufacture of paper and textiles. It is also used for ] and ] fabrics, as a ], and for ] drinks, ice cream and cosmetics.


Alginates from different species of brown seaweed vary in their chemical structure, resulting in different physical properties of alginates. Some species yield an alginate that gives a strong ], another a weaker gel, some may produce a cream or white alginate, while others are difficult to gel and are best used for technical applications where color does not matter.<ref>FAO fisheries technical paper 441, Tevita Bainiloga Jnr, School of Chemistry, University College, University of New South Wales and Australian Defence Force Academy Canberra Australia</ref>
Alginate is used in various ] preparations such as ], Bisodol, and Asilone. Alginate is used extensively as an ]-making material in ], ]s, ] and occasionally for creating positives for small-scale ]. It is also used in the food industry, for thickening soups and jellies.


Commercial grade alginate is extracted from giant ] '']'', '']'', and types of '']''. Alginates are also produced by two ]l ] '']'' and '']'', which played a major role in the unravelling of its ] ]. Bacterial alginates are useful for the production of micro- or nanostructures suitable for medical applications.<ref name=2Remminghorst>{{cite book |author=Remminghorst and Rehm|year=2009|chapter=Microbial Production of Alginate: Biosynthesis and Applications|title=Microbial Production of Biopolymers and Polymer Precursors|publisher=Caister Academic Press|isbn = 978-1-904455-36-3}}</ref>
] is used in different types of medical products, including burn dressings that promote healing and can be removed with less pain than conventional dressings.


Sodium alginate (NaC<sub>6</sub>H<sub>7</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) is the ] of alginic acid. Sodium alginate is a gum.
Also, due to alginate's ] and simple ] with ] ]s such as Ca<sup>2+</sup>, it is widely used for ] and ].


Potassium alginate (KC<sub>6</sub>H<sub>7</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) is the potassium ] of alginic acid.
Alginic acid (alginato) is also used in ]s, most notably in the "]" (]) techniques of ] of ] in ], where natural juices of fruits and vegetables are encapsulated in bubbles that "explode" on the tongue when consumed. One of the most famous examples of this use of alginic acid was when ] used alginic acid to make apple caviar.<ref name="lome">{{cite web |title= Lo Mejor de la Gastronomia |publisher= StarChefs.com |url= http://starchefs.com/events/lo_mejor_de_la_gastronomia/2003/html/apple_caviar_f_adria.shtml |accessdate= 2007-11-14}}</ref>


] (CaC<sub>12</sub>H<sub>14</sub>O<sub>12</sub>) is the calcium salt of alginic acid. It is made by replacing the sodium ion in sodium alginate with a calcium ion (]).
Due to its ability to absorb water quickly, alginate can be changed through a ] process to a new structure that has the ability to expand. It is used in the weight loss industry as an ].


==Production==
In March, 2010 researchers at ] announced that dietary alginates can reduce human fat uptake by more than 75%.<ref>{{cite web |title= Seaweed to tackle rising tide of obesity |publisher= Newcastle University |url= http://www.ncl.ac.uk/press.office/press.release/item/seaweed-to-tackle-rising-tide-of-obesity |accessdate= 2010-03-22}}</ref>
The manufacturing process used to extract sodium alginates from brown seaweed fall into two categories: 1) calcium alginate method and, 2) alginic acid method.{{clarification needed|reason=no details of the named processes are given - details and citations needed|date=March 2024}}


Chemically the process is simple, but difficulties arise from the physical separations required between the slimy residues from viscous solutions and the separation of gelatinous precipitates that hold large amounts of liquid within their structure, so they resist ] and ].<ref>FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 2003</ref> The conventional process involves large amounts of reagents and solvents, as well as time-consuming steps.<ref name="extract"/> Simpler and newer techniques, such as microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound, high pressure, pressurized fluid extraction, and enzyme-assisted extraction, are the subject of research.<ref name="extract"/>
==Sodium alginate==
The ] '''sodium alginate''' is the ] ] of alginic acid. Its ] is NaC<sub>6</sub>H<sub>7</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. Sodium alginate is a gum, extracted from the cell walls of ]


The most common, conventional extraction process involves six steps: pre-treatment of the algal biomass, acid treatment, alkaline extraction, precipitation, bleaching, and drying. <ref name="extract">{{Cite journal |last1=Bojorges |first1=Hylenne |last2=López-Rubio |first2=Amparo |last3=Martínez-Abad |first3=Antonio |last4=Fabra |first4=María José |date=2023-10-01 |title=Overview of alginate extraction processes: Impact on alginate molecular structure and techno-functional properties |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224423002571 |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |volume=140 |pages=104142 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2023.104142 |issn=0924-2244|hdl=10261/336757 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Pre-treatments mainly aim at either breaking the cell wall to help extract the alginate, or removing other compounds and contaminants from the algae.<ref name="extract"/> Drying is of the first kind, also helping to prevent bacterial growth; algae which is dried is also usually powdered to expose more surface area.<ref name="extract"/> Common treatments to remove contaminants include treatments with ] and ], the latter of which is very common; ethanol solutions help remove compounds bonded to the alginate, and formaldehyde solutions help prevent enzymatic or microbial reactions.<ref name="extract"/>
===Uses===
As a flavorless gum, it is used by the foods industry to increase ] and as an ]. It is also used in ] tablets and the preparation of ]s.


The algae is then treated with an acidic solution to help disrupt cell walls, which converts the alginate salts into insoluble alginic acid; a subsequently applied alkaline solution (pH 9-10), usually ], converts it back into water-soluble sodium alginate, which is then precipitated.<ref name="extract"/> It is also possible to extract the alginate directly with an alkaline treatment, but this is less common.<ref name="extract"/>
A major application for sodium alginate is in ], as thickener for ]stuffs (such as the Procion cotton-reactive dyes) in ] and carpet jet-printing. Alginates do not react with these dyes and wash out easily, unlike starch-based thickeners.


Alginic acid is usually precipitated, through different techniques, with either an alcohol (usually ethanol), ], or ].<ref name="extract"/> After the alginin is precipitated into a fine paste, it is dried, ground to the desired grain size, and finally purified through a variety of techniques.<ref name="extract"/> Commercial alginate for biomedical and pharmaceutical use is extracted and purified through more rigorous techniques, but these are trade secrets.<ref name="extract"/>
Sodium alginate is a good chelator for pulling radioactive toxins from the body, such as iodine-131 and strontium-90 that have taken the place of their non-radioactive counterparts.<ref>Sutton, A., Harrison, G. E., Carr, T. E., and Barltrop, D. Reduction in the absorption of dietary strontium in children by an alginate derivative. Br.J.Radiol. 44, 567. 1971</ref><ref>Sutton, A., Harrison, B. E., Carr, T. E., and Barltrop, D. Reduction in the absorption of dietary strontium in children by an alginate derivative. Int.J.Radiat.Biol.Relat Stud.Phys.Chem.Med. 19, 79-85. 1971</ref> It is also used in ] by inclusion.


===Derivatives===
As a food additive, sodium alginate is used especially in the production of gel-like foods. For example, bakers' "Chellies" are often gelled alginate "jam." Also, the pimento stuffing in prepared cocktail olives is usually injected as a slurry at the same time that the stone is ejected; the slurry is subsequently set by immersing the olive in a solution of a ], which causes rapid gelation by electrostatic cross-linking.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010|reason=I have never read about or even heard of this process}} A similar process can be used to make "chunks" of everything from cat food through "reformed" ham or fish to "fruit" pieces for pies. It has the ] 401.
Various alginate-based materials can be produced, including porous scaffold material, alginate hydrogel, nonwoven fabric, and alginate membranes.<ref name=":0"/> Techniques used to produce these include ion cross-linking, microfluidic spinning, freeze drying, wet spinning, and immersive centrifugal jet spinning.<ref name=":0"/>


Calcium salt{{Clarification needed|date=August 2024}} can be released in drops into a calcium alginate solution to induce ionic cross-linking, which produces the hydrogel. Freeze-drying the hydrogel to eliminate water produces the porous scaffold material.<ref name=":0"/>
Nowadays, it is also used in the biological experiments for the immobilization of cells to obtain important products like alcohols, organic acids, etc.


Wet spinning consists of extruding an alginate solution from a spinneret into a calcium salt solution to induce ionic cross-linking (forming the gel), and then ] the fibers out of the bath with draft rollers. Microfluidic spinning, a simpler and more eco-friendly implementation of the process, involves introducing calcium salt flows flowing alongside and touching a central "core" flow of alginate. These flows form a "sheath". The fiber then emerges from the core flow. This technique can be used to produced shaped and grooved fibers.<ref name=":0"/>
In recent years, sodium alginate has been used in ] at some of the best restaurants in the world. ] pioneered the technique, and it has since been used by chefs such as ] and ]. Sodium alginate is combined with calcium lactate or similar compound to create spheres of liquid surrounded by a thin jelly membrane.


]
==Potassium alginate==
Alginate fiber, which is used in fabric, is usually produced through either microfluidic spinning or wet spinning, or ] to obtain thinner fibers.<ref name=":0"/> The fabric, which can be used in wound dressing and other applications, is produced by ] and then needle punching {{Clarification needed|date=August 2024}} the fibers.<ref name=":0"/>
'''Potassium alginate''' is a chemical compound that is the potassium ] of alginic acid. It is an extract of seaweed. Its empirical chemical formula is KC<sub>6</sub>H<sub>7</sub>O<sub>6</sub>.


===Uses=== ==Uses==
As of 2022 alginate had become one of the most preferred materials as an abundant natural biopolymer.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xiaolin |last2=Wang |first2=Xinran |last3=Fan |first3=Wei |last4=Liu |first4=Yi |last5=Wang |first5=Qi |last6=Weng |first6=Lin |date=2022-08-08 |title=Fabrication, Property and Application of Calcium Alginate Fiber: A Review |journal=Polymers |volume=14 |issue=15 |pages=3227 |doi=10.3390/polym14153227 |doi-access=free |issn=2073-4360 |pmc=9371111 |pmid=35956740}}</ref> It is particularly useful as a ] because of its nontoxicity, ], and ], and can imitate local bioenvironments; its degradation product can be easily cleared by the kidneys.<ref name=":0" />
Potassium alginate is widely used in foods as a ], thickener, and ].

Alginate absorbs water quickly, which makes it useful as an additive in ] products such as ], and in the manufacture of paper and textiles.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

Alginate is also used for ] and ] fabrics, in the food industry as a ] agent for drinks, ice cream, cosmetics, as a ] for jellies, known by the ] and sausage casing.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Sodium Alginate (E401) in food? Properties, Uses, Safety |author= |work=FOODADDITIVES |date=14 May 2020 |url= https://foodadditives.net/thickeners/sodium-alginate/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Bioactive Seaweeds for Food Applications |first1=Yimin|last1=Qin |date=17 July 2018 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/sausage-casing|doi=10.1016/C2016-0-04566-7|isbn=978-0-12-813312-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109163125/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/sausage-casing |archive-date=2023-11-09 }}</ref> Sodium alginate is mixed with ] protein to make ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arasaki |first1=Seibin |title=Low Calorie, High Nutrition Vegetables from the Sea |last2=Arasaki |first2=Teruko |publisher=Japan Publications, Inc. |date=January 1983 |isbn=0-87040-475-X |edition=1st |location=Tokyo, Japan |pages=35}}</ref>

Alginate is used as an ingredient in various ] preparations, such as ], in which it combines with ] to inhibit ]. {{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

Sodium alginate is used as an ]-making material in ], ]s, ], and for creating positives for small-scale ]. {{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

Sodium alginate is used in ] and as a thickener for ]s in ].{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} Alginates do not react with these dyes and wash out easily, unlike ]-based thickeners. It also serves as a material for ].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Microencapsulation and storage stability of polyphenols from Vitis vinifera grape wastes|journal = Food Chemistry|date = 2016-01-01|pages = 614–621|volume = 190|doi = 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.05.117|pmid = 26213018|first1 = Oier|last1 = Aizpurua-Olaizola|first2 = Patricia|last2 = Navarro|first3 = Asier|last3 = Vallejo|first4 = Maitane|last4 = Olivares|first5 = Nestor|last5 = Etxebarria|first6 = Aresatz|last6 = Usobiaga| url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/5028350 }}</ref>

Calcium alginate is used in different types of medical products, including skin ]s to promote healing,<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Wound Repair Regen|year=2002|volume=10|issue=5|pages=271–85|title=Calcium: a potential central regulator in wound healing in the skin|author=Lansdown AB|pmid=12406163|doi=10.1046/j.1524-475x.2002.10502.x|s2cid=10092676}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stubbe|first1=Birgit|last2=Mignon|first2=Arn|last3=Declercq|first3=Heidi|last4=Vlierberghe|first4=Sandra Van|last5=Dubruel|first5=Peter|date=2019|title=Development of Gelatin-Alginate Hydrogels for Burn Wound Treatment|journal=Macromolecular Bioscience|language=en|volume=19|issue=8|pages=1900123|doi=10.1002/mabi.201900123|pmid=31237746|s2cid=195355185|issn=1616-5195|url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/663375/3/Development%20of%20Gelatin-Alginate%20Hydrogels%20for%20Burn%20Wound%20Treatment.docx }}</ref> and may be removed with less pain than conventional dressings.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

==Alginate hydrogels==
In research on bone reconstruction, alginate ] have favorable properties encouraging regeneration, such as improved ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=25020082|year=2015|last1=Venkatesan|first1=J|title=Alginate composites for bone tissue engineering: A review|journal=International Journal of Biological Macromolecules|volume=72|pages=269–81|last2=Bhatnagar|first2=I|last3=Manivasagan|first3=P|last4=Kang|first4=K. H.|last5=Kim|first5=S. K.|doi=10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.07.008}}</ref> Alginate hydrogel is a common biomaterial for bio-fabrication of scaffolds and tissue regeneration.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rastogi|first1=Prasansha|last2=Kandasubramanian|first2=Balasubramanian|date=2019-09-10|title=Review of alginate-based hydrogel bioprinting for application in tissue engineering|url=https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab331e|journal=Biofabrication|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=042001|doi=10.1088/1758-5090/ab331e|pmid=31315105|bibcode=2019BioFa..11d2001R|s2cid=197543168|issn=1758-5090}}</ref>


Covalent bonding of thiol groups to alginate improves in-situ gelling and mucoadhesive properties; the thiolated polymer (]) forms disulfide bonds within its polymeric network and with cysteine-rich subdomains of the mucus layer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leichner |first1=C |last2=Jelkmann |first2=M |last3=Bernkop-Schnürch |first3=A |title=Thiolated polymers: Bioinspired polymers utilizing one of the most important bridging structures in nature |journal=Adv Drug Deliv Rev |date=2019 |volume=151-152 |pages=191–221 |doi=10.1016/j.addr.2019.04.007 |pmid=31028759|s2cid=135464452 }}</ref> Thiolated alginates are used as in situ gelling hydrogels,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=G |last2=Cheng |first2=L |last3=Zhang |first3=Q | last4=Sun|first4=Y | last5=Chen |first5=C |last6=Xu |first6=H |last7=Chai |first7=Y | last8=Lang|first8=M |title= In situ thiolated alginate hydrogel: Instant formation and its application in hemostasis|journal= J Biomater Appl |date=2016 |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=721–729 |doi=10.1177/0885328216661557|pmid= 27485953|s2cid=4267830 }}</ref> and are under preliminary research as possible mucoadhesive drug delivery systems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kassem |first1=AA |last2=Issa |first2=DA |last3=Kotry |first3=GS | last4=Farid |first4=RM |title= Thiolated alginate-based multiple layer mucoadhesive films of metformin for intra-pocket local delivery: in vitro characterization and clinical assessment |journal= Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. |date=2017 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=120–131 |doi=10.1080/03639045.2016.1224895 |pmid=27589817 |s2cid=25076932 }}</ref> Alginate hydrogels may be used for drug delivery, exhibiting responses to pH changes, temperature changes, redox, and the presence of enzymes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abasalizadeh |first1=Farhad |last2=Moghaddam |first2=Sevil |last3=Alizadeh |first3=Effat |last4=Fazljou |first4=Mohammad |last5=Torbati |first5=Mohammadali |last6=Akbarzadeh |first6=Abolfazl |date=13 March 2020 |title=Alginate-based hydrogels as drug delivery vehicles in cancer treatment and their applications in wound dressing and 3D bioprinting |journal=Journal of Biological Engineering |volume=14 |issue=8 |page=8 |doi=10.1186/s13036-020-0227-7|doi-access=free |pmid=32190110 |pmc=7069202 }}</ref>
Its use as a pharmaceutical excipient is currently limited to experimental ] systems. The ], adhesiveness, ], stiffness, and cohesiveness of potassium alginate hydrogels have been determined and compared with values from a range of other hydrogel-forming materials. The effect of calcium ions on the rheological properties of procyanidin hydrogels containing potassium alginate and intended for oral administration has also been investigated.


==See also== ==See also==
], a similar polysaccharide in animals * ]: a polysaccharide in animals.
* ]


==References== ==References==
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==External links== ==External links==
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917233613/http://www.cybercolloids.net/library/alghistory/history-alginate-chemistry-seaweeds |date=2013-09-17 }}
* More details about Alginate.
* * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917065320/http://www.cybercolloids.net/library/alginate/introduction-alginate-production |date=2013-09-17 }}
*
* ] on ], describing sodium alginate


{{Drugs for peptic ulcer and GORD}} {{Drugs for peptic ulcer and GORD}}
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Alginic Acid}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Alginic Acid}}
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Latest revision as of 08:01, 20 December 2024

Polysaccharide found in brown algae
Alginic acid
Names
Other names Alginic acid; E400; n
Identifiers
CAS Number
ChemSpider
  • None
ECHA InfoCard 100.029.697 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 232-680-1
E number E400 (thickeners, ...)
UNII
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
Properties
Chemical formula (C6H8O6)n
Molar mass 10,000 – 600,000
Appearance White to yellow, fibrous powder
Density 1.601 g/cm
Acidity (pKa) 1.5–3.5
Pharmacology
ATC code A02BX13 (WHO)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). ☒N verify (what is  ?) Infobox references
Chemical compound
Macrocystis pyrifera, the largest species of giant kelp

Alginic acid, also called algin, is a naturally occurring, edible polysaccharide found in brown algae. It is hydrophilic and forms a viscous gum when hydrated. When the alginic acid binds with sodium and calcium ions, the resulting salts are known as alginates. Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown. It is sold in filamentous, granular, or powdered forms.

It is a significant component of the biofilms produced by the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a major pathogen found in the lungs of some people who have cystic fibrosis. The biofilm and P. aeruginosa have a high resistance to antibiotics, but are susceptible to inhibition by macrophages.

Alginate was discovered by British chemical scientist E. C. C. Stanford in 1881, and he patented an extraction process for it in the same year. The alginate was extracted, in the original patent, by first soaking the algae in water or diluted acid, then extracting the alginate by soaking it in sodium carbonate, and finally precipitating the alginate from solution.

Structure

Alginic acid is a linear copolymer with homopolymeric blocks of (1→4)-linked β-D-mannuronate (M) and α-L-guluronate (G) residues, respectively, covalently linked together in different sequences or blocks. The monomers may appear in homopolymeric blocks of consecutive G-residues (G-blocks), consecutive M-residues (M-blocks) or alternating M and G-residues (MG-blocks). α-L-guluronate is the C-5 epimer of β-D-mannuronate.

Forms

Alginates are refined from brown seaweeds. Throughout the world, many of the Phaeophyceae class brown seaweeds are harvested to be processed and converted into sodium alginate. Sodium alginate is used in many industries including food, animal food, fertilisers, textile printing, and pharmaceuticals. Dental impression material uses alginate as its means of gelling. Food grade alginate is an approved ingredient in processed and manufactured foods.

Brown seaweeds range in size from the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera which can be 20–40 meters long, to thick, leather-like seaweeds from 2–4 m long, to smaller species 30–60 cm long. Most brown seaweed used for alginates are gathered from the wild, with the exception of Laminaria japonica, which is cultivated in China for food and its surplus material is diverted to the alginate industry in China.

Alginates from different species of brown seaweed vary in their chemical structure, resulting in different physical properties of alginates. Some species yield an alginate that gives a strong gel, another a weaker gel, some may produce a cream or white alginate, while others are difficult to gel and are best used for technical applications where color does not matter.

Commercial grade alginate is extracted from giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, Ascophyllum nodosum, and types of Laminaria. Alginates are also produced by two bacterial genera Pseudomonas and Azotobacter, which played a major role in the unravelling of its biosynthesis pathway. Bacterial alginates are useful for the production of micro- or nanostructures suitable for medical applications.

Sodium alginate (NaC6H7O6) is the sodium salt of alginic acid. Sodium alginate is a gum.

Potassium alginate (KC6H7O6) is the potassium salt of alginic acid.

Calcium alginate (CaC12H14O12) is the calcium salt of alginic acid. It is made by replacing the sodium ion in sodium alginate with a calcium ion (ion exchange).

Production

The manufacturing process used to extract sodium alginates from brown seaweed fall into two categories: 1) calcium alginate method and, 2) alginic acid method.

Chemically the process is simple, but difficulties arise from the physical separations required between the slimy residues from viscous solutions and the separation of gelatinous precipitates that hold large amounts of liquid within their structure, so they resist filtration and centrifugation. The conventional process involves large amounts of reagents and solvents, as well as time-consuming steps. Simpler and newer techniques, such as microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound, high pressure, pressurized fluid extraction, and enzyme-assisted extraction, are the subject of research.

The most common, conventional extraction process involves six steps: pre-treatment of the algal biomass, acid treatment, alkaline extraction, precipitation, bleaching, and drying. Pre-treatments mainly aim at either breaking the cell wall to help extract the alginate, or removing other compounds and contaminants from the algae. Drying is of the first kind, also helping to prevent bacterial growth; algae which is dried is also usually powdered to expose more surface area. Common treatments to remove contaminants include treatments with ethanol and formaldehyde, the latter of which is very common; ethanol solutions help remove compounds bonded to the alginate, and formaldehyde solutions help prevent enzymatic or microbial reactions.

The algae is then treated with an acidic solution to help disrupt cell walls, which converts the alginate salts into insoluble alginic acid; a subsequently applied alkaline solution (pH 9-10), usually sodium carbonate, converts it back into water-soluble sodium alginate, which is then precipitated. It is also possible to extract the alginate directly with an alkaline treatment, but this is less common.

Alginic acid is usually precipitated, through different techniques, with either an alcohol (usually ethanol), calcium chloride, or hydrochloric acid. After the alginin is precipitated into a fine paste, it is dried, ground to the desired grain size, and finally purified through a variety of techniques. Commercial alginate for biomedical and pharmaceutical use is extracted and purified through more rigorous techniques, but these are trade secrets.

Derivatives

Various alginate-based materials can be produced, including porous scaffold material, alginate hydrogel, nonwoven fabric, and alginate membranes. Techniques used to produce these include ion cross-linking, microfluidic spinning, freeze drying, wet spinning, and immersive centrifugal jet spinning.

Calcium salt can be released in drops into a calcium alginate solution to induce ionic cross-linking, which produces the hydrogel. Freeze-drying the hydrogel to eliminate water produces the porous scaffold material.

Wet spinning consists of extruding an alginate solution from a spinneret into a calcium salt solution to induce ionic cross-linking (forming the gel), and then drawing the fibers out of the bath with draft rollers. Microfluidic spinning, a simpler and more eco-friendly implementation of the process, involves introducing calcium salt flows flowing alongside and touching a central "core" flow of alginate. These flows form a "sheath". The fiber then emerges from the core flow. This technique can be used to produced shaped and grooved fibers.

Preparation of the alginate nonwoven fabric by the acupuncture technique

Alginate fiber, which is used in fabric, is usually produced through either microfluidic spinning or wet spinning, or electrospinning to obtain thinner fibers. The fabric, which can be used in wound dressing and other applications, is produced by carding and then needle punching the fibers.

Uses

As of 2022 alginate had become one of the most preferred materials as an abundant natural biopolymer. It is particularly useful as a biomaterial because of its nontoxicity, hygroscopicity, and biocompatibility, and can imitate local bioenvironments; its degradation product can be easily cleared by the kidneys.

Alginate absorbs water quickly, which makes it useful as an additive in dehydrated products such as slimming aids, and in the manufacture of paper and textiles.

Alginate is also used for waterproofing and fireproofing fabrics, in the food industry as a thickening agent for drinks, ice cream, cosmetics, as a gelling agent for jellies, known by the code E401 and sausage casing. Sodium alginate is mixed with soybean protein to make meat analogue.

Alginate is used as an ingredient in various pharmaceutical preparations, such as Gaviscon, in which it combines with bicarbonate to inhibit gastroesophageal reflux.

Sodium alginate is used as an impression-making material in dentistry, prosthetics, lifecasting, and for creating positives for small-scale casting.

Sodium alginate is used in reactive dye printing and as a thickener for reactive dyes in textile screen-printing. Alginates do not react with these dyes and wash out easily, unlike starch-based thickeners. It also serves as a material for micro-encapsulation.

Calcium alginate is used in different types of medical products, including skin wound dressings to promote healing, and may be removed with less pain than conventional dressings.

Alginate hydrogels

In research on bone reconstruction, alginate composites have favorable properties encouraging regeneration, such as improved porosity, cell proliferation, and mechanical strength. Alginate hydrogel is a common biomaterial for bio-fabrication of scaffolds and tissue regeneration.

Covalent bonding of thiol groups to alginate improves in-situ gelling and mucoadhesive properties; the thiolated polymer (thiomer) forms disulfide bonds within its polymeric network and with cysteine-rich subdomains of the mucus layer. Thiolated alginates are used as in situ gelling hydrogels, and are under preliminary research as possible mucoadhesive drug delivery systems. Alginate hydrogels may be used for drug delivery, exhibiting responses to pH changes, temperature changes, redox, and the presence of enzymes.

See also

References

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